BODY DEFENSES

Two types of mechanisms defend the body against microbes or foreign bodies, the innate and adaptive
defense mechanisms which together make up the immune system.

The innate defense system, also called the nonspecific defense system act on the initial battlefronts and
is subdivided into two.

The body’s first line of defense are the surface membrane barriers including the intactskin and intact
mucous membranes. Besides serving as physical barriers, they produce protective secretions that
prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances into body.

For the skin

The acid mantle inhibits bacterial growth

Keratin provides resistance against acids, alkalis, and bacterial enzymes.

For Intact mucous membranes

• Mucus traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tracts.

• Nasal hairs filter and trap microorganisms and other airborne particles in nasal passages.

• Cilia propel debris-laden mucus away from lower respiratory passages.

• Gastric juice contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that destroy
pathogens in stomach.

• Acid mantle of vagina inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract.

• Lacrimal secretion and saliva continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes and oral cavity; contain lysozyme,
an enzyme that destroys microorganisms.

The second line of defense are the cellular and chemical defenses including

Phagocytes. Such as macropgahes and neutrophils engulf foreign pathogens.

Natural killer cells. Which release lytic chemicals called perforin and granzymes to degrade target cell
contents.

Antimicrobial proteins
• Complements attack targets via membrane attack complexes that cause cells to burst with the rush of
water from the pores created. Others cause the cell membranes of the foreign cells to become sticky so
they are easier to phagocytize; an effect called opsonization.

• Interferons. Proteins released by virus-infected cells that diffuse to uninfected nearby cells and bind to
their membrane receptors to “interfere” with the ability of viruses to multiply.

The Inflammatory response.

Prevents spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues, disposes pathogens and dead tissue cells, and
promotes tissue repair; releases chemical mediators that attract immune cells to the area called positive
chemotaxis.

The four most common indicators, or cardinal signs, of acute inflammation are redness and heat, which
are caused by the dilation of blood vessels by the histamine and kinins that increased the blood flow to
the area; pain caused by activated pain receptors, and swelling (edema) resulted from leaky capillaries.
Some authorities consider limitation of joint movement due to swelling and pain to be the fifth cardinal
sign.

Fever

Body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus. Systemic response triggered by pyrogens,

chemicals secreted by white blood cells and macrophages.Bacteria require large amounts of iron and
zinc to multiply, but during a fever the liver and spleen gather up these nutrients, making them less
available therefore inhibiting multiplication of bacteria. Fever also increases the metabolic rate of tissue
cells, speeding up repair processes.

The third line of defense is composed of lymphocytes, antibodies and macrophages and other presenting
cells. It has also two arms which are the humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity and the cellular (cell-
mediated) immunity.

Lymphocytes

There are two kinds of lymphocytes, the B lymphocytes which is under the Humoral immunity that
matured on the bone marrow. Its descendants become plasma cells that produce antibodies and
memory cells that are responsible for immunological memory and the T lymphocytes which is under the
Cellular immunity mature on the thymus and recognizes and eliminates specific virus infected cells.

Varieties of T lymphocytes are

Cytotoxic T cells that specialize in killing infected or foreign graft cells directly through perforin and
granzymes.
Helper T cells

recruit cells to fight

signals for antibody formation

releases cytokines that stimulate t and b cells to divide

attract wbcs and enhances macrophages ability

Regulatory T cells suppress both b and t cells activity.

Antibodies inactivate antigens by complement fixation, neutralization, agglutination, opsonization, and

precipitation. There are five classes of antibody,

IgM for complement fixation,

IgA for protection of mucosal surfaces,

IgD for b cell activation,

IgG for passive immunity to fetus and fixes complement

IgE for trigger of chemical mediators for inflammatory and allergic response

Macrophages and antigen-presenting cell that engulfs an antigen and displays it on the external surface
for the T cells to recognize and for it to be sensitized.

HORMONES AND FUNCTIONS

The hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that controls the release of the
hormones of the pituitary glands. It secretes these regulatory hormones into the blood of the portal
circulation, which connects the blood supply of the hypothalamus with that of the anterior pituitary.

Two of the six hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland exert their major effects on
nonendocrine targets.First is the growth hormone which functions in stimulating growth (especially of
bones and muscles) and metabolism. Hypersecretion may result to gigantism and hyposecretion to
dwarfism. Second is the prolactinthat stimulates and maintains milk production by the mother’s breasts.

The remaining four are all tropic hormones that stimulate their target organs, which are also endocrine
glands, to secrete their hormones, which in turn exert their effects on other body organs and tissues.
The gonadotropic hormones regulate the hormonal activity of the gonads (ovaries and testes). The
follicle-stimulating hormonestimulates production of ovum and sperm. As the luteinizing hormone
triggers ovulation of an egg and causes the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and estrogen. In
men, it stimulates testosterone production.Hyposecretion of both FSH and LH leads to sterility. Next is
the Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), influences the growth and
activity of the thyroid gland. And the Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex
to secrete glucocorticoids.

The hypothalamus also makes two additional hormones, oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone, which are
transported along the axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the posterior pituitary for
storage. They are later released into the blood in response to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.The
Oxytocin stimulates contraction of uterus and the milk “let-down” reflex. And the Antidiuretic hormone
pomotes water retention by the kidneys. Hyposecretion of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus or excessive
urine output.

Next is the hormone melatonin secreted by the pineal gland, a “sleep trigger” that plays an important
role in establishing the body’s sleep-wake cycle and coordinate the hormones of fertility and to inhibit
the reproductive system until the body matures.

The thyroid gland makes two hormones, the thyroid hormone and calcitonin. Thyroid hormone is the
body’s major metabolic hormone, and is actually two active iodine-containing hormones, thyroxine, or
T4, which has four bound iodine atoms and triiodothyronine, or T3 which has three.Thyroid hormone
controls the rate at which glucose is oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical energy (ATP).
Hyposecretion results to cretinism and myxedema and hypersecretion leads to hyperthyroidism such as
Graves' disease. And the calcitonin which decreases the blood calcium ion level by causing calcium to be
deposited in the bones.

Next is the parathyroid hormone secreted by the parathyroid gland, which is the most important
regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood. Hyposecretion leads to spasms or tetany and
hypersecretion leads to bone destruction.

Thymosin is produced by the thymus that is essential for normal development of a special group of white
blood cells (T lymphocytes) and the immune response.

The adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland produces three major groups of steroid hormones, called
corticosteroids. First is the mineralocorticoids or aldosterone, that regulates both water and electrolyte
balance in body fluids by promoting reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ (potassium).
Hypersecretion results to hyperaldosteronism. Glucocorticoids which include cortisone and cortisol
promote normal cell metabolism and help the body resist long-term stressors by increasing blood
glucose level. Hypersecretion leads to Cushing syndrome. And the sex hormones androgens and
esteogens. Wherein hypersecretion in women leads to musculinization. Generalized hyposecretion of the
corticosteroids leads to Addison's disease.
When the adrenal medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system neurons, its cells release two
similar hormones, epinephrine also called adrenaline, and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) into the
bloodstream. Collectively called catecholamines raise blood glucose level; increase rate of metabolism;
constrict certain blood vesselsto prepare the body to cope with short-term stress. Hypersecretion leads
to rapid heartbeat and high blood pressure.

The pancreatic islets produce Insulin that reduces blood glucose level and glucagon raises blood glucose
level.The release is regulated by the glucose level in blood. Hyposecretion of insulin leads to diabetes
mellitus.

The female and male gonads produce sex cells. The female gonads, ovaries, produce two groups of
steroid hormones, estrogen responsible for the maturation of the reproductive organs and the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics. Progesterone promotes growth of uterine lining and acts
with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle. The male gonads, testes, produces androgens that
support sperm formation; development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics. All are
regulated by the FSH and LH.