The state of fluids in pipelines, and the physical arrangement
of equiprnent around the distillation tower, establish the design
parameters for Ineeting hydraulic and piping conditions of the system.
Robert Kern, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.*
o The state of fluid in the pipelines, and the hydraulic
and thermal conditions in condensing systems of dis-
tillation columns, are the reverse of those in reboiler
circuits.
The inlet line to condensers can carry superheated
or saturated vapor, or dispersed vapor-liquid mixtures.
Fluid is cooled in the exchanger, and partial or full
condensation takes place. The condenser's outlet line
can have stratified and dispersed two-phase flow, satu-
rated liquid, or subcoolcd liquid. In addition, the flow"
ing fluid can be a mixture of two substances. Thus, this
type of condensation offers a wide range of classification
from a thermodynamic standpoint [1].
I
In contrast, saturated liquid normally flows in the
downcomer of reboilcrs. The liquid is vaporized while
passing through the exchanger. The reboiler's outlet
~ line carries a dispersed vapor-liquid mixture having a
I vapor content of 30 to 90% of total flow. (See Part 9
of this series for more details, Chern. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975,
p. 107.)
In this article, we \vill examine the hydraulics for
the following:
1. Condensers with gravity-flow return lines.
2. Condensers with pumped-reflux lines.
I 3. Two-stage condensation.
Within these groups, hydraulic-design and plpmg-
, design conditions vary, depending on the state of fluid
in the lines and the physical arrangement of the instal-
lation.
Vacuum technology has its own systems,equipment
and terminology. Piping design of vacuum-condensing
systems are outside the Euler-Bernoulli-Darcy theories
and are not included in this article.
"For biography of author, see Ch,m. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975. p. 113.
129
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER 15. 1975
.,
Gravity-flow reflll.x
Horizontal condensers-A condenser in "gravity-flow ar-
rangements is located above the level of the terminating
point of the condenser's outlet line, as shown in F II
and F 12. For the horizontal condenser in F lIb, vapor
enters the exchanger at the top, and subcooled liquid
leaves at the bottom. The looped-outlet pipe ensures
a permanent liquid level in the condenser. This liquid
level is controlled through the reflux branch and
through the takeoff line to storage.
The static-head pressure difference, tiPs, between the
vertical overhead line and the condenser's outlet line
for the arrangements in F II can be written as:
(1)
M s must be equal to or greater than the sum of (1)
the pipe-system resistance, tipp , between reference
points A and B; (a) exchanger pressure drop, tipe; and
(3) required pressure difference across the control valve,
tipcv:
(2)
The required distance, H, between fractionator inlet
and exchanger centerline can be calculated from Eg.
(1) as:
The vapor column can be neglected by assuming
P2 = 0 in Eq. (1) and (3). All pressures are in psi;
(3)
densities, P, in Ib/ft 3 ; and dimensions, H, in ft.
As Eq. (3) shows, for a minimum of elevation differ-
ence between the top of the column and the exchanger
centerline, the piping and components resistances must
also be minimal.
I Vapor

I
!-i
, '2

e;::,'Q :
f"=~*~J"<:~i".~)<F",",~~=~~:!.~.-c;::.
To COO~~i 1
~

Point 8- J,
!

Drain 1

a.Saturated liquid {sheiiside condensation} i

]
i1
Vapor

I
Ij

Horizontal condensers with gravity-flow reflux ~

Generally, in condensing systems, the unit loss in the

piping is low-about a tenth or a hundredth of 1
psi/lOO ft. Inlet and outlet resistances to process equip-
ment usually take a considerable portion of the pipeline
resistance and should not be ignored in the calculations.
(Using three decimal places in the calculations is not
unusual.)
In horizontal condensers, condensation takes place in
the sheIl. This gives lower resistance than the tubeside.
A baffle (or baffles) in the exchanger is in the horizontal
plane through the exchanger's centerline. If necessary,
two inlet and two outlet nozzles can halv.e the total flow,
and reduce entrance and exit resistances considerably.
In this case, the inlet and outlet piping should be sym-
metrical.
The subcooled liquid for the arrangement in F/1 b
can be drained or pumped directly to storage. The
Vertical condensers with gravity-flow reflux condense ~
product stream for F /la is usually directed through a
vapors on the sheilside or tuheside of exchanger ~
cooler before storage.
130
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEI'TEMIlI~R 15. IY75
.-----------._._.._ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Seal loops prevent a reversed flow of vapor in gravity-flow condensing systems
Control valves in these svstems should be located at
a low point of the r('tun; line and product stream.
Sufficient static head before the valve inlet will prevent
vaporization across the valve. A product cooler should
not receive a liquid-vapor mixture.
Vertical condensers-Arrangements for these condensers
with gravity-flow outlets are shown in F /2. Conden-
sation can take place in the shell (F/2a), or tubes
(F/2b). A single-pass vertical condenser is more suitable
for liquid subcooling than a horizontal one. The seal-
loop height can be adjusted within a greater range than
with horizontal condensers (F /2c). The required liquid
level in the exchanger shell is determined by the ex-
changer's designer.
The hydraulic balance for the arrangements shown
in F /2 is:
(1/144)(H I PI + H 2i'2) > (1/144)H 3P3 + 6.P
...here 6.P is the sum of piping, 6.P p , exchanger, 6.Pe'
·and control-valve (if any), 6.Pcv' resistances:
6.P = 6.P p + t:..Pe + 6.pcv
The elevation difference, as expressed from Eq. (4),
between the condenser's outlet and the reflux inlet noz-
zle will be:
HI > (l/PI)(f!;Ii'3 - H 2P2 + 1446.P) (6)
where PI is the density of condensate in the reflux line,
P3 is the vapor density in the overhead line, and P2 is
the average density in the vertical exchanger:
Seal loop _preve_nts flow reversal
In gravity-flow condensing systems, a seal loop is
-provided to prevent a re"'ersed flow of vapor in the
condenser's outlet line. This loop can be used for hold-
ing a liquid level in the condenser, as shown in F /la
and F/2c.
If the gravity-flow reflux line terminates in a vertical
Cm;II11CAL ENGINEEIUNG SEPTEMBER jj. 197j
\/ent
leg (Zz dimension in F /3), the piping design should be
such as to prevent siphoning that can empty the seal.
If dimension ZI is smaller than Z2' and the pressure
just before the seal loop and at the terminating point
after the seal loop is identical (for example, with greatly
reduced flow), liquid can be siphoned out of the seal;
and intermittently, the condenser will not operate well.
This can be prevented if ZI is designed to be longer
than Zz (see F /3a).
For the arrangement in F /3b, the final vertical leg
has a larger diameter than the gravity-flow reflux line.
Again, this can prevent the siphoning of liquid from
the seal loop.
Another arrangement (F/3c) has a closed vent line.
This can be opened at reduced condensate flow to keep
the seal loop filled with liquid. With this type of vent-
ing, the pressure difference across the vent valve should
(4)
be zero. Therefore, it is essential to connect the end-
points of the vent line to locations where pressures are
expected to be about equal.
(5) Pumped-reflux arrangements
Typical overhead lines for hydrocarbon distillation
columns are shown in F /4. Fluid circulation in the
piping is the result of the thermosiphon effect in grav-
ity-reflux condensation. For the systems shown in F /4,
there is (and most of the time must be) a pressure
difference between the top of the tower and reflux
drum. The reflux drum has a pump, which returns the
liquid to the top of the tower or sends it to storage.
i
In _these arrangements (besides the sum of the static
(7)
heads), actual pressure differences, 6.Pp , also enter into
the calculations:
For the dimensions given in F /5, the static-head
difference will be:
(8)
I
II
(9) t
where PI is usually vapor density, and P2 is vapor-liquid
\
131
 i Overhead line

I
II
!
I

~
condenser
y,
'j

Reflux
drum

i:·_~. Thesimp!cst overhead b. Subcooied liquid

c', line gh:es the in the
smaUest pipe SiZ9. g:"avit"/-frovoJ
clitiet !ine.

Overhead condensers for distillation columns ~

mixture (or liquid) density. The overall available D.P

is the sum of Eg. (8) and (9), or:
tiP = !:J.Ps + tiPp . (10)
If the righthand side of Eg. (10) becomes negative,
the condensc'!" 1l111St be placed at an elevation closer to,
or above, tlte reilllx drum. A negative value indicates
that the static-head backpressure (pzH z) in Eg. (9) is
greater titan tlte sum of (1) pressure difference between
the top of the (ower and the reflux drum plus (2) the
vapor static !Jc;ld ((,;Ill) in the overhead line. The
P,
greater the condC'!Is,JtiOll, the heavier the mixture be-
~omes in the condcnser's outlet line , which results in ,
a grealfT bad.plc,sure. Of course, pzHz becomes posi-
tive when the li!!e has a gravity-flow arrangement be-
tween the C()Iltlc-ll't'! oudet and the reflux-drum inlet,
as shown ill F .Ja and F/4b.
P1>P:.~ Eq. (Ill) slHm's the driving force in the overhead
system. This must bc' greater than the sum of piping,
inlet and exi ( lus'c's, 0.l'P' and exchanger resistance, tiPe:

0.P > tip + tiPe

p (11)
!:J.Pl' lISlIallv is rWlween 2 to 6 psi, and condenser tipe
ran~es froIll 0.:) to 5 psi.
The IllaxiIlllIlll possible condenser-centerline location
belov·; tlte I~cflllx drum (dimension Hz in F 15) can be
calclilakd llOlll th.. combination of Eg. (9), (10) and
(II), to give:
(1/144)(p/ll - p}J2 ) +
'Dimensional relations for a condenser at grade tiPp '- (tip p + Upe) = 0 (12)
As a safety factor, the positive static-head column pres-
132.__ ...'
-C-H""I~M-I-C-A-L-EN-(:C-:ll~Nf:::;(';-;;;R-';:lNG SEPTEMBER 1\ I!U r,
 I!
!
i

Froth flow

PI
\

LI
Elevated condensers and details of reflux drum

sure of the overhead vapor line' can be neglected. Con-

sider:
P1H1 = o.
Expressing H 2 from Eq. (12) in feet, we get:
5
H 2 =:: (144/P2)(Mp - D.pp ~ D.Pe) (13)
In layout design, usually the reflux drum is elevated
first in accordance with the required NPSH (net posi-
tive suction head) of the reflux pump. The dimensions
3 shown in Detail A of F /5 will establish the condenser
elevation from grade.

Slug flow is undesirable

Slug flow can develop in the pocketed condenser-
outlet line shown in F/5, depending on vapor-liquid
o proportion and fluid velocity. Slug flow should be
\J avoided because it can cause undesirable pressure
surges.
An empirical relation can be used to estimate the
slug-flow region. If the velocity (calculated with two-
. Liquid and vapor velocities determine type of flow phase density) in the pipeline is smaller than (5Pl/
Pv )1/2, slug flow is possible. The type of flow can also
133
CHEMICAL ENfiINEERING SEPTEMBER IS, 1975
 42·jn dia.

~
,.,

14i~~b~
,:
lit :
~h
&

Detai! C

,Ii

72·in dis.
overhead "!!n:;-
'.

~~DI
(;2 ~.• fk/·2<'ind:'1
(I Outlet a
Western Supply Co.

Two-stage condensing system has parallel flow through large surface condens~rs in series with air cooiers

be estimated by calculating the Baker parameters and
using Fig. 1 in Part 8 of this series (Chem. Eng., June
23,1975, p. 146). Flow-region maps such as are shown
in F/6 are also available for vertical flows. To use these
maps, the vapor-phase and liquid-phase velocities are
calculated separately for the same pipe diameter. The
intersection of these in the appropriate diagram of F/6
establishes the flow region.
The general criterion for selecting a suitable line size
is that the pipe diameter must be sufficiently small to
have the highest possible velocity, but large enough to
stay within available pressure differential. The possi-
I :H
CHEMICAL ENGINI:.i:.ll·IN(:SEI"1 E~lllll\ 1',.1'1;',
biiilY of slu" 11,,\\ GIl) be minimiz~d by (a) increasing
the pn'ssulc dlOP iu the condenser's outlet line and
r('ducillL; 111(' n·'l'.!;II"·,· of the rest of the condensing
systt'lll. Ih, jJil)\'idilll; two parallel lines between con-
cknstT alld Idlw. dlll ll1 , (c) using valved alternative
pipe I1llh fill ;t!I'TJI;ltiyc flovvTates, and (el) changing
to a gravIly-Ii,!\, iti!;Jllgnnent. '
Equipmellt arrangement
III a gravity-IIIl" arranuement a structure is often
~·l'q\~iJ~·d. I";HIOI\ th:lt, inllll~nce la;out design are shown
III 1, / /. lklm\' the elevated condensers, a platform is
usually provided. Structural members, space for piping
below the platform, and reflux-drum diameter or mini-
mum headroom requirement determine the platform
level for the reflux drum. Piping, NPSH or headroom
will establish the distance between grade and the re-
flux-drum platform.
The piping arrangement of condensing systems
should be as simple as possible. Each elbow in the
overhead line represents a sizable percentage of the
overall pipe-friction loss. However, lines can become
longer because of flexibility considerations. Usually,
there is no valve in an overhead line. Pressure loss in
fittings and line length have to be compensated for with
increased pipe diameter.
Piping design, and access to valves and instruments,
also depend on how well nozzles are located and ori-
ented on process vessels. The usual nozzle arrangement
of a reflux drum is shown in Detail A of F /7. The
condensate inlet is at one end of the top. Alternatively,
a bottom inlet with a standpipe in the reflux drum can
be designed, eliminating a couple of elbows and reduc-
ing pipe resistance. The pump drawoff nozzle is at the
bottom and opposite end of the reflux drum. Level-gage
and level-controller connections can be in the center.
At the center, the liquid level is least agitated by the
inlet and outlet streams. Pressure connections are usu-
ally in the vapor space, and temperature connections
in the liquid space near the pump drawoff nozzle. Al-
ternative manhole locations, and vent, drain and sup-
port connections are shown in Detail A of F /7.
Two-stage condensation
We will now describe a large, two-stage, condensing
system, and in doing so we will find additional design
ideas for the condenser piping.
Where cooling water is expensive, condensing systems
can be designed for use with air coolers or with a com-
bination of air coolers and water coolers in series. If
close condensate-temperature control is required, the
water coolers are located after the air coolers. For op-
timum heat transfer, a reversed sequence can be chosen.
A large-capacity condensing system handling the
overhead from the primary fractionator of an ethylene
unit is shown in F /8. The pressure difference between
the fractionator and reflux drum is small, t1P = 1. 75
psi. With this limited pressure differential, it is essential
to have minimal resistance through exchangers, piping
and pip:: components.
Resistance of the surface condensers has been mini-
mized by choosing three exchangers, each handling
one-third of the total flow; and by providing a flared
exchanger inlet, and four large outlets for each shell.
Exchanger resistance is given as 0.12 psi, exclusive of
inlet and outlet resistances. The photograph in F /8
shows one of the exchangers being delivered.
Air-cooler resistance has been minimized by using
numerous single passes and large-diameter finned tubes.
Air-cooler pressure loss is estimated as 0.7 psi, excluding
nozzles.
Even with all these provisions, close to 50% of the
available overall pressure difference has been consumed
by the exchangers alone. About 30% of the overall t1P
has been taken up by the inlet and outlet resistances,
136
CH EM ICAL ENGINEEI<1 N(;-SErl'I::<liii::-i{-i~~--1 ;;-7';-
leaving 20 to 25';; of 1.75 psi for pipe resistance. This,
and the rather lonf! pipe configuration, mean very large
pipe sizes. These are indicated in F /8. Velocities in these
lines are less than 50 ft/s. Under these conditions, the
piping system from the fractionator to the reflux drum
has to be self-draining. Horizontal sections of the piping
slope toward the ref]~lx drum.
Saturated vapor flows in the 72-in-dia. overhead line.
(Overhead lines are not usually insulated, and it is rea-
sonable to assume that some condensation will take
plate in them.) Condensate, collected in the overhead
line, can drain to the surface condensers through the
three tangentially welded branch-connections (see De~
tail A in F 18). Quite likely, this condensed liquid is not
distributed to the three surface condensers equally be-
cause of the nonsvmmetrical arrangement of the branch
lines. Considering the small amount of liquid, and that
this liquid does not affect the heat-transfer duty of the
exchangers, the nonsymmetrical arrangement is ac-
cepted.
For equal vapor distribution to the three surface
condensers, butterHy valves are installed at the inlet
flanges of the flared exchanger sections (see Detail B
in F /8). The butterfly flap in each valve has a reduced
diameter-leaving 50% of the cross-sectional area of the
inlet nozzle pern;anently open. In this way, it is as-
sumed that, with less resistance, a more-sensitive regu-
lation can be accomplished than with a valve having
a full-diameter flap.
Pipelines between the surface condensers and air
coolers have two-phase dispersed flow. Because of the
low velocity, elbows and tee connections, some liquid
separation (with stratified flow) at the bottom of the
lines is also assumed. (Under such conditions, and with
these line sizes. it is difficult to assess how valid two-
phase-flow theories arc.)
The outlet lines of the surface condensers connect
centrally to the inlet headers of the air coolers. Equal
fluid distrihution is assured by the relatively great
difference in resistance between the verv-low header loss
and the hid! entrance resistance td the air cooler
branch-connections. For equal distribution of the strati-
fied liqui<i at the bottom of the pipe, each branch-
connection cxt<'j](h abOltt 2 in up into the horizontal
air-cooler hC:ldn i;·;cc Detail C in F /8). These extensions'
dam up the ijCjlli:) in the bottom of the pipe, and the
overflow bcilitiltc, CC]ualliquid distribution across each
air-cooler p:"'" S\'11llnetrical piping at the outlet side
of air cookrs is not considered as essential as at the
inlet side.
The next [,nick in this series of piping design will
appear in the issue of Oct. 13, 1975, and will cover'
calcula lion procedures for compressible fluid flow under
isotil.en.nal and adiabatic conditions in pipelines and
restnctlons.
References
1. }\."':>. lJ Q. "1'''''("\'' !leat Transfer" McGraw-Hili New York 1950.
I
I
2. (:oLIIJ, L l' ;:lld, ~l!·~ii:i':i!~. A, H., l;wo~Phase Vcrti~al Flow 1\laps, foint
S\·Jjlj>(.'l,"\~!ll (~Jl Illlu! .\I:,~challics and lYkasuremcnt in Two-Phase "'Flow
SY~I>':·ill .. ,.:ll .~,-'fJl\'n,jl\. (II Leeds, Leeds, England, Sept. 24-25, 1969; Proc.
, 1~1'1 :11,,'" j,,,:;,,: (1"'''I''',!. \',,1. 184. Part 3C (1970).
.1. ( ..,,1\. 1. I J. I f"" I"
uHhufl 1 " l I l t l \ .. ~{'j)l.
.",,'!'
Slug FJo\v in Condenser Outlet Piping Hydro-
lO{d '
4. (;/TCI,IC,.1.. L.,} ~)_~l:11nqlj~:,d Piping Arrangements Solve Two-Phase Flow
1 ll:-.ll JlllJl 1011 11lJh,nn~, I{rdnlcarbun Prouss.,.Fcb. 1967.
I