An Epitome of Dynamics of Machines

An Epitome
of
Dynamics of Machines
Chapter 1
1.0 Static Force Analysis:

An analysis of forces acting on machine members, along with
external forces that remain constant, is termed as static force
analysis. Inertia forces due to acceleration of machine members,
being very small compared to external forces, are not considered
in static force analysis.
1.1 Static Equilibrium:

A body is in static equilibrium if it remains in the state of rest or
uniform motion under the action of static forces.
1.2 Conditions for static equilibrium:

1. The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is
zero.
∑F=0
2. The vector sum of all the torques acting on the body is
zero.
∑T=0
For planar system: ∑ F x + ∑ F y = 0 and ∑ Txy = 0
1.3 Dynamic force Analysis:

An analysis of external forces acting on the machine members
along with inertia forces acting on the members due to the
accelerations of the members, both linear and angular, is termed
as dynamic force analysis.
The inertia forces are dynamic i.e. they vary with respect to
time.
Rao K Pochiraju Page 1

1.4 Equilibrium of members under static forces:
Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

1. Under 2 forces:
The two forces must be collinear and equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction.
2. Under 3 forces:
The 3 forces must be concurrent. i.e. All the 3 forces
must meet at one point and ∑ F = 0
3. Under 2 forces and a torque:
The 2 forces must be equal in magnitude, parallel and
opposite in sense. Also the couple formed by the parallel
forces must be equal and opposite in sense to the torque.
i.e. T = F.h
1.5 Free body diagrams:

A free body diagram is a sketch or diagram of a part isolated
from the mechanism along with the reactive forces exerted by
the members from which the part is isolated. The part will be
individually in equilibrium under these forces.
These are used in the static force analysis to determine the
values of the unknown forces.
1.6 Force convention:

Fij: is the force exerted by member “i” on member “j”.

1.7 Static force analysis of slider crank mechanism:
(Neglecting friction)
Let a force P due to gas pressure act on the piston, 4.
The external torque on link 2 that can be resisted and the forces
on the links and joints (bearings) can be evaluated by static
force analysis using free body diagrams.
Referring the free body diagrams of Fig. 1.4:
Forces acting on Link 2:
1. Reaction force of link 1 ,F12 - Unknown
2. Reaction force of link 3, F32 – Unknown
3. External Torque T2 – Unknown
2. Reaction force of link 4 F43 – Unknown
Lines Of Action (LOA) of these forces are known which are
along the axis of link 3, since link 3 is a 2 force member.
Forces acting on Link 4 :
1. Reaction force of link 1 ,F14 – Unknown magnitude,
LOA: vertical
2. Reaction force of link 3, F34 – Unknown magnitude,
LOA: parallel to LOA of F43.
3. Gas load P – Fully known (Magnitude & Direction)
Force polygon can be drawn for the forces at link 4 as shown in
the fig.1.4
F34 = bo; F14 = ab. The directions are given by the vectors bo and
ab respectively.
F43 = - F34 ; F23 = -F43
F32 = -F23;
F12 is parallel and = -F32. F32 & F12 constitute a counter clock
wise couple
Torque T2 = F32 .h or F12 .h and sense is clock wise (Opposite to
Couple formed by F32 & F12

Fig. 1.4
1.8 Force analysis of 4 bar mechanism: (Neglecting friction)
Let a force F acting on link 4 at a point E as shown in Fig. 1.5. It
is required to find the torque to be applied on link 2 to keep the
system in static equilibrium. The friction at all the joints may be
neglected.
Fig. 1.5


2. Reaction force of link 3, F32 – Unknown
3. External Torque T2 - Unknown
2. Reaction force of link 4 F43 – Unknown
1. Reaction force of link 1 ,F14 – Unknown
2. Reaction force of link 3, F34 – Unknown magnitude,
LOA: parallel to LOA of F43.
3. External force F – Fully known.
The point of concurrence of the 3 forces on link 4 is O.
Hence Line of action of F14 should be along OD.
Force polygon can be drawn for the forces at link 4 as shown in
the fig. 1.5
F34 = bo; F14 = ab. The directions are given by the vectors bo and
ab respectively.
F43 = - F34 ; F23 = -F43
F32 = -F23;
F12 is parallel and = -F32. F32 & F12 constitute a counter clock
wise couple
Torque T2 = F32 .h or F12 .h and sense is clock wise (Opposite to
Couple formed by F32 & F12
1.9 Force analysis of 4 bar mechanism: Super-position

method (Neglecting friction)
When more forces are acting on the mechanism, analysis can be

made by assuming one force acting at time and the forces on the
links due to this force can be obtained. The net force acting on
each link is the sum of all such forces obtained considering each
force at a time. This method is known as super-position
method. This is applicable for linear systems only.

Fig. 1.6
The torque T2 and the forces on bearings at A, B, C and D can
be calculated by dividing the problem in to 3 sub problems.
Considering only one of the 3 forces acting on links at a time
and neglecting the other two, the torque T2 acting on the link 2
in each case is calculated. The total torque on link 2 will be the
algebraic sum of all the 3 torques thus obtained. Similarly the
forces on bearings are the algebraic sum of the forces when only
single force is considered at time.
Sub problem (a): Refer to fig. 1.6
Considering force F2 alone, neglecting forces F3 and F4
Links 3 and 4 are 2 –force members hence force F43 is along BC
and F34 is along CD and both are equal and opposite. This is
possible only when F34 =F43 =0
F32 =F23 = F43 =0
Link 2 is in equilibrium under the action of forces F2 and F12 and
torque T21

F2 & F12 are equal and parallel constituting a couple which is
equal and opposite to the torque T21
T21 = F2 . h = F12 .h - clock wise
Sub problem (b):

Considering force F3 alone, neglecting forces F2 and F4.
Fig. 1.7
Link 4 is a 2 force member.
F34 = - F14 – magnitudes unknown, direction is along DC
F3 is known
F43 = -F34 – direction is parallel to DC
F23 is fully unknown.
O is the point of intersection of forces, F3 & F43. F23 should
pass through the point O. The direction should be along OB.

The force diagram for F3, F43. & F23 is as shown in the fig. 1.7.
The values of F23 & F43 can be known from the diagram.
F34 = - F43 ; F14 = - F34
Link 2 is subjected to 2 forces F32 , F12 and a torque T22
F32 = -F23
T22 = F32. h = F12 .h - Counter clock wise
Sub problem (c):
Considering force F4 alone, neglecting forces F2 and F3.
Fig. 1.8

F43 = - F23 – magnitudes unknown, direction is along BC
F4 is known

F34 = -F43 – direction is parallel to BC
F14 is fully unknown.
O is he point of intersection of forces F4 & F34. F14 should pass
through the point O. The direction should be along OD.
The force diagram for F4, F34. & F14 is as shown in the fig. 1.8.
The values of F34 & F14 can be known from the diagram.
F43 = - F34 ; F23 = - F43
Link 2 is subjected to 2 forces F32, F12 and a torque T23
F32 = -F23
T23 = F32. h = F12 .h - Counter clock wise
Total torque on link 2, T = T21 - T22 -T23 considering the
sense of torques.
Fig. 1. 8 (a) Forces acting on the bearings

The magnitudes of the force acting on the bearings can be
obtained by adding vectorially the forces acting on them in all
the three cases as shown in Fig. 1.8 (a)
At bearing D, F14 = F14a + F14b + F14c
At bearing C, F34 = F34a + F34b + F34c
At bearing B, F23 = F23a + F23b + F23c
At bearing A, F12 = F12a + F12b + F12c
1.10 Virtual work method:

The principle of virtual work is conveniently used in the static
force analysis. The work done during a virtual displacement
from the equilibrium is equal to zero. Virtual displacement is an
imaginary infinitesimal displacement of the system. The
advantage of this method is that the entire mechanism is
examined as a whole. The free body diagrams are not necessary.
Fig. 1.9
Procedure: Referring to the 4- bar mechanism shown in the fig.
1.9
1. From the configuration diagram of the mechanism,
velocity diagram is drawn to know the velocities of the

points of action of the given forces on the links as shown
in Fig. 1.10.
Fig. 1.10
2. Locate the points of action of forces E, F, G on the

velocity diagram and locate absolute velocity vectors for
the points by joining the points to pole a. ae, af and ag
are the absolute velocities of the points e, f and g
respectively.
3. Resolve the absolute velocity vectors into two
components parallel and perpendicular to the respective
force directions.
4. The work done by each force is the product of the force
and the parallel component of the absolute velocity. V’e ,

V’f and V’g are the parallel components of points of
action of forces F2 , F3 and F4 respectively.
5. By principle of virtual work the net work done by all the
forces and torques is zero
T2ω + F2 ve’ - F3 vf’ - F4 vg’ = 0

Where ω is the angular velocity of the crank.
Torque T2 can be calculated from the above equation. The
signs of W.D should be considered. The W.D by a force is
negative if the velocity component parallel to the force is in
the opposite direction to the force.
1.11 Friction in mechanisms:

Friction will be present at joints of the mechanisms resulting in
the increase of energy requirements of a machine. At the joints
the friction constitutes a couple which acts in opposite sense to
the moment caused by the forces on the link. The line of action
deviates from the axis of the link. The line of action will be
along the common tangents to the friction circles at both the
ends of the link.
Fig. 1.11
At the sliding pairs the reaction is the resultant of the frictional
force and the normal reaction. This reaction force deviates from

the normal reaction by the angle of friction (φ) at the contact
surface. Fig. 1.11 shows the direction of resultant reaction F14
assuming the slider moving left side.
Procedure:
1. Initially neglect the friction at the journal bearings and
find the directions of different forces.
2. Find the directions of rotation of the link relative to a
known link. The friction couple at the joints of the link
should be opposite to the relative motion of the link for
the equilibrium of the link. Draw the line of action which
will be the common tangent to the friction circles at the
ends of the link. The radius of the friction circle (r) is
given by the formula:
r = µ.R where R = the radius of the journal.
µ = Coefficient of friction
3. Having known the line of actions of the forces on links,
the magnitudes of the forces can be obtained by drawing
force polygons.
For the mechanism shown in Fig. 1.12 let the directions of

Forces F23 and F43 on link 3, neglecting the friction, be as shown
in Fig. 1.12 acting along the axis of the link. If friction at ends B
and C are considered, the line of action will no longer be along
the axis of the link 3 but deviates from it as discussed below.
For CCW rotation of link AB, DC also rotates CCW

∟ABC decreases and ∟BCD increases.
In link 3 at end C, ∟BCD is increasing which implies that the
link 3 rotates CW with respect to link 4.
F43 should act in such a way that the friction couple at C should
be CCW. So F43 acts along the tangent to the friction circle
drawn at the centre C lying below the centre.

At end B, ∟ABC is decreasing which means the link 3 rotates
CW w.r.t link 2.
F23 should form CCW friction couple. So F23 acts along the
tangent to the friction circle drawn at the centre B lying above
the centre.
F43 and F23 are equal, opposite and collinear. So the line of
action deviates from the geometrical axis of the link.
Fig. 1.12
Example 1.1
A force of 500 N is acting on the link 3 of the mechanism as
shown in Fig. 1.13 (a). The lengths of links 2 and 3 are 250 mm
and 650 mm respectively. Find the input torque required on link
2 for the static equilibrium.
Solution:
Configuration diagram is drawn to scale as shown in Fig.1.13
(a).

Link 4 (slider) is a two force member, F34 and F14 which must be
equal and opposite for the equilibrium of link 4.
Fig. 1.13
But as link 4 is constrained to move horizontally, the reaction of
link 1 on link 4 i.e. F14 acts vertically. Therefore F34 must act
vertically.
Link 3 is a three force member- An external force F, the reaction
of link 2, F23 and the reaction of link 4, F43. As F43 is equal and
opposite to F34, the direction of F43 is vertical.
External force F is fully known. Force F23 is unknown. The
point of intersection of forces F and F43 is O1. For equilibrium of
link 3 the third force F23 must pass through this point. Therefore
O1A is the direction of force F23.
Fig 1.13 (b) shows the force polygon of the link 3. From this the
direction and magnitude of F23 is known. F23 = 477.6 N acting
towards right as measured from the Fig 1.13 (b).
Now the reaction of link 3 on link 2, F32 = -F23 = 477.6 N acting
towards left.
The link 2 is subjected to two forces F32 and F12 and an input
torque, T. For equilibrium, the two forces must be equal, parallel

and opposite to constitute a couple which is equal and opposite
to the input torque.
The couple due to forces F32 and F12 is counter clock wise as
shown in Fig 1.13 ©. There fore the input torque must be clock
wise.
The magnitude is given by T = F32 x arm of the couple.
T = 477.6 x 0.1436 = 68.6 Nm. Clock
wise.
Example 1.2
Solve the problem given in example 1.1 considering friction at
the joints O, A and B if the journal diameters are 120, 100 and
80 mm respectively. Take the coefficient of friction at all the
joints as 0.4.
Solution:
Fig. 1.14

The directions of forces acting on all the links are known from
the analysis, done in example 1.1 neglecting the friction at all
the joints.
Friction causes the forces to deviate, slightly, from their original
directions. The forces will act in the direction tangential to the
friction circles at the joints. At the slider the normal reaction
deviates at an angle equal to friction angle.
Radius of friction circle at O = µ. Radius of the journal
= 0.4x 120/2 = 24 mm
Radius of friction circle at A = 0.4x 100/2 = 20 mm
Radius of friction circle at B = 0.4x 80/2 = 16 mm
At slider 4, the normal reaction F14 deviates from vertical by an

angle = tan-1(0.4) = 220
As the input torque is clockwise, the crank OA rotates CW. For
CW movement of crank the slider moves towards right. The
frictional force acts opposite to it, i.e. towards left. Therefore the
force F14 deviates by an angle 220 from vertical towards left as
shown in the Fig.1.14 (a).
For CW movement of crank, ∟OAB increases. Link AB moves
CCW relative to link 2. Hence the force, F23 should act
tangential to friction circle at A such that it gives rise to a CW
couple.
The force F34 is equal and opposite to F14.
F43 is equal and opposite to F34 and acts tangentially to the
friction circle at B.
For CW movement of OA, ∟ABO decreases. It implies that AB
moves CCW relative to link 1. Therefore Force F43 should act at
the radius causing CW couple at B.
The point of intersection of forces F43 and external force, F is
O1.

The third force F23 should pass through O1 and tangential to the
friction circle at A such that it creates a CW couple.
Now the force polygon of link 3 can be drawn to find the
magnitudes of the forces F23 and F14. This is shown in Fig. 1.14
(b). From the diagram F23 = 494.9 N.
Link 2:
The link 2 is subjected to two forces F32 and F12 and an input
torque, T. For equilibrium, the two forces must be equal, parallel
and opposite to constitute a couple which is equal and opposite
to the input torque. F32 = -F23; F12 = - F32. F12 acts at O
tangential to the friction circle such that it gives rise to a CCW
couple since the link OA moves CW relative to link 1.
The couple due to forces F32 and F12 is counter clock wise as
shown in Fig 1.14 (a). There fore the input torque must be clock
wise.
The magnitude is given by T = F32 x arm of the couple.
T = 494.9 x 0.202 = 100 Nm. Clock
wise.
It is noticed that the input torque required, is increased due to

friction. The increase is very high since arbitrarily a higher value
of coefficient of friction is taken.
Example 1.3
Determine the couple, T2 for the equilibrium of the system
shown in Fig. 1.15. Also determine the various pin forces. AB =
20 cm; BC = 80 cm; BD = 30 cm.
Solution:
The problem can be solved by two methods. (a) Super position
method, (b) Virtual work method.

Fig. 1.15
Superposition method:
Case (a): Consider force F alone acting on link 4. Link 3 is now
a two force member only. Force triangle of link 4 can be drawn
as shown in Fig. 1.15 (a).
Fig. 1.15 (a)
From the force triangle, the values of force F34 = 3073 N.; F14=
666 N. upwards.

The forces on link 3 are F43 and F23, each equal to 3073 N with
directions as shown in the fig.
The force on link 2: F32 =-F23 = 3073 N.; F12 = 3073 N parallel
to F32 as shown.
The torque on link 2, T2a = F32 x arm length
= 3073 x 0.1907 = 586 Nm Clock
Wise.
Case (b): Consider force P alone acting on link 3. Link 4 is now
a two force member only. Force analysis in this case is shown in
Fig. 1.15 (b).
Fig.1.15 (b)
From the force triangle, the values of force F23 = 837.3 N.; F43=
305 N. downwards.
Forces on link 4: F34 = -F43 = 305 N upwards; F14 = - F34 = 305
N downwards.

The force on link 2: F32 =-F23 = 837.3 N.; F12 = 837.3 N parallel
to F32 as shown.
The torque on link 2, T2b = 837.3 x 0.1181 = 98.9 Nm Counter
Clock Wise.
Total torque when both the forces are acting = T2 = T2a + T2b
= 586 - 98.9 =
487.1 Nm. CW
Forces at pins:
Fig. 1.15 © gives the vector sum of two forces at each joint A, B
and C due to forces P and F. At slider net force acting is given
by
F14 = F14a + F14b
= +666 – 305 = + 361 N. (taking upward force is positive)
Fig.1.15 (c)
From the fig. 1.15 ©
Net force at pin A, F12 = 2449 N
Net force at pin B, F32 = 2449 N
Net force at pin C, F43 = 3022 N
Virtual work method:

The velocity diagram of the mechanism for the given
configuration is drawn as shown in Fig. 1.15 (d) assuming the

angular velocity of crank, AB at the instant as 1 rad / s clock
wise.
Fig.1.15 (d)
From the velocity diagram,

Velocity of c (point of action of force F) is ac = 0.1954 m/s. It is
in the opposite direction to the force F. Work done is negative.
Component of Velocity of d (point of action of force P) parallel
to the direction of force P is v’d = 0.0989 m/s. It is in the same
direction as that of force P. work done is positive
Let T be the input torque required at link AB.
According to virtual work principle,
T.ω – F.vc + P.v’d = 0
T = 3000x 0.1954 – 1000 x 0.0989 Nm (ω = 1
rad/s)
= 487.3 Nm
As T works out to be positive, our assumption of clockwise
angular velocity is correct. Hence the input torque is clockwise.
Pin forces can not be determined by the virtual work method.

Exercise - 1
1. A 4-link mechanism is subjected to an external force, F =60 N

as shown in the fig.1.16. Determine the torque required on link
AB for static equilibrium. The lengths of the links are: AB =
500 mm; BC = 660 mm; CD = 560 mm; AD = 1000 mm. Point
E is the mid point on link CD. (10.34 Nm CCW)
Fig. 1.16
2. A 4 bar mechanism is shown in the Fig. 1.17. Find the torque
required on link AB for static equilibrium at the instant
neglecting friction at joints. (19.05 Nm CCW)
Fig. 1.17

An Epitome
of
Chapter 2
2.0 Dynamic Force Analysis:
Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. Inertia
is a property of matter by virtue of which a body resists any
change in velocity. Inertia force is an imaginary force that
comes into action, when a rigid body is under acceleration,
keeping the body in dynamic equilibrium. It is numerically
equal to the accelerating force but opposite in direction.
Similarly inertia torque resists any change in angular velocity of
a body. It is equal and opposite to the accelerating torque.
Inertia force, Fi = - m.a where m = mass of the body
a = acceleration of the body
Inertia torque, Ti = -I.α where I = mass moment of inertia
= -mk2 α α = acceleration of the body
k = radius of gyration
Dynamic force analysis problem may be converted into static
force analysis problem by using
D’ Alembert’s principle.
2.1 D’ Alembert’s principle: It states that the inertia forces

and couples (torques) and the external forces and torques on a
body together give static equilibrium.
∑F + Fi = 0 and ∑T + Ti = 0, where ∑F and ∑T are resultants of
external forces and torques.
2.2 Effect of number of forces acting on a rigid body:

Consider a rigid body subjected to a
number of forces as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Let F be the resultant of all the forces.

If it passes through the centre of
gravity, the body has linear acceleration
and no angular acceleration. If the line
of action of the resultant is away from
the C.G., the body will have both linear
and angular accelerations. Hence the
body is subjected to inertia force and
inertia torque. Fig. 2.1
Imagine two forces equal in magnitude
to the resultant F and opposite to each
other act at C.G. Then the body is
subjected to a couple F.h and a force F
in the same direction as that of the
resultant. Couple produces angular
acceleration and the force creates linear
acceleration.
F.h = mk2 α and F = m.a
h = mk2 α/ m.a
h = k2 α / a
The inertia force ( -ma) and inertia torque (-mk2 α) on a rigid
body due to the linear and angular accelerations can thus be
replaced by a single force F, equal to the inertia force in
magnitude and acting at an offset distance, h from C.G.. This
force F is known as equivalent offset inertia force. This converts
dynamic analysis into static analysis.
2.3 Dynamic force analysis of 4-bar mechanism:

When the mass of a link in a mechanism is considerable, inertia
force and inertia torque act on the link in addition to the external
forces and reactive forces. The inertia force and torque vary for
different configurations of the mechanism. Hence they are called
dynamic forces. The inertia force and the torque are replaced by

the equivalent offset force acting at a distance h from the C.G.
of the link. This force is treated as a static force and the analysis
can be made statically along with the other forces acting on the
link. The following steps facilitate the force analysis.
1. Draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams of the
mechanism for the given configuration.
2. Determine the linear acceleration of the centre of masses
of various links and the angular accelerations of the
links.
3. Calculate inertia forces and the inertia couples of the
links.
Fi = - m.ag and Ci = -I.α
4. Replace Fi and Ci with a single equivalent offset inertia
force, F = Fi acting at a distance h = k2 α / a. Offset
distance, h is taken on one side of the C.G., such that the
resultant torque due to it, will be opposite to the sense of
angular acceleration of the link.
5. Assume the equivalent offset forces on the links as static
forces and analyze the forces for static equilibrium.
2.4 The velocity and acceleration of piston in slider-crank

mechanism (Analytical method):
Fig. 2.2

Let crank, r rotate with an angular velocity of ω as shown in Fig.
2.2
BD = r Sin θ = l Sin Φ
Sin Φ = r/l. Sin θ
Cos Φ = (1 – Sin2 Φ)1/2 = {1-(r2/l2 ) Sin2 θ}1/2
= [(1- Sin2 θ / n2)]1/2 where n = l/r
= 1/n √ (n2 –Sin2 θ)
Let x be the displacement of piston, A when the crank rotates an
angle θ.
x = l+ r- l Cos Φ – r Cos θ
= l+ r – l. 1/n √ (n2 –Sin2 θ) – r Cos θ
= l+ r – r √ (n2 –Sin2 θ) – r Cos θ
= nr + r – r √ (n2 –Sin2 θ) – r Cos θ
= r [n + 1 – √ (n2 –Sin2 θ) – Cos θ]
= r [1 – Cos θ +n – √ (n2 –Sin2 θ)]
Neglecting Sin2 θ compared to n2
x= r (1-Cos θ)
Velocity of piston vp = dx/dt = dx/dθ.dθ/dt = ω dx/ dθ
vp = ω r d[1 – Cosθ +n – √ (n2 –Sin2θ)] /dθ
= ω r [Sin θ + (Sin 2θ)/2√ (n2 –Sin2 θ)] Neglecting sin2 θ
compared to n2
vp= ω r [Sin θ + Sin 2θ / 2n]
Acceleration of piston ap = dv/dt = dv/dθ.dθ/dt = ω .dv/dθ
ap = ω d [ω r [Sin θ +(Sin 2θ)/2n] /dθ
= ω d [ω r [Sin θ +r(Sin 2θ)/2l] /dθ
= ω2 r [Cos θ +2r Cos2θ /2l]
ap= ω2 r [Cos θ + Cos2θ /n]
2.5 The velocity and acceleration of connecting rod in slider-

crank mechanism (Analytical method):
Let ωc be the angular velocity of connecting rod, AB.
Sin Φ = r/l. Sin θ

Differentiating both sides w.r.t time
CosΦ dΦ/dt = r/l. Cos θ d θ/dt
ωc.CosΦ = ω r/l. Cos θ
ωc = ω r/l. Cos θ/ CosΦ
= ω.Cos θ / n (1/n) √ (n2 –Sin2 θ)
ωc = ω.Cos θ /√ (n2 –Sin2 θ )
ωc = ω.Cos θ/n Neglecting sin2 θ compared to n2
Let αc be the angular acceleration of connecting rod.
αc = d ωc / dt = d ωc /d θ . d θ / dt
= ω . d [ω.Cos θ /√( n2 – Sin2 θ)] /d θ
= ω2 . d [Cos θ ( n2 – Sin2 θ)-1/2] /d θ
= ω2.Sin θ [(1-n2) / (n2 – Sin2 θ)3/2)]
αc = - ω2.Sin θ [(n2-1)/ (n2 – Sin2 θ)3/2)]
αc = - ω2.Sin θ/n Neglecting sin2 θ and 1 compared to n2
2.6 Dynamically Equivalent system:

The connecting rod has both linear and angular accelerations
resulting in both inertia force and inertia toque which makes the
dynamic analysis a bit complicated. Some times it is more
convenient to replace the connecting rod with an equivalent
system having two lumped masses connected with a mass- less
rigid link.
The two- mass system will be dynamically equivalent to the
rigid body (connecting rod) if the following three conditions are
satisfied.
1. The sum of the two masses is equal to the mass of

the rigid body.
2. The centre of gravity of the two-mass system
coincides with the C.G. of the rigid body.

3. The total moment of inertia of the two masses about
an axis passing through the C.G. is equal to that of
the rigid body.
Fig. 2.3
Let m = mass of the rigid body. Refer Fig. 2.3 (a)

kg = Radius of gyration of the rigid body about an axis through
C.G.
Refer Fig. 2.3 (b):
m1, m2 be the masses which form an equivalent dynamical
system. As the two systems are dynamically equivalent,
m1+ m2 = m -1
m1.L1 = m2.L2 -2
m1.L12 + m2.L2 2 = m.kg2 -3
From equations 1 & 2
m1 = m.L2 / (L1+L2) & m2 = m.L1 / (L1+L2)
Equation 3 becomes
m.L 12 . L2 / (L1+L2) + m.L 22 . L1 / (L1+L2) = m.kg2
m.[( L2.L 12 + L1.L 22 ) / (L1+L2) = m.kg2
L1.L 2 [(L1+L 2 ) / (L1+L2)] = kg2
L1.L 2 = kg2
If mass m1 is kept at one end then mass m2 should be kept at a
distance L2 from the C.G. such that L1 .L2 = kg2
2.6.1 Correction Couple:

In considering the dynamically equivalent system for connecting
rod, it is more convenient to fix one mass at small end (gudgeon
pin end) and the other arbitrarily at the big end (Crank pin end).
Here the first two conditions can be satisfied but the third
condition will not be satisfied. If the mass m1 and m3 are placed
at A and C
Refer Fig. 2.3 (c)
m1+ m3 = m
m1.L1 = m3.L3
m1 = m.L3 / l where l is length of the connecting rod
I’ = m.L1.L3 where I’ is Mass moment of inertia (MOI)
But for dynamically equivalent system, I = m.L1.L2 which is

equal to MOI of connecting rod. By considering the two masses
at A & C instead of at A & B, the inertia torque is increased
from the actual inertia torque. There fore a correction torque Tc ,
equal to the difference of the two torques, is required to add to
the system in the opposite sense.
Tc = ∆T = (I’ – I) αc

= αc m(L1.L3 - L1.L2)
= αc mL1.(L3 - L2)
= αc mL1.(l - L) Where L = L1+L2
∆T = m.αc.L1(l - L)
L is also the length of an equivalent simple pendulum for the

connecting rod and l is the connecting rod length. The length of
an equivalent simple pendulum for the connecting rod can be
experimentally obtained by suspending the connecting rod about
one end and finding the time period of oscillations. The time
period T is given by
T = 2π √ [(k2 +a2)/ g.a]

= 2π √ [L/ g.] where a = distance of CG from the point
of suspension
k = Radius of gyration of connecting rod
about the axis passing through CG
L is the length of a simple pendulum
which has the same time period as that of
the connecting rod.
L = (k2 + a2) / a
2.7 Dynamic analysis of slider-crank mechanism

(Analytical method):
1. Neglecting the weight of the connecting rod:

In a reciprocating engine, the various forces acting, are 1)
Piston Effort, 2) force acting along connecting rod, 3) Thrust
on the sides of the cylinder, 4) Crank Effort, 5) Thrust on
crank shaft bearing. Fig. 2.4 shows the forces in action
when the crank rotates an angle θ from Inner Dead Centre
with an angular velocity of ω rad/s.

1. Piston Effort, (Fp): It is the net force acting on the
piston or cross head pin along the line of stroke.
Piston effort is the algebraic sum of the force on
piston due to steam or gas pressure (Fg), inertia force
of reciprocating parts (Fi), frictional resistance (Fr)
between the sliding parts. In vertical engines, in
addition to these forces, the weight of the
reciprocating parts, (W) also acts. The weight adds
in the downward stroke and opposes during the
upward stroke.
Fp = Fg + Fi – Fr - for horizontal engines
Fp = Fg + Fi – Fr ± W - for Vertical engines
Fg = p1.A1 – p2.A2 = p1.A1 – p2(A1 – a) or
2
Fg = p. πd / 4
Where p1, p2 are gas pressure on cover and piston
rod end respectively
A1, A2 Areas of the cover and piston rod end
respectively
a is cross sectional area of piston rod
D is the diameter of the cylinder
p is the net pressure on piston
Fi = m ω2 r [Cos θ + Cos2θ /n]

Fig. 2.4
2. Force acting on connecting rod, (Fc):
Fc = Fp / Cos Φ
Fc = Fp / √ (1 – Sin2 θ/n2)
3. Thrust on the sides of the cylinder:

Fn = Fc Sin Φ
= (Fp / Cos Φ) Sin Φ
Fn= Fp Tan Φ
4. Crank Effort, (Ft):

It is the net force applied at the crank pin
perpendicular to the crank.
The force acting along the connecting rod, Fc is
resolved into 2 components – one Ft perpendicular to
the crank and the other Fb parallel to the crank.
Crank effort, Ft = Fc Cos {90-(θ + Φ)}
= Fc Sin (θ + Φ)
= Fp. Sin (θ + Φ) / Cos Φ
5. Turning Moment on crank shaft, (T):

T = Fp. r. Sin (θ + Φ) / Cos Φ
= Fp. OM since from Fig. 2.4, OM =
r. Sin (θ + Φ) / Cos Φ
Also, Work done at piston = work done at crank pin

T. ω = Fp. vp = Fp ω r[Sin θ +(Sin 2θ)/2n]
T = Fp r [Sin θ + (Sin 2θ)/2n]
6. Thrust on crank shaft bearing: It is the force

acting along the crank.
Fb = FpCos (θ + Φ) / Cos Φ
2. Considering the inertia of the connecting rod:

When the mass of the connecting rod is considerable, the
inertia force and inertia torque, due to the linear and angular
accelerations of the rod, contribute to the turning moment on
the crank. It is convenient to consider the connecting rod as
two - mass system. The mass of the rod, mc is divided into
two masses – one at the piston (gudgeon pin) end, B and the
other at the crank pin end, A, the position of the CG
remaining the same as shown in Fig. 2.5.
Inertia force due to mass, m2 at A has no effect on crank
shaft as it acts radially outwards through A. The mass, m1 at
B is added to the mass of the reciprocating parts.
Since the second mass is kept arbitrarily at A, a correction
couple needs to be considered. This correction couple may
be assumed to be constituted by two equal, parallel and
opposite forces, Fy acting at A and B perpendicular to the
line of stroke. This couple is equal to the correction couple
and acts in the opposite sense to the inertia torque of the rod.
Correction couple, ∆T = Fy . BP = Fy .l Cos Φ
Fy = ∆T / l Cos Φ

Force, Fy at A causes an additional torque on crank. Force,
Fy acting at B has no effect on the crank turning moment
since it is taken by the normal reaction at B
Torque on the crank:

Total torque on the crank consists of 1) torque due to the
forces acting on piston, B, 2) Torque due to the force Fy,
acting at A, because of correction couple, 3) Torque due to
the force,m2.g, because of mass, m2 kept at A
1. Torque due to the forces acting on piston, B, Tb:

Mass m1 = mc (l-L1)/l ;
m2 = mc – m1
Total reciprocating masses at B
mr= m+m1 where m = mass of the reciprocating masses of
the piston.
Inertia force at B
Fi = mr. ω2r (Cos θ + Cos2θ /n)
Total Force acting at B, Fp:
Fp = Fg + Fi - for horizontal
engines
Fp = Fg + Fi ± mr.g - for
Vertical engines
Tb = Fp.r (Sin θ + (Sin 2θ) /2n)
CW - if Fp acts towards O
CCW - if Fp acts away from O

Fig. 2.5
2. Torque due to the force Fy added at A, Tc:

Tc = Fy.PO
= ∆T.PO / l Cos Φ
= ∆T.r Cos θ / l Cos Φ
= ∆T.Cos θ / n. Cos Φ
= ∆T.Cos θ / n.1/n.√ (n2- Sin2 θ)
= ∆T.Cos θ / √ (n2- Sin2 θ)
= ∆T.Cos θ / n Neglecting sin2 θ compared to n2
= mc.αc.L1(l - L) Cos θ / n where αc = - ω2.Sin θ/n
Negative sign indicates the acceleration is in the decreasing

direction of Φ. The inertia torque is in opposite direction i.e
increasing direction of Φ. Hence the correction couple will
be in the decreasing direction – same as that of acceleration.
Hence Fy is applied down wards at crank pin A and upwards
at B so that the correction couple is applied on the

connecting rod in the same sense as that of acceleration of
the connecting rod.
Fy, thus applied, causes CCW torque on the crank in this
case.
Tc = mc.L1(l - L)(- ω2.Sin θ/n) Cos θ / n
Tc = -mc. L1 (l - L) ω2. Sin (2θ) / 2n2 CCW in this case.
3. Torque due to the mass, m2,Ta:

Ta = m2. g. r. Cos θ CCW in this case.
Total torque on the crank, T = Tb + Tc + Ta

The senses of the torques are to be taken in to consideration
while adding.
Example 2.1:
A slider crank mechanism is subjected to an external force F =
100 N as shown in sketch. Determine the driving torque on
crank OA for dynamic equilibrium. Take the mass of the piston
as 10 kg and neglect the masses of other links. OA should rotate
at 600 RPM.
OA = 20 cm ; AB = 60 cm ; AC = 30 cm.
Solution:

From the acceleration diagram the acceleration of piston B, ap is
o’b’ = 566 m/s2 and acts towards O from B. Hence the inertia
force acts towards B from O. As the piston has only linear
acceleration, inertia torque does not exist.
Inertia Force, Fi = m.ap = 10 x 566 = 5660 N.
[The inertia force (approximate value) can also be calculated

analytically:
Fi = m.ω2.r (cosθ + cos2θ/n) n= l/r =60/20 = 3
= 10 x ( 2π 600/60)2x 0.2[Cos 135 + Cos 270/3]
= -5583 N]
Now the problem is converted into static problem with two
forces. Force Fi is acting on piston B and force F on link AB.
This can be solved by superposition method.
Case 1 : Considering force Fi alone.
Piston B is a 3- force member. From the force triangle oab,

Force F34 = 5824 N.
From the free body diagrams of link AB and Link OA it can be
seen that
F32 = -F12 = 5824 N. The two forces give rise to a CCW couple.
Hence the torque required for static equilibrium, T21 is CW.
T21 = 5824 x 0.1708 = 995 Nm CW

Case 2: Considering force F alone.
Piston B is a 2-force member. Force F34 acts vertically since the

reaction F14 is vertical when piston is constrained to move
horizontally.
Point P is the point of intersection of forces F and F43. Since link
AB is 3-force member, the third force F23 should pass through
point P. The direction of force F23 is parallel to PA.
Now the force triangle ocd for link AB is drawn as shown
above. From the force triangle, F23 = 70.3 N.
F32 = -F23 =70.3 N ; F12 = -F32
The two forcesF32 and F12 give rise to a CW couple. Hence the
torque required for static equilibrium, T22 is CCW.
T22 = 70.3 x 0.20 = 14.1 Nm CCW
The total torque on link 2, T2 = T21 + T22

= 995+ (-14.1)
= 980.9 Nm CW
Virtual work Method:
For the given configuration, velocity diagram is drawn as shown
below where oc and ob are the velocities of point of action of
force F, (Vc) and inertia force Fi , (Vb) respectively.
Velocity Diagram
oco is the velocity of point c parallel to the line of action of force
F.
From the velocity diagram, Vb = 11.04 m/s, and Vc = 8.832 m/s.
By the principle of virtual work,
T.ω + Fi . Vb – F.Vc = 0 ω = 2π.600/60 = 62.83 rad/s.
(Work done by force F is negative because Vc is in the opposite
direction to Force F. )
Assuming T CCW same as that of ωOA and hence positive
T= ( F.Vc - Fi . Vb)/ ω
T = (100 x 8.832–5660 x 11.04) / 62.83 = -980.5 Nm

T comes out to be negative, hence it is CW
T = 980.5 Nm CW
Example 2.2:
Figure shows a four bar mechanism in the vertical plane and
stationary at the instant indicated. The input and output
members O2A and O4B are rigid but of negligible mass. The
coupler AB is rigid uniform rod of length 50 cm, its total mass
being 25 kg. A torque M acts on the crank O2A as shown,
causing this crank to move with an angular acceleration of 50
rad/s2 in the direction of M. Determine the magnitude of M
What will be the magnitude of M when the input member
rotates with an angular velocity of 150 rad / s CCW at the same
instant?
Solution:
When the mechanism is stationary, the velocities of all the links

are zero. Due to the torque M, acceleration of link O2A is 50
rad/s2. Acceleration of link AB gives rise to inertia torque and
inertia couple. The inertia force and couple can be replaced by
an equivalent offset inertia force acting at an offset distance, h
from CG of link AB. The mechanism will be in equilibrium
under this force and the torque, M, which can be statically
analyzed.
Acceleration diagram and free body diagrams are shown below.

From acceleration diagram,
Acceleration of CG of link AB is 17.7 m/s2
Angular acceleration of AB is 35.36/0.5 = 70.72 rad/s2
Inertia force Fi = 25 x 17.7 = 442.5 N acts parallel to og towards
right on link AB
Offset h = k2.α /a where k is the radius of gyration
of link AB about the axis passing
through its CG.
k = l /12 = (0.5)2 / 12 = 0.021
2 2
h = 0.021 x 70.72/ 17.7 = 0.083 m = 83 mm.

Equivalent offset inertia force acts at a distance of 83 mm from
CG. However since the force is acting along the axis of AB, the
point of action of Fi is not important.
Free body diagrams (a)

From the free body diagram of link 3,
F43 = F34 =0 since F34 and F43 which are equal and opposite and
acting along different directions.
F23 = Fi = 442.5 N
From the free body diagram of link 2,
F32 = -F23 and F12 = -F32
Torque M = F32 x 0.3536 = 442.5 x 0.3536 = 156.5 Nm. CCW

Case (B)
Velocity, acceleration and free body diagrams are shown below
when the input member rotates with an angular velocity of 150
rad / s CCW at the same instant
From acceleration diagram,
Acceleration of CG of link AB is 33280 m/s2
Angular acceleration of AB is 38450/0.5 = 76900 rad/s2
Offset h = k2.α /a = 0.021 x 76900/33280 = 0.049 m = 49 mm
Equivalent offset inertia force acts at a distance of 49 mm from
CG as shown in free body diagram so that it constitutes a CCW
couple on link AB as the angular acceleration of link AB is CW
Inertia force Fi = 25 x 33280 = 832000 N acts parallel to o1g1

From the free body diagrams (b) of link 3,
F23 = 938000 N
From the free body diagrams (b) of link 2,
F32 = -F23 and F12 = -F32
Torque M = F32 x 0.234 = 938000 x 0.234 = 219492 Nm. CCW

Free body diagrams (b)
Example 2.3:
The length of the connecting rod of a gas engine is 500 mm and
its c.g. lies at 165 mm from the crank pin centre. The rod has a
mass of 80 kg. and a radius of gyration of 182 mm about the
axis passing through the centre of mass. The stroke of the piston
is 225 mm and the crank speed is 300 RPM. Determine the
inertia torque on the crank shaft when the crank has turned 300
from IDC.
Solution:
Given data:
l = 500 mm; mc = 80 kg ; L1 = 500 -165 = 335 mm ; radius of
gyration ,k = 182 mm;
r = ½ stroke = 225/2 = 112.5 mm ; Speed N = 300 rpm ; θ = 300
ω = 2π.300/60 = 31.42 rad/s n = l/r = 500/112.5 = 4.444
Distribution of mass of connecting rod at A and B:

m1 = mc. (l-L1) / l = 80 x 165 / 500 = 26.4 kg
m2 = 80 – 26.4 = 53.6 kg

Torque on crank due to forces at B, Tb:
Fi = m ω2 r [Cos θ + Cos2θ /n]
= 26.4 x 31.422 x 0.1125 [Cos 30 + (Cos 60)/ 4.444]
= 2869 N acting towards left.
Tb = Fi.r [Sin θ + (Sin 2θ) /2n]
= 2869 x 0.1125 [Sin 30 + (Sin 60)/2 x 4.444]
= 192.8 Nm CCW
(Fi acting towards left, causes CCW torque on crank)
Torque on crank due to correction couple (∆T), Tc:

∆T = m.αc.L1(l - L)
Where L = L1 + k2 /L1
=0.335 + (0.182)2/0.335 = 0.434m
αc = - ω2.Sin θ/n = - (31.42)2 Sin 30/4.44 = - 111 rad/s2
αc is clock wise i.e. in the decreasing direction of Φ.

Fy is applied down wards at crank pin A and upwards at B
so that the correction couple is applied on the connecting rod
in the same sense as that of acceleration of the connecting
rod.
∆T = 80 x (-111) x 0.335 (0.5 – 0.434) = -196.3 Nm
Fy = ∆T / l.Cos Φ

SinΦ = Sin 30 /4.444 = 0.113
Φ = 6.460
Fy = 196.3 /(0.5 x Cos 6.46) = - 395 N
acting down wards at A
Tc = Fy.r Cos θ
Tc = - 395 x 0.1125 x Cos 30
= - 38.48 Nm CCW (Fy causes CCW torque on
crank.)
Torque on crank due to the mass, m2, Ta:
Ta = m2. g. r. Cos θ
Ta = 53.6 x 9.81 x 0.1125 Cos 30
= 51.23 Nm CCW
Total torque T = Tb - Tc + Ta
(Tc is to be deducted from Tb due to inertia force)
= 192.8 - (- 38.48) + 51.23
= 282.5 Nm CCW
Alternately, Total torque on crank can be calculated as follows:
Determining the senses of all torques on crank and then ignoring
the negative signs,
Torque due to forces on piston,
Tb = 192.8 Nm CCW
Torque due to Fy added at A for applying correction couple,
Tc = 38.48 Nm CCW
Torque on crank due to the mass, m2 added at A,
Ta = 51.23 Nm CCW
Total torque on crank, T = algebraic sum of all torques
= 192.8 + 38.48 + 51.23
= 282.5 Nm CCW
Example 2.4:
A vertical double acting steam engine has a cylinder 300 mm
diameter and 450 mm stroke and runs at 200 RPM. The
reciprocating parts have a mass of 225 kg and the piston rod is

50 mm diameter. The connecting rod is 1.2 m long. When the
crank has turned through 1250 from the TDC, the steam pressure
above the piston is 30 k N /m2 and below the piston is 1.5 k
N/m2. Calculate the effective turning moment on the shaft.
Solution:
Given data:
cylinder dia., D = 300 mm; piston rod dia.,d = 50 mm; steam
pressure above piston.p1 = 30 kN/m2 ; steam pressure below
piston.p2 = 1.5 kN/m2
r = ½ stroke = 450/2 = 225 mm l = 1.2 m; mr = 225 kg;
radius of gyration, k = 175 mm; Speed N = 200 rpm; θ = 1250
ω = 2π.200/60 = 20.94 rad/s; n = 1200/225 = 5.33
Net force on piston due to steam, Fg:

Fg = p1.πD2/4 – p2.πd2/4
= 0.030 π.(300)2/4 – 0.0015 π.(50)2 /4
= 2118 N acting downwards
Inertia force on piston:
Fi = mr ω2 r [Cos θ + Cos2θ /n]
= 225 x (20.94)2 x 0.225 [Cos 1250 +
(Cos 2500)/ 5.33]
= -14157 N i.e. acting downwards.
Total force on piston, Fp = Fg+Fi +mr

= 2118 + 14157 + 225 x 9.81
= 18482 N acting downwards

Tb = Fp.r [Sin θ + (Sin 2θ) /2n]
= 18482 x 0.225 [Sin 125 + (Sin 250)/2 x 5.33]
Tb = 3040 Nm CW
Example 2.5:
The connecting rod of an IC engine is 450 mm long and has a
mass of 2 kg. The centre of mass of the rod is 300 mm from the
small end and its radius of gyration about an axis through this
centre is 175 mm. The mass of the piston and the gudgeon pin is
2.5 kg. and the stroke is 300 mm. The cylinder diameter is 115
mm. Determine the magnitude and direction of the torque
applied on the crank shaft when the crank is 400 and the piston
is moving away from the inner dead centre under an effective
gas pressure of 2 N/mm2. The engine speed is 1000 RPM.
Solution:
While the crank angle is 400, the piston is moving away from
IDC. Hence the position of the crank will be as shown in figure
below.
Given data:
l = 450 mm; mc = 2 kg; L1 = 300 mm; radius of gyration, k =
175 mm;
r = ½ stroke = 300/2 = 150 mm; Speed N = 1000 rpm; θ = 360-
40 =3200
mp = 2.5 kg; cylinder dia., D = 115 mm; gas pressure,
p = 2 N/mm2
ω = 2π.1000/60 = 104.7 rad/s n = l/r = 450/150 = 3
Gas load, Fg = p.πD2/4
= 2 x π(115)2 /4
= 20774 N acting towards right
m1 = mc. (l-L1) / l

= 2 x (450-300) / 450
= 0.667 kg
m2 = 2 – 0.667 = 1.333 kg
Total mass at piston, mr = mp+m1

= 2.5 + 0.667 = 3.167 Kg
= 3.167 x (104.7)2 x 0.150 [Cos 3200 + (Cos 6400)/ 3]
= 4291 N acting towards left.
Total force on piston, Fp = Fg + Fi
=20774 – 4291 = 16483 N
acting towards right
= 16483 x 0.150 [Sin 320 + (Sin 640)/2 x 3]
Tb = -1995 Nm
It can be noticed from the fig. that when piston is
pushing the connecting rod towards right, crank rotates
CCW.
Tb = 1995 Nm CCW

∆T = m.αc.L1(l - L)
Where L = L1 + k2 /L1
=0.3+ (0.175)2/0.3 = 0.402m
αc = - ω .Sin θ/n = - (104.7)2 Sin 320/3
2
= +2349 rad/s2
αc is CCW i.e. in the decreasing direction of Φ.
Fy is applied up wards at crank pin A and down wards at B

so that the correction couple is applied on the connecting rod
in the same sense as that of acceleration of the connecting
rod.
∆T = 2 x 2349 x 0.3 (0.45 – 0.402)
= 67.65 Nm
Tc = ∆T.Cos θ / √ (n2- Sin2 θ)
Tc = 67.65 Cos 320/√ (9- Sin2 320)
= 17.69 Nm CW (Fy causes CW torque on crank)
Ta = m2. g. r. Cos θ
Ta = 1.333 x 9.81 x 0.15 Cos 320
= 1.5 Nm CCW
Total torque T = Tb +Tc + Ta
= 1995 – 17.69 + 1.5 = 1978.8 Nm CCW
Hence, for equilibrium, the applied torque on crank is equal and
opposite to the total torque on the crank
Applied torque on crank = 1978.8 Nm clockwise.
Example 2.6:
The connecting rod of vertical cylinder IC engine is 600 mm
long between centers and has a mass of 3 kg. The mass centre of
connecting rod is 200 mm away from the big end. When the
connecting rod is suspended as a pendulum from the gudgeon
pin, it makes 30 complete oscillations in 45 seconds. The crank

radius is 125 mm and the mass of the piston is 1.2 kg.
Determine the inertia torque on the crank shaft when crank
makes an angle of 1400 from TDC and crank shaft speed is1500
RPM.
Solution:
Given data:
l = 600 mm; mc = 3 kg; L2 (length from big end) = 200 mm
r = 125 mm; Speed N = 1500 rpm; θ = 1400
mp = 1.2 kg; 30 oscillations in 45 s
ω = 2π.1500/60 = 157.1 rad / s n = l / r = 600/125 = 4.8
Time period T = 45 / 30 = 1.5 s
T = 2π √ [L/ g.] where L = Equivalent length
L = g. [T / 2 π]2 = 9.81 x [1.5 / 2 π]2 = 0.559 m
m1 = mc. (L2) / l
= 3 x 200 / 600
= 1 kg
m2 = 3 – 1 = 2 kg
Total mass at piston, mr = mp+m1

= 1.2 + 1 = 2.2 Kg

= 2.2 x (157.1)2 x 0.125 [Cos 1400 + (Cos 2800)/ 4.8]
= -4954 N (- indicates that accelerating force acts
upwards hence inertia force acts
downwards)
= 4954 N acting downwards.
Total force on piston, Fp = Fi + mr.g
=4954 + 2.2 x 9.81 = 4976 N
acting downwards
= 4976 x 0.125 [Sin 140 + (Sin 280)/2 x 4.8]
Tb = 336 Nm CW
∆T = m.αc.L1(l - L)
αc = -ω2.Sin θ/n
= -(157.1)2Sin 140/4.8 = -3305 rad/s2
αc is CW i.e. in the decreasing direction of Φ.
Fy is applied towards left at crank pin A and towards right at

B so that the correction couple is applied on the connecting
rod in the same sense as that of acceleration of the
connecting rod.
∆T = 3 x 3305 x 0.4 (0.6 – 0.559)

= 162.6 Nm
Tc = ∆T.Cos θ / √ (n2- Sin2 θ)
Tc = 162.6 Cos 140/√ (4.82- Sin2 140)
= -26.2 Nm CW (Fy causes CW torque on crank)

Ta = m2. g. r. Sin θ
Ta = 2 x 9.81 x 0.125 Sin 140

= 1.58 Nm CW
Total torque T = Tb + Tc + Ta (Algebraic sum)
= 336 + 26.2 + 1.58 = 363.8 Nm CW
Example 2.7:
A horizontal double acting steam engine running at 240 RPM
has a stroke of 30.5 cm. The diameter of the cylinder is 21.5 cm
and the connecting rod is 5 cranks long. The mass of the
reciprocating parts is 68 kg. Steam is admitted at 56 N/cm2
(gauge) for 1/3 of the stroke after which isothermal expansion
takes place (PV = constant). The exhaust pressure is -8.44
N/cm2 (gauge). Determine the turning moment when the crank
has rotated 1200 from the dead centre position. Atmospheric
pressure is 10 N / cm2. Difference between the areas of two
sides of the piston is negligible.
Solution:
Given data: Cylinder dia., D = 21.5 cm; steam pressure = 56
N/cm2 gauge; exhaust pressure is -8.44 N/cm2 (gauge); r = ½
stroke = 30.5 / 2 = 15.25 cm; l = 5.r; mr = 68 kg; Speed N = 240
rpm; θ = 1200
ω = 2π.240/60 = 25.13 rad/s; n = l / r = 5
Net pressure on piston at θ = 1200:

Stroke Volume, Vs = s.πD2/4 = 0.305x π. (0.215)2/4 = 0.0110 m3
Volume at cut off, Vc = Vs/3 = 0.011/ 3 = 0.0037 m3
Piston movement at θ = 1200,

x = r [1-Cos θ + n- √ {n2 - (sin2 120)}]
= 0.1525 [1- Cos 120 + 5 - √ {25- (sin2 120)}]
= 0.2403 m
Volume swept when θ = 1200,

Vx = Vs.x /s = 0.011 x 0.2403 / 0.305 = 0.0087 m3
Pressure at cut off, pc = 56 + 10 = 66 N/ cm2
Pressure when θ = 1200,
px = pc x Vc / Vx For Isothermal expansion
= 66 x 0.0037 / 0.0087
= 28.1 N / cm2
Pressure on the other side of piston = exhaust pressure
= - 8.44 + 10 = 1.56 N /cm2
Net pressure on piston, p = 28.1 – 1.56 = 26.54 N/cm2
Steam load on piston,

Fg = p. πD2/4 = 26.54 x π (21.5)2/4
= 9635 N acting towards centre of crank shaft
Inertia force, Fi = mr ω2 r [Cos θ + Cos2θ /n]
= 68 x (25.13)2 x 0.1525 [Cos 1200 + (Cos 2400)/ 5]
= - 3929 N
(- indicates that accelerating force acts opposite to piston
movement hence inertia force acts in same direction of piston
movement)
Fi = 3929 N acting towards centre of crank shaft
Piston effort Fp = Fg + Fi
= 9635 + 3929 = 13564 N

Torque on crank due to piston effort, Tb:
= 13564 x 0.1525 [Sin 120 + (Sin 240)/2 x 5]
Tb= 1612 Nm CW
Exercise - 2
1. In the mechanism shown below, link 2 is driving link 4
with the help of a rigid uniform coupler of negligible
mass. The angular velocity ω2 is 100 / s. If a moment M
of magnitude 500 N.m is applied on link 2 as shown,
determine the acceleration of link 4. The moments of
inertia of links 2 and 4 about O2 and O4 are 0.5 kg.m2
and 1.0 kg.m2 respectively. Given O2O4 = 25 cm, AO2 =
35 cm, and BO2 = 50 cm.
(Hint: Consider static equilibrium. Ans. 714 rad/s2 CW)
2. The lengths of crank and connecting rod of reciprocating

engine are 240 mm and 1.2 m respectively. The crank is
rotating at 150 RPM clockwise. The mass of the
reciprocating parts of the engine is 250 kg and that of
connecting rod is 210 kg. The C.G. of the connecting rod
lies at 380 mm from the crank pin centre and the radius
of gyration of the rod about an axis passing through its
C.G. is 500 mm. Determine the inertia torque on the

crank shaft when crank turns an angle of 400 from inner
dead centre. (Ans. 3025.2 Nm CCW)
3. A small connecting rod 220 mm long between centers

has a mass of 2 kg and moment of inertia of 2 x 104
kg.mm2 about its centre of gravity. The C.G. is located at
a distance of 150 mm from the small end centre.
Determine the dynamically equivalent two mass- system
when one mass is located at the small end centre.
If the connecting rod is replaced by two masses located
at the two centers, find the correction couple that must
be applied for complete dynamical equivalence of the
system, when the angular acceleration of the connecting
rod is 20000 rad/s2 clockwise.
(Ans. 0.6154 kg, 1.3846 kg, 216.7 mm; 19.8 Nm)
4. For the engine given in problem 2, determine the inertia

torque on the crank shaft when crank angle is (a) 1400,
(b) 2200 from inner dead centre.
(Ans. 2145.2 Nm, 1627.6 Nm)
5. The mass of a connecting rod 1.2 m long between

centers is 64 kg. The time of oscillation when the rod is
suspended from centre of small end is 2 s and when
suspended from the centre of big end is 1.8 s. Find:
1. Radius of gyration of the rod about an axis
passing through its c.g.
2. Moment of inertia about the same axis.
3. Dynamically equivalent system comprising of
two masses one mass placed at small end centre.
(Ans. 0.402 m, 10.34 kg.m2, 13.2 kg, 50.8 kg, 0.994 m)

An Epitome
of
Chapter 3
3.0 Gyroscopic effect:
A gyroscope is an instrument used for the stabilization of ships,
air crafts, torpedoes missiles etc. It consists of a heavy rotor
mounted in an inner gimbal and spinning about Y- axis. The
inner gimabal can precess about X- axis and is mounted in the
outer gimbal. The outer gimbal itself is mounted in the fixed
frame. The outer gimbal can rotate about axis Z. Any attempt to
move some of the parts, it resists the motion or even tries to
evade the motion. The reason for this is that a torque is required
to rotate a spinning body about an axis (known as precession
axis) perpendicular to the spin axis. It is observed that the torque
will be about another axis perpendicular to both these axes.
3.1 Vector representation of angular velocity,

The angular velocity is a vector quantity and can be represented
by a vector. It is specified by magnitude, direction of axis of
spin and sense of rotation.
The angular velocity is represented by a line, length equal to the
magnitude, the direction parallel to the axis and the sense given
by a right hand rule or right hand screw rule.
The acceleration, moment of momentum and torque are also the
vectors, represented in the same way.
Right hand rule: Keeping the right hand fingers curving on the
inside pointing towards the sense of rotation, thumb indicates
the direction of the spin vector.

Right hand screw rule: Keeping the screw parallel to the
direction of the vector and rotating the screw in the sense of
angular velocity, the advancement of the screw gives the
direction of vector.
Let a disc be rotating clock wise about the axis AB as shown in
Fig. 3.1. (a)
Looking from A, the disc is rotating clock wise with an angular
velocity of ω rad/s. The angular velocity can be represented by
a line ab parallel to the axis AB. As per right hand screw rule
the vector direction is from a to b away from the viewer.
Looking from B, the disc is rotating counter

clock wise with an angular velocity of ω
rad/s. The angular velocity is represented by
the line ab parallel to the axis AB.
As per right hand screw rule the vector

direction is again towards the viewer i.e.
from a to b, (viewer being at B). Vector
remains same irrespective of looking from A
or B.
Fig.3.1. (b) shows the angular velocity vector
ba, when the disc rotates counter clock wise.
Fig.3.1.
3.2 Gyroscopic couple:
Consider a disc of mass moment
of inertia, I. The disc is spinning
with an angular velocity, ω
rad/s about the axis OX (spinning
axis) in clock wise direction as
seen from O. The plane YOZ, in

which the disc lies, is normal to
OX. It is known as the plane of
spinning.
Let the axis OX along with the
disc rotate in the plane XOZ,
about the vertical axis OY. The
axis OY is the axis of precession
and the plane XOZ is the plane of
precession. Fig. 3.2
The angular momentum (moment
of momentum) of the spinning
disc is I.ω
Vector oa represents the angular momentum of the disc to a
suitable, scale parallel to OX and the direction is from o to a
according to either right hand rule or right hand screw rule as
shown in the Fig. 3.2
Let the axis of spin OX rotate through an angle δθ, after δt time
to Ox’.
The angular momentum vector is now represented by ob.
The change in angular momentum is represented by vector ab
The change in angular momentum takes place due to a torque or
couple which is equal to the rate of change of angular
momentum.
Couple, C = Change of angular momentum / time
C = Lt δ (I.ω) / δt But δ (I.ω) = oa. δθ = I.ω.δθ
δt → 0
= Lt (I.ω) δθ / δt
δt → 0
= I ω. Lt δθ / δt
δt → 0
= I ω.dθ/ dt

C = I. ω.ωp where ωp = dθ/ dt = angular velocity of
precession.
This couple C is known as gyroscopic couple.

The angular momentum change vector, ab lies in XOZ plane
(horizontal plane). Hence gyroscopic couple vector also lies in
this plane. As the couple vector is parallel to axis of couple and
the axis is perpendicular to the plane of couple, hence the couple
vector and the plane of couple vector will be at right angles.
For small displacements, the vector ab will be perpendicular to

the plane XOY (vertical plane). Hence the gyroscopic couple
will be in vertical plane XOY.
There fore the gyroscopic couple plane is perpendicular to both
spinning plane, YOZ and the precession plane, XOZ.
This gyroscopic couple is accompanied by a reaction couple
which acts in the same plane with equal in magnitude but
opposite in sense. This reaction couple is called the reactive
gyroscopic couple where as the applied couple is known as
active gyroscopic couple.
Thus when the axis of spin under goes precession, the disc is
subjected to a reactive gyroscopic couple, C = I. ω.ωp. This
effect is analogous to centrifugal force.
When the precession axis is parallel to spin axis, gyroscopic

effect will not be present. If it is at an angle, then the component
of precession velocity, perpendicular to spin axis, causes the
reactive gyroscopic couple.
It is also clear that the spin, precession and gyroscopic couple

axes are perpendicular to the planes of spin, precession and
gyroscopic couple respectively.

When a torque or couple is applied on the spinning axis, X
about the Z axis, the spinning axis rotates about Y axis instead
of Z axis. This motion is known as gyrostatic motion.
Fig. 3.2 (a) shows all the three planes and the axes which are
mutually perpendicular to each other.
Fig. 3.2 (a)

3.3 Gyroscopic effects on ships and aeroplanes:
Ships and aeroplanes undergo rotations about all the three
Cartesian axes. Reactive gyroscopic couple due to precessing of
the spinning masses of the engine acts on the ships or aeroplanes
causing them to tilt.
Fig. 3.3 shows the various terminology generally used in
describing the ships.
The following conventions are followed in aligning the axes.
X- axis is always aligned along the direction of forward motion
in horizontal plane.

Z- axis is aligned along the side in horizontal plane
perpendicular to X- axis.
Y- axis is aligned in the vertical plane.
The rotation about the X- axis is known as rolling motion.
The rotation about the Y- axis is known as yawing or steering
motion.
The rotation about the Z- axis is known as pitching motion.
Fig. 3.3
3.3.1 Gyroscopic effect during steering:
Let turbine rotor of a ship rotate clock wise when looking from
rear and the ship takes a left turn looking from aft as shown in
Fig. 3.4.
V = velocity of the ship, m/s
I = moment of inertia of the rotor, kg.m2
ω = Angular velocity of the rotor, rad/s

ωp = Precessional angular velocity of the ship, rad/s
R = radius of the path of the ship while steering, m
ωp = V/R
Reactive Gyroscopic couple, C = I ω ωp = I ωp.V/R Nm
From the vector diagram shown in Fig. 3.4
Vector x’x represents the reactive gyroscopic couple. x’x lies in
horizontal plane.
Viewer standing at x and keeping the fingers such that vector
lies inside the fingers, thumb pointing along x’x (towards
viewer), the fingers show counter clock wise sense.
Or Viewer standing at x and keeping the RH screw parallel to

x’x horizontally and rotating the screw to move in the direction
x’x (towards viewer), the rotation of the screw will be counter
clock wise.
Fig. 3.4

Hence the reactive gyroscopic couple acts in CCW sense about
Z axis since couple axis should be perpendicular to both spin
axis, X and precession axis, Y. The couple acts in the XOY
plane as shown in the front view in Fig. 3.4
The CCW reactive gyroscopic couple tends to lift the bow and
dip the stern in this case. The gyroscopic effect for different
conditions can be determined in the same way.
3.3.2 Gyroscopic effect during pitching:
Fig. 3.5
Pitching is the movement of the complete ship up and down in
vertical plane about the transverse axis (Z axis). In this case the
ship precesses about Z axis. The ship moves up and down small

amplitude say, θ degrees. The pitching can be assumed to follow
simple harmonic motion with maximum amplitude of θ0. If the
time period of SHM is T then the maximum angular
precessional velocity will be (θ π/180) (2π /T) rad/s
Gyroscopic couple, Cg= I ω (θ π/180)(2π /T)
The couple acts about Y-axis. Hence the reactive gyroscopic
couple also acts about Y-axis i.e. the effect will be yawing.
Fig. 3.5 shows the vector diagram during the upward movement
of the ship. The vector x’x is in vertical plane and indicates a
CW couple, looking from top.
Hence the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to rotate the ship
about Y-axis towards the starboard as seen in the top view.
Similarly, during the down ward movement of the ship, the
couple tends to rotate the ship about Y-axis towards port.
3.3.3 Gyroscopic effect during rolling:

Rolling is the limited rotation of the ship about longitudinal
axis. The rotor also rotates about longitudinal axis (X-axis).
Since the precession axis is parallel to the spin axis, there will
be no gyroscopic effect on the ship.
3.4 Gyroscopic effect on aero-planes:

Let engine propeller rotate clock wise, looking from tail and the
plane takes a left turn.
V = velocity of the plane, m/s
I = moment of inertia of the propeller, kg.m2
ω = Angular velocity of the propeller, rad/s
ωp = Precessional angular velocity of the plane, rad/s
R = radius of curvature, m
ωp = V/R, rad/s
Reactive Gyroscopic couple,
C = I ω ωp = I ωp.V/R Nm

From the vector diagram shown in Fig. 3.6, Vector x’x
represents the reactive gyroscopic couple. x’x lies in horizontal
plane and indicates that the reactive gyroscopic couple acts in
CCW sense about Z axis.
The effect of this couple is to raise the nose and lower the tail of
the plane.
The gyroscopic effect for different conditions can be determined
in the same way as that of the ships.
Fig. 3.6
3.5 Gyroscopic effect on the stability of automobiles:
3.5.1 Stability of four wheelers:

When a 4- wheeler negotiates a curve of radius R,

1. Axis of rotating parts (engine) undergoes precession
giving rise to gyroscopic couple (Reactive).
2. Centrifugal force also comes into effect acting through
C.G. of the vehicle in outward direction. This causes
over turning of the vehicle by the moment due to
centrifugal force.
The vehicle will be stable if no wheel is lifted off the ground
due to these moments.
No wheel will be lifted off the ground, if the vertical
reaction of the ground on the wheels is upwards.
Fig. 3.7

Fig. 3.7 shows the three views of a 4-wheel automotive vehicle.
The forces acting on all the 4 wheels and the vertical reaction of
the ground on the wheels due to centrifugal force, gyroscopic
couple and the weight of the vehicle are checked for the stability
of the vehicle during negotiating a curve. Let
h = height of the C.G. of the vehicle from the ground
W = total weight of the vehicle
Iw = MOI of each wheel
Ie = MOI of rotating engine parts
G = speed ratio of engine to wheels = Speed of engine/speed of
wheel
r = radius of the each wheel
a = track width
b = perpendicular distance between front and rear wheels (wheel
base)
Let the vehicle take a right turn of radius, R with a velocity of V
m/s
Forces acting on each wheel:
1. Force on each wheel due the weight of the vehicle = W/4 –
acting down wards
Reaction of ground on each wheel,

P, Q, R and S = W/4 – upwards
2. Centrifugal force, Fc:
Fc = mV2/R N
Couple acting on the vehicle = Cc = Fc.h Nm
Force acting on two outer or two inner wheels due to this
couple = Cc / a
Force on each outer or each inner wheel = Cc / 2a
Force on outer wheel acts downwards and inner wheels
upwards.
Reaction of ground on each outer wheel,

Q and S = Cc / 2a - upwards
Reaction of ground on each inner wheel,
P and R = Cc / 2a - down wards
3. Reactive gyroscopic couple:
Let Wheels spin about Z-axis and engine parts spin about X-axis
CCW, viewing from rear end.
(a) Gyroscopic couple due to 4 wheels Cgw = 4Iw. ω ωp
Cgw = 4Iw.V/r.V/R = 4IwV2/R.r
From the vector diagram for wheels of Fig. 3.7a, it is evident
that the reactive gyroscopic couple is about X-axis CCW,
looking from rear side of the vehicle, as shown in front view.
Fig. 3.7a
Force acting on two outer or two inner wheels due to this gyro
couple = Cgw / a
Force on each outer or each inner wheel = Cgw / 2a

Force on outer wheels acts downwards and inner wheels
upwards.
Reaction of ground on each outer wheel,
Q and S = Cgw / 2a - upwards
Reaction of ground on each inner wheel,
P and R = Cgw / 2a - down wards
(b) Gyroscopic couple due to engine parts,
Cge = Ie. ω ωp = Ie.G ω ωp
Cge = Ie.G.V/r.V/R = Ie G.V2/R.r
From the vector diagram for engine parts of Fig. 3.7a, it is
evident that the reactive gyroscopic couple is about Z-axis
CCW, looking from inner side of the vehicle as shown in side
view of Fig. 3.7.
Force acting on two front or two rear wheels due to this gyro
couple = Cge / b
Force on each front or each rear wheel = Cge / 2b
Force on front wheels acts upwards and rear wheels downwards.
Reaction of ground on each Front wheel,

P and Q = Cge / 2b - down wards
Reaction of ground on each rear wheel,
R and S = Cge / 2b - upwards
Summary of reactions of the ground on the wheels:
Wheels: P Q R S
1. Weight of vehicle W/4↑ W/4 ↑ W/4↑ W/4↑

2. Couple due to centrifugal force Cc / 2a↓ Cc / 2a↑ Cc / 2a↓ Cc / 2a↑
3. Gyroscopic couple due to wheels Cgw / 2a↓ Cgw / 2a↑ Cgw / 2a↓ Cgw / 2a↑
4. Gyroscopic couple due to engine Cge / 2ab↓ Cge / 2b↓ Cge / 2ab↑ Cge / 2b↑
It is clear from the summary that the wheel P has the minimum
reaction and the wheel S the maximum.

The net reaction on P, Rp:
Rp = W/4 - Cc / 2a - Cgw / 2a - Cge / 2ab
= W/4 – V2 / 2aR ( m.h + 4Iw /R) - Ie G.V2/2.bR.r
Rp depends on the speed of the vehicle, other things being
constant.
For minimum condition for stability, Rp can be zero.
W/4 – V2 / 2aR ( m.h + 4Iw /R) - Ie G.V2/2.bR.r = 0
V = √ [W.R / 4{(m.h + 4Iw /r)/2a + Ie G / 2.b.r}]
This is the critical speed beyond which the wheel P may be
lifted off the ground.
If the spin axes of both the wheels and the rotating parts of the
engine are parallel, the reactive gyroscopic couple acts about the
same axis i.e. X-axis only.
The total couple Cg = Cgw ± Cge
The positive sign is taken if the engine parts are rotating in the
same direction as that of the wheels and negative sign is taken if
they rotate in the opposite directions.
3.5.2 Stability of two wheelers:

When a two wheeler negotiates a curve, the axes of wheels and
other rotating parts under go precession along with spin. This
gives rise to reactive gyroscopic couple.
Let
h = height of the C.G. of the vehicle from the ground
W = M.g = Total weight of the vehicle with rider
Iw = MOI of each wheel
Ie = MOI of rotating engine parts
G = speed ratio of engine to wheels = Speed of engine/speed of
wheel
r = radius of the each wheel
Let the vehicle take a right turn of radius, R with a velocity of V
m/s

θ = Inclination of vehicle with the vertical plane during
equilibrium
Fig. 3.8
Angular momentum of two wheels = 2Iw ω
= 2 IwV/r
Angular momentum of engine = Ie ωe
= Ie Gω = IeGV/r
Total angular momentum ,H

H= 2 IwV/r + IeGV/r
= V/r[2 Iw + GIe]
Fig. 3.8a
When the two- wheeler takes a turn, it does not remain vertical
but its plane becomes inclined to the vertical plane. H will be
perpendicular to the plane of vehicle (Fig 3.8).
H is resolved in to two components ob and ba one parallel to
and the other perpendicular to the axis of spin. The component
ba (H.Cos θ) undergoes precession in the horizontal plane.
Gyroscopic couple Cg = H.Cos θ .V/R
= (V2/R.r) [2 Iw + GIe] Cos θ

From the vector diagram of Fig. 3.8(a), it is evident that the
reactive gyroscopic couple is about X-axis CCW, looking from
rear side of the vehicle.
This couple tries to bring the vehicle back to vertical position.
The vehicle will be in equilibrium under the reactive gyroscopic
couple, the centrifugal force, Fc and the weight of the vehicle.
Refer Fig. 3.8(a)
Taking moments of the forces about the point of contact and

considering the gyroscopic couple,
Cg + Fc h.Cos θ = W.h.Sin θ
(V2/R.r)[2 Iw+ GIe] Cos θ + MV2 h.Cos θ/R = W.h.Sin θ
Tan θ = (V2/R) [(2 Iw+ GIe)/r + M h] / W.h.
The angle θ is known as angle of heel. It can be found from the

above equation for the vehicle to be stable.
Example 3.1:
The turbine rotor of a sea vessel having a mass of 950 kg rotates
at 1200 RPM CW when looking from stern. The vessel pitches
with an angular velocity of 1.2 rad/s. What will be the
gyroscopic couple transmitted to the hull when the bow rises?
The radius of gyration of rotor is 300 mm.
Solution:
Given data: m =950 kg; k = 300 mm; N = 1200 rpm; velocity of
pitching, ωp = 1.2 rad/s; bow rises
ω = 2πN/ 60 = 2π.1200 / 60 = 125.7 rad/s
MI of rotor, I = mk2 = 950 x 0.32 = 85.5 kg.m2
Gyroscopic couple, Cg = I ω ωp
= 85.5 x 125.7 x 1.2
= 12897 N.m

Gyroscopic couple acts about Y-axis.
From the vector diagram, reactive gyroscopic couple, x’x is
clockwise (looking from above). Note that all the vectors are in
vertical plane.
The couple tends to steer the ship towards starboard as shown in
the top view.
Example 3.2:
A propeller shaft of an aero-engine is rotating at 2000 RPM. The
distance between the bearings of the propeller shaft is 0.75 m
and the radius of gyration of propeller is 0.75 m. Find the extra
pressure on the bearings, when the aero- plane is whirling round

in a horizontal circle of 300 m radius at a speed of 300 kmph.
The weight of the propeller is 55 kg.
Solution:
Given data: m = 55 kg; k= 0.75 m; V = 300 kmph = 300 x 5/18
= 83.33 m/s; R = 300 m; N = 2000 RPM
Distance between bearings, L = 0.75 m

ω = 2πN/ 60 = 2π.2000 / 60 = 209.4 rad/s
ωp = V/ R = 83.33 / 300 = 0.2778 rad/s
MI of propeller, I = mk2 = 55 x 0.752 = 30.94 kg.m2
= 30.94 x 209.4 x 0.2778
= 1800 N.

The reactive gyroscopic couple acts on the propeller shaft about
the transverse axis (Z-axis) as shown in the fig. above. The
sense of the couple can be obtained from the vector diagram. It
is counter clock wise when the plane steers to left.
The reaction due to this gyroscopic couple on each bearings, Fr

= Cg / L
Fr = 1800 / 0.75 = 2400 N.
The two reactions are equal and opposite constituting the couple
to overcome the applied gyroscopic couple.
Example 3.3:
A disc with radius of gyration 60 mm and mass of 4 kg is
mounted centrally on a horizontal axle of 80 mm length between
bearings. It spins about the axle at 800 RPM anti-clockwise
when viewed from the right hand side bearing. The axis
precesses about vertical axis at 50 RPM in the clockwise when
viewed from above. Determine the resultant reaction in bearings
and gyroscopic effect.
Solution:

Given data: m = 4 kg; k= 60 mm; N = 800 RPM; precession
speed Np= 50 RPM
Distance between bearings, L = 80 mm
ω = 2πN/ 60 = 2π.800 / 60 = 83.8 rad/s

ωp= 2πNp/ 60 = 2π.50 / 60= 5.24 rad/s
MI of disc, I = mk2 = 4 x 0.062 = 0.0144 kg.m2

= 0.0144 x 83.8 x 5.24
= 6.323 N.m
The reaction due to this gyroscopic couple in each bearing, Rag=
Rbg = Cg / L
Rag = Rbg = 6.323 / 0.08 = 79 N.
From the vector diagram, the sense of the reactive gyroscopic

couple is clockwise.
The reactions in the left and right bearings are Rag and Rbg
respectively.
Rag is upwards and Rbg is downwards.
The reaction due to disc weight on each bearing,

Raw or Rbw = 4 x 9.81 / 2 = 19.62 N each acting
upwards.
Resultant reaction of left bearing Ra = Raw + Rag = 19.62 +79 =
98.62 N upwards
Resultant reaction of right bearing Rb = Rbw - Rbg =19.62 -79 =
59.38 N downwards
Example 3.4:
The mass of turbine rotor of ship is 5000 kg and its radius of
gyration is 600 mm. It is rotating at 1500 RPM clock wise

viewing from stern. Determine the gyroscopic couple and its
effect when:
1. The ship is pitching with SHM with amplitude of 80 and
time period of 12 s. The ship is descending.
2. The ship steers to left at a radius of 100 m and velocity
of 2 km/h.
Solution:
Given data: m =5000 kg; k = 600 mm; N = 1500 rpm; amplitude
of pitching, θ = 80; Time period, T = 12 s; ship descending;
steering radius, R = 100 m; V = 2 0 km/h;
ω = 2πN/ 60 = 2π.1500 / 60 = 157.1 rad/s
I = mk2 = 5000 x 0.62 = 1800 kg.m2
1. Pitching:
θ = 80 = 8 x π /180 = 0.1396 rad

Max. ωp = θ. 2π/T = 0.1396 x 2π / 12 = 0.0731 rad/s
Gyroscopic couple Cg = I ω ωp = 1800 x 157.1 x 0.0731
= 20671 N.m
From the vector diagram, the reactive gyroscopic couple

acts CCW looking from above about the Y-axis. Due to
this the ship steers to left i.e. towards port.
2. Steering:
V = 20 km/h = 20 x 1000/3600 = 5.556 m/s
ωp = V/R = 5.556 / 100 = 0.05556 rad / s
Gyroscopic couple Cg = I ω ωp = 1800 x 157.1 x 0.05556
= 15711 N.m
From the vector diagram, the reactive gyroscopic couple

acts CCW looking from front about the Z-axis. Due to
this the ship pitches rising the bow.
Example 3.5:
The total mass of a 4 wheel trolley car is 1800 kg. The car runs
on rails of 1.6 m gauge and rounds a curve of 24 m radius at 36
kmph. The track is banked at 100. The external diameter of the
wheels is 600 mm and each pair with axle has a mass of 180 kg
with radius of gyration of 240 mm. The height of centre of
gravity of the mass of the car above the wheel base is 950 mm.
Determine the pressure on each rail allowing for centrifugal
force and gyroscopic couple action.
Solution:
Given data: m = 1800 kg; wheel base, a = 1.6 m; R = 24 m; V =
36 kmph = 10 m/s; θ = 100; D = 600 mm; ma = 180 kg; k = 240
mm; h = 950 mm;

Centrifugal force, Fc = mV2 /R = 1800 x 102/24 = 7500 N
acts horizontally
Reactions RA & RB due to weight and centrifugal force:

RA + RB = W Cos (10) + Fc Sin (10)
= 1800 x 9.81 Cos (10) + 7500 Sin (10)
= 18692 N
Taking moments about B
RA x 1.6 = 1800 x 9.81 Cos (10) x (1.6/2) + 1800 x 9.81 Sin (10)
x 0.95 + 7500 Sin (10) x (1.6 / 2) - 7500 Cos (10) x 0.95
= 10850
RA = 10850 / 1.6 = 6781 N upwards

RB = 18692 – 6781 = 11911 N upwards

Gyroscopic couple for 2 axel:
Cgw = 2.Iω.Cos (θ).V2/r.R
= 2 x 180 x (0.24)2. Cos (10). 102 / 0.3 x 24
= 283.6 N.m
From the vector diagram, the sense of reactive gyroscopic
couple is clock wise and acts about the transverse axis (z-axis).
Reaction due to couple on each outer wheels, P& R = 283.6 / 2 x
1.6 = 88.6 N upwards
Reaction due to couple on each inner wheels, Q& S = 88.6 N
downwards
Total reaction at A = 6781 – 88.6 = 6692.4 N upwards
Total reaction at B = 11911 + 88.6 = 11999.6 N upwards
Pressure on rails at A = 6692.4 N Downwards
Pressure on rails at B = 11999.6 N Downwards
Example 3.6:
A motor cycle and its rider together weigh 2000 N and their
combined centre of gravity is 550 mm above the road level
when motorcycle is upright. Each of wheels is of 580 mm
diameter and has a moment of inertia of 1 kg.m2. The moment
of inertia of rotating parts of engine is 0.15 kg.m2. The engine
rotates at 5 times the speed of the vehicle and in the same sense.
Determine the angle of heel necessary when motorcycle is
taking a turn over a track of 35 m radius at a speed of 60 kmph.
Solution:
Given data: Weight = 2000 N; h = 550 mm; D = 580 mm; Iw =
1 kg.m2; Ie = 0.15 kg.m2; G = 5; R = 35 m; V = 60 kmph = 16.67
m/s
m = W / g = 2000 /9.81 = 203.9 kg
r = D/2 = 580/2 = 290 mm
The angle of heel is given by

Tan θ = (V2/R. )[(2 Iw+ GIe) / r + m h] / W.h.
= 16.672 [(2 x 1 + 5 x 0.15) + 203.9 x 0.55] 1

35 0.29 2000 x 0.55
= 0.8779
θ = 41.30
Example 3.7:
An automobile is negotiating a curve of 120 m radius. Each of
the 4 wheels has a moment of inertia of 2.2 kg.m2 and the
effective diameter of 600 mm. The moment of inertia of the
rotating parts of the engine is 1.25 kg.m2. The gear ratio of the
engine to the back wheel is 3.2. The engine axis is normal to the
rear axle and sense of rotation is CCW looking from rear. The
total mass of the automobile is 2050 kg and the centre of mass is
520 mm above the road level. The width of the track is 1.6 m
and wheel base is 2 m. Determine the limiting speed of the
vehicle if all the four wheels maintain the contact with the road
surface.
Solution:
Given data: R = 120 m; Iw = 2.2 kg.m2; dwh = 600 mm; Ie = 1.25
kg.m2; G = 3.2; m = 2050 kg; h = 520 mm; track width, a = 1.6
m; wheel base, b = 2 m
Refer figure below.
1. Reaction on each wheel due to weight of the vehicle, Rw
Rw = W / 4 = 2050 x 9.81 / 4 = 5028 N upwards
2. Reaction on each wheel due to centrifugal force, Rc:
Centrifugal force, Fc = mV2/R = 2050 x V2/ 120
= 17.08 V2
Couple acting on the vehicle = Cc = Fc.h

= 17.08 V2 x 0.52 = 8.88 V2 Nm
Reaction on inner or outer wheels,
Rc= Cc / 2.a = 8.88 V2 / 2 x 1.6 = 2.778 V2 N
On inner wheels (P & R) Rci = 2.778 V2 N
downwards
On outer wheels (Q & S) Rco = 2.778 V2 N
upwards
3. Reaction on each wheel due to gyroscopic couple of

wheels, Rgw:
Gyroscopic couple, Cgw = 4IwV2/R.r

= 4 x 2.2 x V2 / 120 x 0.3
2
= 0.2444 V N.m
Reaction on inner or outer wheels,
Rgw = Cgw / 2.a = 0.2444 V2 / 2 x 1.6
= 0.0764V2 N
On inner wheels (P & R) Rgwi = 0.0764 V2 N
downwards
On outer wheels (Q & S) Rgwo = 0.0764 V2 N
upwards
4. Reaction on each wheel due to gyroscopic couple of

engine, Rge:
Gyroscopic couple, Cge = Ie.G. V2/R.r
= 1.25 x 3.2V2 / 120 x
2
0.3 = 0.1111 V N.m
Reaction on front or rear wheels,
Rge= Cge / 2.b = 0.1111 V2 / 2 x 2 = 0.0278V2 N
On front wheels (P & Q) Rgef = 0.0278V2 N
downwards
On rear wheels (R & S) Rger = 0.0278V2 N
upwards
The reaction of inner front wheel (P) has the least reaction
because it has one upward reaction due to weight and remaining
three reactions are down wards. For stable condition the net
reaction on any wheel should be upwards or zero.
Reaction on wheel,P, Rp= 5028 – 2.778 V2 - 0.0764 V2 -
0.0278V2
For limiting speed

5028 – 2.778 V2 - 0.0764 V2 - 0.0278V2 =0
V2 (2.778+.076+ 0.0278) = 5028
V = 41.77 m/s = 150.4 kmph

Exercise - 3
1. The rotor of a turbine installed in a boat with its axis
along the longitudinal axis of the boat makes 1500 RPM
clock wise when viewed from the stern. The rotor has a
mass of 750 kg and a radius of gyration of 300 mm. If at
an instant, the boat pitches in the longitudinal vertical
plane so that the bow rises from the horizontal plane
with an angular velocity of 1 rad / s, determine the
torque acting on the boat and the direction in which it
tends to turn the boat at the instant.
(Ans. 10604 Nm, turns towards starboard)
2. A uniform disc of 15 cm diameter and mass 5 kg is

mounted centrally on bearings which maintain its axis in
a horizontal plane. The entire system precesses at 60
RPM about the vertical axis while the disc is spinning at
1000 RPM about its axis. The distance between the
bearings is 40 cm. Find the resultant reaction at each
bearing due to weight and gyroscopic effect and show
clearly on a sketch at the points of contact between the
axle and the bearings
(Ans. 47.65 N, 1.41 N both upwards)
3. A four wheel car of total mass 2500 kg running on rails

of 1.6 m gauge negotiates a curve of 40 m radius at 60
kmph. The wheels have an external diameter of 0.8 m
and each pair with axle has a mass of 250 kg. The radius
of gyration for each pair is 0.4 m. The height of centre of
gravity of the car above the wheel base is 0.9 m.
Determine the limiting speed of the car and gyroscopic
couple action.

(Ans. 64.4 kmph, lowest reaction on inner front wheel =
812 N upwards)
4. Find the angle of inclination with respect to the vertical

plane of a two wheeler negotiating a turn, given
combined mass of the vehicle with its rider 250 kg.
Moment of inertia of the engine fly wheel 0.3 kg.m2 and
that of each road wheel 1 kg.m2. Speed of the fly wheel 5
times that of road wheels and in the same direction.
Height of the centre of gravity of rider with vehicle 0.6
m, two wheeler speed 90 kmph. Wheel radius 300 mm,
radius of turn 50 m. (Ans. 53.90)

An epitome
of
Chapter 4
4.0 Governors:
A governor is a device used to regulate the mean speed of a
machine or a prime mover over a long period when there are
variations in the load.
If the load on the engine is increased, it becomes necessary to
increase the supply of working fluid to the engine to maintain
the speed. On the other hand, less fluid is required when the load
decreases. The governor automatically controls the supply to the
engine.
4.1 Principle of working:

When the load increases, the engine speed decreases due to
which the configuration of the governor changes and a valve is
moved to increase the supply of fuel of the engine resulting in
the gain of speed.
When the load decreases, the engine speed increases and the
new configuration of the governor decreases the supply of fuel
to the engine resulting in lowering the speed.
Fig. 4.1 depicts the general principle of working of a simple
centrifugal governor.
The sleeve of the governor is free to slide on the spindle of the

machine shaft and keyed to rotate with the shaft. When the shaft
speed is increased, the governor balls attached to the arms move
apart due to centrifugal force causing the sleeve to move up.
This movement of the sleeve causes the throttle valve to close a
little thus reducing the fuel supply, through a bell crank lever.
When the shaft speed is decreased, the governor balls move

closer due to fall in centrifugal force causing the sleeve to move
down. This movement of the sleeve causes the throttle valve to
open a little more thus increasing the fuel supply.
Fig. 4.1
4.2 Differences in Governors and Fly wheels:

Fly wheels are also used to control the speed variations caused
by the variations in engine turning moment during each cycle of
operation. The input torque itself is varying here even though
the load remains uniform causing the variation in the speed of
the machine.
The differences in governors and fly wheels are summarized in

the table below.

Governor Fly wheel
1. Regulates the speed 1. Regulates the speed
variations due to variations in variations due to variations in
load (out put). engine torque (in put)
2. Functions over long periods 2. Works during each cycle of
of operation operation
3. Intermittent operation 3. Continuous operation
4. Speed is regulated by 4. Speed is regulated by
adjusting the fuel supply to the storing the energy during
engine. excess input and releasing the
energy during deficit period.
4.3 Types of Governors:

There are generally two types of governors in use, namely
centrifugal governors and inertia governors.
Centrifugal governors use the centrifugal force (radial force) to
change the configuration while the inertia governors use
tangential forces due to inertia in addition to radial forces.
Table 4.1 shows various types of centrifugal governors.
Centrifugal governors
Pendulum type Loaded type

Watt governor
Spring controlled
Dead weight controlled
Porter Proel Hartnell Wilson Hartnell Hartung Pickering
Table 4.1 Types of centrifugal governors

4.3.1 Watt Governor:
Figure 4.2 shows the different forms of Watt governor. In all the
cases the height of the governor is defined as the vertical
distance from the centre of balls to the point of intersection of
the upper arms (extended if necessary) along the axis of spindle.
When the radius of rotation of the balls increases, the height of
the governor decreases and the sleeve moves upwards.
Conversely, when the radius of rotation of the balls decreases,
the height of the governor increases and the sleeve moves down
wards.
Fig. 4.2
Let m = mass of each ball, kg
w = weight of each ball = mg, N
T = tension in the arms, N
ω = Angular velocity of balls, arms and sleeve, rad/s
Fc = Centrifugal force acting on the balls = m ω2r, N
h = height of the governor, m
Assuming the weight of arms, sleeve to be negligible as
compared to the weight of the balls, and neglecting friction at
the sleeve, the tension in lower arms will be zero.

Taking moments about O,
Fc h = wr (moment of tension T in upper arm is 0 as it
passes through O)
m ω2rh =wr
wω2rh/g =wr
h = g/ ω2 = 895/ N2 Taking g = 9.81 m/s2 and ω= 2 πN/60 , N
in RPM
Also T Cos θ = mg hence T = mg/ Cos θ
The height, h is independent of mass of the balls and the arms. It
is inversely proportional to the square of the speed. At higher
speeds, change in sleeve position is very small. So it is not
sensitive at higher speeds. The governor may work
satisfactorily in lower speeds but insensitive at higher speeds.
This drawback is over come in Porter governor.
Fig. 4.2 (a)

The heights of Watt governor at different speeds are calculated
and tabulated below. The variation of height with the variation
of speed is shown in the fig. 4.2(a). It is clearly seen from the
curve that the variation of height is decreasing considerably at
higher speeds.
N, 50 100 150 200 400 600

RPM
h, mm 358 89.5 39.8 22.4 5.6 2.5
4.3.2 Porter Governor:

Porter governor is a modified version of watt governor.
A heavy weight is added to the sleeve of the governor.
The additional down ward force due to the weight,
increases the speed required to enable the balls of the
governor to rise to any pre-determined level.
Fig.4.3(a) shows the general lay out of a porter
governor.
Fig. 4.3(a)
Fig. 4.3 (b)
Let
W = the weight attached to the sleeve, kg
f = frictional force acting at the sleeve, acting in opposite
direction to the motion of the sleeve
Total force on the sleeve = W ± f
Considering the fig. 4.3 (b) the forces acting on lower
arm are
1. Fc = Centrifugal force acting on the balls
= m ω2r, N
2. T1 = Tension in the upper arm, N
3. w = Weight of the ball, N
4. Tension in lower arm may be replaced by two
forces, (W ± f)/2 acting down wards at the sleeve,
and horizontal reaction at the sleeve, Fh
The instantaneous center of the lower arm, I can be
located by extending the line OA and drawing a
horizontal line from C intersecting line OA at I.

Taking moments of forces on the link AC about I,
Fc .AD = w.ID + (W ± f)/2. IC
Moments of forces T1 and Fh are zero as they pass
through I.
Fc = w.ID/ AD + [(W ± f)/2]. IC / AD
From the fig. 4.3 (b)
ID / AD = tan α
IC/ AD = ID / AD + DC /AD = tan α + tan β
Fc = w. tan α + [(W ± f)/2] [tan α + tan β]
Fc = w. tan α + [(W ± f)/2] tan α (1 + tan β/tan α)
Fc = tan α [w + {(W ± f)/2} (1 + k)]
where k = tan β/tan α
2
m ω r = (r/h) [w + {(W ± f)/2 }(1 + k)]
as Fc = m ω2 r
h = [w + {(W ± f)/2} (1 + k)] / mω2
= [w + {(W ± f)/2} (1 + k)] g/ wω2
h = (g/ ω2) [1 + (W ± f) (1 + k) /2w]
= (g/ ω2) [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + k) /2mg]
h = 895/ N2 [1 + (W ± f) (1 + k) /2w]
= 895/ N2 [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + k) /2mg]
h = (g/ ω2) [(w +W) / w] = (g/ ω2) [(m+ M)/ m] If f

is negligible and k =1
ω2 = (g/ h) [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + k) /2mg]
From the above equation, it is clear that there will be two speeds
for the same height of the governor. One speed is while the
sleeve moves up (frictional force F adds to the weight of the
sleeve, W) the other speed corresponds to the sleeve moving
downwards (frictional force, F is negative to the weight of the

sleeve, W). The governor becomes insensitive between these
two values of speeds.
4.3.3 Proel Governor:

It is similar to Porter governor except that the balls are attached
to the extensions to the lower arms. This helps in reducing the
change of speed required for a given sleeve movement.
Generally extension of lower arm is vertical as shown in Fig. 4.4
(a) at the mean speed.
Fig. 4.4 (a)
The instantaneous centre of link AC (GAC) is at I as shown in

Fig. 4.4 (b)
Taking moments about I, (neglecting friction at sleeve)
Fc .GD = w. ID + (W/2). IC
Dividing both sides by AD,
Fc .GD/AD = w. ID/AD + (W/2). IC/AD
= w. ID/AD + (W/2). (ID+DC)/AD

= w. tan α + (W/2).[ tan α + tan β]
= tan α [w + W(1+k)/2]
where k = tan α + tan β
Fc = (AD/GD). tan α [w + W(1+k)/2]
m ω2 r = (AD/GD). (r/h) [w + W(1+k)/2]
ω2 = (AD/GD) [w + W(1+k)/2]/mh
ω2 = (AD/GD)(g/h) [{w + (W/2)(1+k)}/w]
h = (AD/GD)(g/ ω2) [{w + (W/2)(1+k)}/w]
If friction at the sleeve is considered, the height of governor is
given by
h = (AD/GD) (g/ ω2 ) [{w + (W ± f) (1 + k) /2}/w]
= (AD/GD) (g/ ω2 ) [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + k)/2mg]
= AD/GD x height of porter governor.
As AD/Gd < 1 the height of Proel governor is less than that of
porter governor.
Fig. 4.4 (b)

Example 4.1:
Each arm of a porter governor is 300 mm long and is pivoted on
the axis of rotation. Each ball has a mass of 6 kg and the sleeve
weighs 18 kg. The radius of rotation of the ball is 200 mm when
the governor begins to lift and 250 mm when the speed is
maximum. Determine the maximum and the minimum speeds
and the range of speed of the governor.
Solution:
Given data: Arm length, L = 300 mm; m = 6 kg; M = 18 kg; r1=

200 mm; r2 = 250 mm
For the lowest position of sleeve;

h1 = √ (L2 – r12) = √3002 – 2002) = 223.6 mm
For the highest position of sleeve;
h2 = √ (L2 – r22) = √3002 – 2502) = 165.8 mm
As all the arms are equal and pivoted on the axis of rotation, α =
β and k = 1
Speed of the governor is given by
ω12 = (g/ h 1) [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + k) /2mg]

= (g/ h 1) [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + 1) /2mg]
= (g/ h 1) [1 + (M / m] Neglecting friction
= (9.81 / 0.2236) [1 + 18/6]
= 175.5
ω1 = 13.25 rad/s
N1 = 60 x 13.25 / 2 π = 126.5 RPM
ω22 = (g/ h2) [1 + (M / m]
= (9.81 / 0.1658) [1 + 18/6]
= 236.7
ω2 = 15.38 rad/s
N2 = 60 x 15.38 / 2 π = 146.9 RPM
Range of speed = N2 - N1
=146.9 – 126.5 = 20.4 RPM
Example 4.2:
A porter governor has all the four arms300 mm long. The upper
arms are pivoted on the axis of rotation, while the lower arms
are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 35 mm from the axis
of rotation. The mass of each ball is 7 kg and the mass of the
sleeve is 54 kg. Calculate the equilibrium speed when the radius
of rotation is 190 mm.
Solution:
Given data: Arm length, L = 300 mm; m = 7 kg; M = 54 kg; r=
190 mm; offset of lower arms = 35 mm
α = Sin -1(190 / 300) = 39.30

β = Sin -1[(190 -35) / 300] = 31.10
k = Tan β / Tan α = Tan 31.1 / Tan 39.3 = 0.737
h = 190 / Tan α = 190 / Tan (39.3) = 232.1 mm
ω2 = (g/ h) [1 + (Mg ± f) (1 + k) /2mg]
= (g/ h) [1 + (M (1 + k) /2m] Neglecting frictional force

= (9.81/ 0.2321) [1 + (54 x 1.737)/2 x 7]
= 325.4
ω = 18 rad/s
N = 18 x 60 / 2 π = 172.3 RPM
Example 4.3:
The arms of a porter governor are pivoted on the axis of rotation
and are each 250 mm long. Mass of each ball is 5 kg and the
mass of the sleeve is 40 kg. The arms are inclined at an angle of
300 to the axis of rotation in the lower most position of the
sleeve. Lift is 5 cm. determine the force of friction at the sleeve
if the speed at the moment the sleeve starts lifting from the
lower most position is the same as the speed at the moment it
falls from the upper most position. Also determine the range of
speed.
Solution:
Given data: Arm length, L = 250 mm; m = 5 kg; M = 40 kg; at
lower position α1 = 300; Lift = 5 cm; ω1 = ω2;
Assuming all arms are pivoted on axis of rotation, α = β hence
lift = 2 (h1-h2)
2 (h1-h2) = 0.05 m
h2 = h1 - 0.05/2
At lower position
h1 = L Cos α1
= 0.25 Cos 30 = 0.2165 m
h2 = 0.2165 - 0.05/2 = 0.1915 m
Let the frictional force be f, N
Speed at the moment the sleeve starts lifting from the lower
most position:
ω12 = [1+ ] - friction force acts
downwards.

= [1+ ] k = 1 as α = β; f acts
downwards as sleeve is lifting.
= [1+ ]
Speed at the moment the sleeve falls from the upper most
position:
ω22 = [1+ ] -friction force acts upwards
= [1+ ]
2 2
As ω1 = ω2
[1+ ]= [1+ ]
2039 + 4.62f = 2305 – 5.22f

f = 27 N
Range of speed:
For minimum speed sleeve moves downwards and hence
friction force acts upwards.
ωmin2 = [1+ ]
= [1+ ]
= 382.8
ωmin = 19.6 rad/s Nmin = 19.6 x 60 / 2 π = 186.9 RPM
For maximum speed sleeve moves upwards and hence friction

force acts downwards.
ωmax2 = [1+ ]
= [1+ ]
= 489
ωmax = 22.1 rad/s Nmax = 22.1 x 60 / 2 π = 211.2 RPM
Range of speed = 211.2 – 186.9 = 24.3 RPM

Example 4.4:
A Proel governor has all the arms with length 25 cm. The upper
and lower ends of the arms are pivoted on the axis of rotation of
the governor. The extension arms of the lower links are each 10
cm long and parallel to the axis when the radius of the ball path
is 15 cm. The mass of each ball is 4.5 kg and the mass of the
sleeve is 36 kg. Determine the equilibrium speed of the
governor.
Solution:
Given data: L = 25 cm; AG (parallel to axis at r1) = 10 cm; r1=

15 cm; m = 4.5 kg; M = 36 kg
h = 0.2502 – 0.1502 = 0.2 m

AD = 0.2502 – 0.1502 = 0.2 m
GD = AD + AG = 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.3 m
α=β as upper and lower arms are equal and pivoted on axis of
rotation.
k=1
Neglecting friction the equilibrium speed for a Proel governor is
given by

ω2 = [ ]
ω2 = ]
= [ ]
= [ ]
= 294
ω = 17.2 rad/s N = 17.2 x 60 / 2 π = 164 RPM
4.4 Hartnell Governor: It is a spring controlled governor.

• Spring controlled governors may be operated at
very high speeds.
• These are more powerful and capable of close
regulation.
• Compact
• Can be operated about horizontal or inclined
axes.
Fig. 4.5 (a) shows a schematic view of Hartnell governor. Fig.
4.5 (b) & (c) show the arm positions at minimum and maximum
radii of balls.
Let
h = Lift of the sleeve i.e. compression of the spring when the
radius of rotation of balls change from r1 to r2. ( h = h1+h2)
S1 & S2 = Spring forces exerted on sleeve at minimum and
maximum radii respectively.
F = Frictional force acting at the sleeve.
θ1 & θ2 = Angles turned from the mid position to minimum and
maximum radii respectively.
From Fig. 1.5 (b) & (c)
θ1 = CC1/OC = AA1/OA θ2 = CC2/OC = AA2/OA
h1/ b =( r-r1)/a h2/ b =( r2-r)/a
h1 = b(r-r1)/a h2 = b( r2-r)/a

h = h1+h2 = (r2-r1) b/a
Fig. 4.5 (a)

Hartnell Governor
Taking moments about O

Neglecting obliquity of arms for small angles of θ, a1= a2 =a
and b1= b2= b
Neglecting the moment due to weights of the balls.
Fc1.a = (Mg ± f + S1) b/2; Fc2.a = (Mg ± f + S2) b/2

(Mg ± f +S1) = 2 a Fc1/b - (1)
(Mg ± f + S2) = 2 a Fc2/b - (2)
Eq. (2) – (1)
S2-S1 = 2a/b [Fc2 - Fc1]
If s = stiffness of the spring,
s = (S2-S1)/h
= 2a/b [Fc2 - Fc1] / [(r2-r1) b/a]
s = 2(a/b)2 [Fc2 - Fc1] / ( r2-r1)
The stiffness of the spring remains same for all positions of the
sleeve.
Fig. 4.5 (c) Fig 1.5 (b)
4.5 Hartung Governor:
Hartung governor has two springs acting against each ball

instead of one at the centre.
Fig. 4.6 (a) shows a schematic view of Hartung governor.
Fig. 4.6 (b) shows the arm positions at mean or middle,
minimum and maximum radii of balls.

Fig. 4.6 (a)
Hartung Governor
Fig. 4.6 (b)

Let
Fc = centrifugal force acting on the ball
m = mass of the balls
M = mass of the sleeve
S = spring force
s = stiffness of the spring
r, r1, r2 = radii of the rotation of the balls at mean, lower and
upper position of the sleeve respectively
r0 = radius at which the spring force is zero
a = length of the vertical arm of bell-crank lever
b = length of the horizontal arm of bell-crank lever
ω = angular velocity of the balls at a radius, r
Neglecting the obliquity of the arms and taking moments of
forces about the fulcrum, A
Fc.a = S.a + M.g.b/2
m. ω2.r.a = s(r-r0).a + M.g.b/2
4.6 Characteristics of Governors:
4.6.1 Sensitiveness:
A governor is said to be sensitive, if with a given
fractional change of speed, the displacement of the
sleeve is larger.
By practical point of view, the change of equilibrium
speed from full load to zero load position of the sleeve
should be, as small a fraction as possible, of the mean
equilibrium speed.
The expression (N2 – N1)/ N gives the insensitiveness of
the governor, where N is the mean speed.
Hence logically sensitiveness is given by
Sensitiveness = N/ (N2 – N1)

When (N2 – N1) is zero, the governor is highly sensitive.
4.6.2 Stability:
A governor is said to be stable, when for each speed
there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls
at which the governor is in equilibrium. The speed
should be with in the working range of governor.
4.6.3 Isochronism:
A governor is said to be isochronous, if the equilibrium
speed is constant for all radii of rotation of the balls with
in the working range.
i.e. N2 = N1 for isochronous governor.
Porter governor can never be isochronous
Hartnell governor can be isochronous if the friction is
neglected when
(Mg+S1) / (Mg+S2) = r1/r2
4.6.4 Hunting:
If the speed of the engine, controlled by the governor,
fluctuates continuously above and below the mean
speed, the governor is said to be hunting. This is caused
by a too sensitive governor which changes the fuel
supply by large amount when a small change in speed of
rotation takes place.
4.6.5 Governor Effort:

The mean force exerted on the sleeve, during a given
change of speed, is known as the effort of the governor.
The change of speed is generally given as a small
percentage of the mean speed.

If E is the force acting on the sleeve due to change of
speed, the mean force will be (E+0)/2 = E/2. When the
speed, ω is increased by c times ω, where c is a factor,
the governor efforts for different governors are
calculated as follows.
At the equilibrium speed of ω, centrifugal force on each

ball, F1 = m ω2 r
Force acting on sleeve = 0
At the equilibrium speed of (1+c).ω, centrifugal force on
each ball,
F2 = m (1+c)2.ω 2 r
Let the force acting on sleeve in order to prevent
movement of the sleeve be E,
Hence height of governor, h remains the same under
force F2.
This force gradually reduces to 0 as the sleeve moves to
the new equilibrium position at which again the force on
sleeve becomes zero.
Hence the mean force acting on the sleeve due to the

increase in speed = E/2
Porter Governor:
mr ω 2 = (r/h) [w + {(W ± f) / 2 }(1 + k)] (1)
mr ω 2 (1+c )2 = (r/h) [w + {(W +E ± f) / 2 }(1 + k)] (2)
Eq. (2) / (1)

=
=
=
2c = neglecting c2 being very small
E= [2w + (W ± f) (1+k)]
Effort of governor = E/2 = [2w + (W ± f) (1+k)]
= [2mg + (Mg ± f) (1+k)]
If k=1 and neglecting f

Effort, E/2 = cg (m+M)
Watt governor: E/2 = cmg As M =0
In a similar way, the effort of a Hartnell governor can be
derived.
Effort of Hartnell governo, E/2 = c [Mg +S]
4.6.6 Power of Governor:

It is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given
percentage of the change in speed.
Power = Governor effort x displacement of the sleeve.
4.6.7 Controlling Force:

When the speed of rotation is uniform, the balls of a
governor are subjected to outward centrifugal force
tending the balls to move outwards. But this outward
movement is resisted by an equal and opposite force
acting radially inwards. This inward force is known as
controlling force, Fc.

The controlling force is provided by
1. Weight of the rotating mass, m in Watt governor
We know from para 4.3.1 that
Fc = wr / h
= wr / √ (l2 –r2)
2. Weight of the rotating mass and weight of the sleeve
in Porter governor.
Neglecting friction and when k=1
Fc = r [m + M] g / √(l2 –r2)
3. Helical compression spring in Hartnell governor.
Fc = (Mg ± f + S) b/2 a
S = s.h = s(r-r1) b/a + S0
Where r1 is the radius at minimum speed r is the
radius at any position with in the speed limits and S0
is initial tension of the spring.
Fc = [Mg ± f + s(r-r1) b/a +S0] b/2 a

= (Mg+S0) b/2a – s.r1(b/a)2 /2 + s.r(b/a)2 /2
(Neglecting friction)
For a given governor, M, s, r1, a, b are constants.

Fc = (Mg+S0) b/2a – s.r1(b/a)2 /2 + s.r(b/a)2 /2 can be
written as
Fc =a.r + b
Where
a = s(b/a)2 /2 and b = (Mg+S0) b/2a – s.r1(b/a)2 /2
Controlling force curve:

A graph showing controlling forces on Y-axis and radius
of rotation on X-axis is known as controlling force curve
as shown in Fig. 4.7. Sensitiveness and stability of
governors can be determined from the curves.

Fc is also equal to mω2 r in magnitude.
Fc = mω2r
= m (2π/60)2 N2 r
= a.r Where a is a constant = m (2π/60)2 N2
At constant speed N, Fc - r curve is a straight line passing
through origin for a given governor.
Hence for different speeds different lines can be drawn.
These lines are known as speed lines.
Referring Fig. 4.7, at point A of the controlling force

curve AB, radius of the balls is r1 and corresponding
force is fc1.
Fig. 4.7
The line OA obtained by joining A to the origin O
represents the speed N1. Similarly at point B, the speed
line is OB and corresponds to speed N2.
Tan φ1 = Fc1 / r1.
= m (2π/60)2 N1 2 r1 /r1

N12 = Tan φ1 / m (2π/60)2
N1 = (60/ 2π) √ [Tan φ1 / m]
N1 = 9.55 √ (Tan φ1 / m]
• Angle φ increases continuously as radius increases
for Stable governors. (Curve AB)
• The change in value of φ over the change of radius
will be very small for sensitive governors.
• Angle φ decreases continuously as radius increases
for unstable governors. (Curve CD)
• A constant slope i.e. a straight line graph indicates
the governor as spring loaded. (line EF)
Fig. 4.8
Controlling force curve for spring loaded governors can be a
straight line and can be expressed as
Fc = a.r + b Refer Fig. 4.8

where a and b are constants.
a is the slope of the curve and b is the interception on y-axis.
If b =0 , governor is isochronous
b is –ve, governor is stable.
b is +ve , governor is unstable.
Example 4.5:
In a Hartnell governor the lengths of the ball and sleeve arms of
a bell crank lever are 120 and 100 mm respectively. The
distance of the fulcrum of the bell crank lever from the governor
axis is 140 mm. Each governor ball has a mass of 4 kg. The
governor runs at a mean speed of 300 RPM with ball arms
vertical and sleeve arms horizontal. For an increase of speed of
4 percent, the sleeve moves 10 mm upwards. Neglecting
friction, find:
1. The minimum equilibrium speed, if the total sleeve
increment is limited to 20 mm.
2. The spring stiffness
3. The sensitiveness of the governor
4. The spring stiffness if the governor is to be
isochronous at 300 RPM.
Solution:
Given data: m = 4 kg; a = 120 mm; b= 100 mm; r = 140 mm; N
= 300 RPM; increase in speed = 4%; h2 = 10 mm; h1 = 20- 10 =
10
=
=
r1 = 128 mm

=
r2 = 152 mm
Mean speed, ω = 2π x 300 /60 = 31.42 rad / s

ω2 = 1.04 ω = 1.04 x 31.42 = 32.67 rad/s
Fc = mω2 r = 4 x 31.422 x 0.14 = 552.7 N
Fc2 = mω22 r2 = 4 x 32.672 x 0.152 = 649 N
Spring stiffness, s = 2 2[ ]
2
=2 [ ]
= 23.11 N/mm
s = 2 2[ ]
2
23.11 = 2 [ ]
Fc1 = 456.4 N
Fc1 = mω1 2 r1
456.4 = 4 ω1 2 x 0.128
ω1 = 29.9 rad/s N1 = 29.9 x60 / 2π = 285 RPM

Sensitiveness = (ω2- ω1) / ω
= (32.67-29.9)/31.42
= 0.088 = 8.8%
For Isochronous at 300 RPM, ω1 = ω = ω2 = 31.42 rad/s
Fc1 = mω1 2 r1 = 4 x31.422 x 0.128 = 505.5 N
Fc2 = mω2 2 r1 = 4 x31.422 x 0.152 = 600.2 N
Isochronous spring stiffness,

s = 2 2[ ]
2
=2 [ ]
= 11.96 N/mm
Example 4.6:
In a Hartung governor each of the rotating balls has a mass of 10
kg and each spring has a stiffness of 270 N/cm. The length of
each spring is 11.4 cm when the radius of rotation of the balls is
7 cm and the equilibrium speed is 360 RPM. Neglecting the
mass of the sleeve, determine the free length of each spring also
investigate whether the governor is isochronous and stable.
Solution:
Given data: m = 10 kg; Stiffness, s = 270 N/cm = 27000 N/m; r1
= 7 cm; length of spring.L1 = 11.4 cm;
N1 = 360 RPM;
ω1 = 2π x 360 /60 = 37.7 rad / s
Fc1 = mω12 r1 = 10 x 37.72 x 0.07 = 995 N
Fc1.a = s (r1-r0).a + M.g.b/2 where r0 = radius at which the
spring force is zero
Fc1 = s (r1-r0) Neglecting mass of sleeve, M

995 = 27000 (0.07 – r0)
r0 = 0.033 m = 3.3 cm
Free length of the spring = 11.4 + (7-3.3) = 15.1 cm
Fc1 = s (r1-r0)
= s .r1- s.r0
= 27000 r1 – 27000 x 0.033
= 27000.r1 – 891
Fc = a.r – b
where a = 27000 N/m and b = 891 N
From this equation we can say that the governor is stable as the
interception, b on Y-axis is negative.
Example 4.7:
The controlling force in a spring controlled governor is 1500 N
when the radius of rotation of the balls is 200 mm and 887.5 N
when it is 130 mm. The mass of each ball is 8 kg. If the

controlling force curve is a straight line, determine the
controlling force and the speed of rotation when the radius of
rotation of the balls is 150 mm. Also find the increase in initial
tension so that the governor is isochronous. What will be the
isochronous speed?
Solution:
Given data: m = 8 kg; Fc1 = 1500 N; r1 = 200 mm; Fc2 = 887.5
N; r2 = 130 mm; r = 150 mm; Controlling curve is straight line
Let the controlling curve be in the form

Fc = a.r + b
1500 = 0.2 a + b -1
887.5 = 0.13.a + b -2
Eq. (1) –(2) gives
612.5 = 0.07.a
a = 612.5 / 0.07 = 8750 N/m
b = 1500 – (0.2 x 8750) = -250 N
Controlling force at radius 150 mm:
Fc = 8750 x 0.15 – 250
= 1062.5 N
Fc = mω2 r
ω2 = Fc /m.r = 1062.5 / 8 x 0.15 = 885.4
ω = 29.8 rad/s N = 29.8 x 60 /2 π = 284.1 RPM
For isochronous governor the equation should be in the form
where b =0
Fc = a.r
Hence the initial controlling force is to be increased by 250 N
Fc = 8750.r = mω2 r
Isochronous speed, ω = √ 8750 / 8 = 33.1 rad/s
N = 33.1 x 60 /2 π = 315.8 RPM

Example 4.8:
For the stationary position of a Hartnell governor the 3 cm long
sleeve arm is horizontal. The ball arm is 6 cm long and the
fulcrum of the lever is 5 cm from the governor axis. The sleeve
begins to rise at 250 RPM and moves by 1.5 cm at 260 RPM.
Each rotating ball has a mass of 1 kg. Neglecting friction
determine:
a. The stiffness of the spring
b. The initial spring force, P0
c. The speed and radius at which the governor
becomes unstable. Also plot the controlling force
curve.
Solution:
Given data: m = 1 kg; a = 6 cm; b = 3 cm; fulcrum distance = 5

cm; N1= 250 RPM; N2 = 260 RPM; h2 = 1.5 cm
ω1 = 2π x 250 /60 = 26.2 rad / s
ω2 = 2π x 260 /60 = 27.2 rad / s
r = r1 = 5 cm

h2 /b = (r2 – r)/a = (r2 – 5)/6
r2 = h2 .a/b + r
= 1.5 x 6 / 3 + 5 = 8 cm
Fc1 = mω12 r1 = 1 x 26.22 x 0.05 = 34.32 N
Fc2 = mω12 r2 = 1 x 27.22 x 0.08 = 59.19 N
s = 2(a/b)2 [Fc2 - Fc1] / ( r2-r1)

= 2(0.06/0.03)2 [59.19 – 34.32] / (0.08-0.05)
= 6632 N/m
Fc1. a = (Mg ± f +S1).b / 2 Neglecting mass of sleeve, M and f
34.32 x 0.06 = S1 x 0.03 / 2
S1 = 137.3 N
As the sleeve begins to move from stationary position at 250
RPM,
The initial spring force, P0 = S1 = 137.3 N
The initial spring compression = P0 / s = 137.3 / 6632 = 0.021 m
= 21 mm
At a radius r, lift h and spring force S:
h = (r – 0.05) b /a = (r -0.05) x 0.03/0.06 = 0.5r – 0.025

S = s.h + P0
= 6632(0.5r-0.025) + 137.3
= 3316r – 165.8 +137.3
= 3316 r – 28.5
Controlling force:
Fc = S. b/2a
= (3316 r – 28.5) x 0.03 / 0.06 x 2
= (3316 r – 28.5) / 4
Fc= 829 r -7.13
This equation indicates that the controlling force curve is a
straight line and the governor is stable as interception (7.13) on

Y-axis is negative. The governor will not be unstable at any
radius and speed within the range.
For the governor to be unstable, b must be positive. For this the

Initial tension of the spring must be increased such that the
controlling force due to this is more than 7.13 N.

Let δP0 be the increase in initial tension of the spring and
corresponding increase in controlling force be δFc.
δFc >7.13 - for unstable governor.
δP0 x b/2 > δFc x a

δP0 >7.13 x 2 x 0.06 /0.03
> 28.5 N
The new initial spring force > Po + δP0
> 137.3 + 28.5
>165.8 N
The controlling force equation becomes
Fc = 829 r + b’ where b’ > 0
Fc > 829 r (If Fc = 829 r, then governor is isochronous)
m ω2 r > 829r
1 x ω2 > 829
ω > 28.8 rad/s ; N > 275 RPM for the governor to be unstable
at any radius.
Exercise - 4
1. Each arm of a Porter is 400 mm long. The upper arms

are pivoted on the axis of the sleeve and the lower arms

are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 40 mm from
the axis of. Each ball has a mass of 6 kg and the weight
on the sleeve is 50 kg. Find the range of speed of the
governor if the extreme radii of rotation of the balls are
260 mm and 300 mm. (Ans. 10.6 RPM)
2. A Proel governor has equal arms each 200 mm and

pivoted on the axis of rotation. The mass of each ball is 5
kg and the mass of the sleeve is 25 kg. The extension
arms of the lower links are each 60 mm long and parallel
to the axis when the minimum radius of the ball is 100
mm calculate the minimum equilibrium speed of the
governor. (Ans. 151.8 RPM)
3. In a spring controlled governor, the controlling force is

60 N when the radius of rotation is 150 mm and 22.5 N
when the radius of rotation is 75 mm. Each ball weighs
7.5 N. Find the equilibrium speed when the radius of
rotation is 100 mm. What change is required to make the
governor isochronous? Also find the isochronous speed.
(Ans. 204.3 RPM, initial tension in the spring is to be
increased by 30 N,)
4. A governor of the Hartnell type has equal balls of mass

of 3 kg, set initially at a radius of 200 mm. The arms of
the bell crank lever are 110 mm vertically and 150 mm
horizontally. Find
1. The initial compressive force on the spring, if the
speed for an initial ball radius of 200 mm is
240RPM.

2. Equilibrium speed when the sleeve lifts 12 mm
and the initial compression of the spring is 200
mm. (Ans. 555.7 N, 241.7 RPM)

An Epitome
of
Chapter 5
5.0 Fly wheels:
A fly wheel is used to control the variations in speed
during each cycle of an engine. It is a reservoir of energy
which stores energy during the periods of excess energy
and releases the energy during the periods of deficit
energy.
The speed of the fly wheel increases when it absorbs
energy and decreases when it releases energy.
5.1 Turning moment diagrams (T-M diagram):

The torque on a crank shaft of an IC engine or steam
engine varies during each cycle of its operation. Torque
on the crank shaft is given by
T = Ft.r
= Fp.r [sin θ + Sin 2θ /2n]
where Ft = tangential force on crank
Fp = Net force acting on the piston
n = length of connecting rod/ crank length
θ = angle of rotation of the crank
Fig. 5.1
A plot T v/s θ is known as T-M diagram. Fig. 5.1 shows a T-M
diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine.
The work done per cycle (during one revolution) is given by the
area under the T-M curve, OABCD. If EM is drawn such that
the area, OEMD is equal to the area under the TM curve, then
OE is the mean torque, Tm.
Work done/cycle = Tm.2π = Area under curve OABCD
Tm. = Area under curve OABCD / 2π.
Area of the rectangle OEMD represents the work done against
the mean resisting torque, where as the area under the curve
OABCD represents the actual work done by the engine.
When the crank of the engine turns from angle X to angle Y
Work done by engine = area XFAGY
Work done against resisting torque (load) = area XFGY.
Engine has done more work than what has been taken from it by
the load.
The excess work is given by area FAG. This excess work
increases the speed of the fly wheel and is stored in the fly
wheel.
Similarly during the crank rotation from the angle Y to angle Z,
Work done by engine = area YGBHZ
Work done against resisting torque (load) = area YGHZ.
Here engine work is less than the work taken by it.
The loss is made up by the stored energy of the fly wheel and
the speed decreases during this period. The deficit work is given
by the area GBH.
Similarly for crank revolution from angle Z to S, there is an
excess energy given by area HCK and so on.
Fly wheel speed increases during excess energy and decreases
during deficit energy periods.
Thus the speed of the engine is regulated.

The fluctuation of energy is more in single cylinder engines. By
using multi cylinder engines, the fluctuation of energy can be
minimized.
Coefficient of fluctuation of energy, ke :

Maximum fluctuation of energy, ∆E = Maximum energy –
Minimum energy
The ratio of fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is
known as coefficient of fluctuation of energy and is denoted by
ke.
ke = ∆E / W.D = ∆E /Emean.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed, ks :

Maximum fluctuation of speed = Maximum speed - Minimum
speed
The ratio of fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is known as
coefficient of fluctuation of speed and is denoted by ks.
ks = ωmax - ωmin / ωmean.
Fig. 5.2 shows a typical T-M diagram for a multi cylinder IC

engine. Let a1,a3, a5, a7 be the areas in work units of the portions
above the mean torque line ab.
Similarly a2, a4, a6, a8 be the areas in work units of the portions
below the mean torque line ab.
The areas above the mean torque line represent quantities of
energy added to the fly wheel and the areas below the mean
torque line represent quantities of energy taken from the fly
wheel.
Let E be the energy at the crank position C. The energies at
various positions of the crank are as follows:

Fig. 5.2
Crank Position Fly wheel energy
c E
d E+a1
e E+a1-a2
f E+ a1-a2 + a3
g E + a1-a2 + a3 - a4
h E + a1-a2 + a3 - a4 + a5
I E + a1-a2 + a3 - a4 + a5 - a6
J E + a1-a2 + a3 - a4 + a5 - a6 + a7
c E + a1-a2 + a3 - a4 + a5 - a6 + a7 - a8 = E
It is clear from the two values of energies at c and c that
a1-a2 + a3 - a4 + a5 - a6 + a7 - a8 = 0
Maximum fluctuation of energy = Max value among the above –
Min. value among the above.
5.2 Maximum fluctuation of energy in the fly wheel:

Kinetic energy of fly wheel at mean speed, E is given by
E = I. ω2 /2
Maximum fluctuation of energy in the fly wheel,
∆E = I (ω12 – ω22)/2

= I (ω1+ ω2) (ω1- ω2) /2
= I ω (ω1- ω2) where ω is mean speed
= I ω2 (ω1- ω2) / ω
∆E = I ω2ks where ks = (ω1- ω2) / ω
∆E = mk2ω2ks
If fly wheel is a rimmed one having radius, R and thickness of
the rim is very small compared to the radius and arms weight
being negligible,
∆E = mR2 ω2ks
∆E = mv2ks (Since v= ω.R)
It can also be proved that he stress, σ in the fly wheel is given by
σ = ρv2 Where ρ is the density of the
material of the fly wheel.
5.3 Fluctuation of energy when Torque is given as a

function of crank angle, θ:
Fig. 5.3
Let the torque of an engine be given as
T = A + B. Sin θ where A and B are constants. Refer Fig. 5.3.

As T is a function of θ, the T-M curve cycle repeats after every
crank rotation of 360o.
2π
Work Done /cycle = ∫ T dθ

0
2π
= ∫ [A+ B. Sin θ] dθ
0
2π
= [Aθ – B. Cos θ]
0
= A.2 π
Mean Torque, Tm = Work done per cycle / Angle turned per

cycle.
= A. 2 π / 2 π
=A
Mean power = Tm.ω
Assuming the resisting load is equal to the mean torque, at any
instant the variation in the torque required and the torque
supplied is given by
∆T = T - Tm
= A + B.Sin θ – A
= B.Sin θ
Torque will be equal to mean torque at the angles where ∆T =0
∆T = B.Sin θ = 0
θ have two values of crank angle.
θ1 = 0 and θ2 = 1800
Maximum Fluctuation of energy will be given by
θ2
∆E = ∫ ∆T .dθ
θ1

π
= ∫ B.Sin θ.dθ
0
π
= [– B.cos θ]
0
= 2B
The maximum acceleration, α of the fly wheel due to the
fluctuation of energy is given by
∆Tmax = I. α = mk2.α
The angle, at which ∆T is maximum, is given by the equation,

d (∆T) / dθ = 0
Example 5.1:
In a turning moment diagram, the areas above and below the
mean line taken in order are 5.81, 3.23, 3.87, 5.16, 1.94, 3.87,
2.58, and 1.94 sq. cm. respectively. The scale of the TM
diagram: Turning moment 1 cm = 7000 NM crank angle 1 cm =
600. The mean speed of the engine is 120 rpm and variation
must not exceed ±3 % of the mean speed. Assuming radius of
gyration of the fly wheel to be 105 cm. find the weight of the fly
wheel to keep the speed with in the given limits.
Solution:
Given Data: N = 120 RPM; speed variation = ±3 % of ω; radius
of gyration, k = 105 cm;
ω = 2 π.120 / 60 = 4 π rad
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed, ks = (ω2 – ω1) / ω
= 2 x 0.03 ω / ω = 0.06
2
Scale: 1 cm = 7000 x 60 x π/180 = 7330 Nm say x Nm

Let the energy at crank position, a = E
Energy at b = E+ 5.81x
Energy at c = E+ (5.81- 3.23).x = E + 2.58x
Energy at d = E+ (2.58+ 3.87).x = E + 6.45x
Energy at e = E+ (6.45- 5.16).x = E + 1.29x
Energy at f = E+ (1.29+ 1.94).x = E + 3.23x
Energy at g = E+ (3.23- 3.87).x = E – 0.64 x
Energy at h = E+ (-0.64+ 2.58).x = E + 1.94x
Energy at a = E+ (1.94- 1.94).x = E
Max. Fluctuation of energy, ∆E = Max. energy – Min. energy
= E+ 6.45.x – (E- 0.64.x)
= 7.09. x
= 7.09 x 7330 = 51970 Nm
2 2
∆E = mk ω ks
51970 = m x 1.052 x (4 π)2 x 0.06
Mass of fly wheel, m = 51970/1.052 x (4 π)2.x 0.06
= 4975 kg
Weight = 4975 x 9.81 = 48806 N
Example 5.2:
The TM diagram of a petrol engine is drawn to a vertical scale
of 1 mm = 6 N.m and a horizontal scale of 1 mm = 10. The
turning moment repeats itself after every half revolution of

engine. The areas above and below the mean torque line are 305,
710, 50, 350, 980 and 275 mm2. The rotating parts amount to a
mass of 40 kg. at a radius of gyration of 140 mm. Calculate the
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed if the speed of the engine is
1500 RPM.
Solution:
Given Data: Cycle = π rad; m = 40 kg; k = 140 mm; N = 1500
RPM
ω = 2 π.1500 / 60 = 157 rad
Scale: 1 mm2 = 6 x 1 x π/180 = 0.105 Nm say x Nm

Let the energy at crank position, a = E
Energy at b = E+ 305x
Energy at c = E+ (305- 710).x = E - 405x
Energy at d = E+ (-405 + 50).x = E -355 x
Energy at e = E+ (-355- 350).x = E - 705x
Energy at f = E+ (-705+ 980).x = E + 275x
Energy at g = E+ (275 - 275).x = E same as at a
Max. Fluctuation of energy, δE = Max. energy – Min. energy
= E+ 305.x – (E- 705.x)

= 1010. x
= 1010 x 0.105 = 106 Nm
∆E = mk2ω2ks
106 = 40 x 0.142 x 1572 x ks
ks = 106 / 40 x 0.142 x 1572
= 0.0055
Example 5.3:
The torque exerted on the crank shaft of a two stroke engine is
given by the equation: T (N.m) = 14500 + 2300 Sin 2θ – 1900
Cos 2θ, where θ is the crank angle displacement from the inner
dead centre. Assuming that the resisting torque to be constant,
determine
1. The power of the engine when the speed is
150 RPM
2. The moment of inertia of the fly wheel if the
speed is not to exceed +/- 0.5 % of the mean
speed.
3. Find the maximum and minimum
accelerations of the fly wheel.
Solution:
Given Data: N = 150 RPM; speed variation = ± 0.5 % of ω; i.e.
ks = 2 x 0.5% = 0.01
T = 14500 + 2300 Sin 2θ – 1900 Cos 2θ - (1)
As T is a function of 2θ, TM diagram repeats after every half
revolution.
From eq. 1, the TM diagram for π radians can be drawn as
shown below.
Work done / cycle:
∫Tdθ
= [14500 θ - 1150 Cos2θ -850 Sin2θ] 0π
= 14500 π

Let Tm be the mean torque, then
W.D / cycle = Tm. π = 14500 π
Tm = 14500 Nm
ω = 2π x 150 /60 = 15.71 rad
Power of the engine = Tm.ω = 14500 x 15.71/1000 = 227.8 kW
Assuming that the resisting torque is equal to the mean torque,

At crank positions θ1 and θ2 the variation in torque, ∆ T = 0
∆T = T - Tm
= 14500 + 2300 Sin 2θ – 1900 Cos 2θ – 14500
= 2300 Sin 2θ – 1900 Cos 2θ
2300 Sin 2θ – 1900 Cos 2θ = 0
Tan2θ = = 0.826
2θ = 39.60 and 219.60

θ1 = 19.80 and θ2 = 109.80
Maximum Fluctuation of energy will be given by

∆E

109.8
[-1150 Cos 2θ - 950 Sin 2θ]
19.8
= [1491.6 - (-1491.6)]
= 2983 Nm
∆E = Iω2ks
Moment of inertia, I = ∆E / ω2ks = 2983 / 15.712 x 0.01
= 1210 kg.m2
Maximum angular acceleration of fly wheel:
∆T = 2300 Sin 2θ – 1900 Cos 2θ
The angle at which ∆T is maximum, is given by the eqution
(∆T) = 0
(2300 Sin 2θ – 1900 Cos 2θ) = 0
4600 Cos 2θ + 3800 Sin 2θ =0
Tan 2θ = = - 1.21
2θ = 129.60 and 309.60

θ = 64.80 and 154.80
∆Tmax = 2300 Sin 129.6 – 1900 Cos 129.6 at θ = 64.80
= 2983 Nm
∆Tmin = 2300 Sin 309.6 – 1900 Cos 309.6 at θ = 154.80
= -2983 Nm
∆T = Iα where α is angular acceleration
αmax = ∆Tmax / I = 2983 / 1210 = 2.47 rad/s2
αmin = -2983 / 1210 = -2.47 rad/s2 (Retardation)
Example 5.4:
The cranks of a three cylinder two stroke engine running at 600
RPM are 1200 apart. The turning moment diagram for each
cylinder can be represented by a triangle with maximum value

of 600 Nm. At 600 from TDC position, the turning moment in
the remaining stroke is zero for all cylinders. Determine
(a) The power developed by the engine
(b) The coefficient of fluctuation of energy
(c) The moment of inertia of the fly wheel to the keep speed
fluctuation with in ± 2% of the mean speed.
Solution:
Given Data:
3 cylinders, cranks at 1200 apart; N = 600 RPM; Max torque of
each crank = 60 Nm at 600 from respective TDC; ks = 0.04
The TM diagram of each cylinder and their resultant are shown

in Fig. (a). The resultant TM diagram is shown separately at Fig.
(b).
Work done / cycle = sum of the areas of three triangles
= 3 x ½. π x 60 Refer Fig. (a)
= 90π Nm
Mean torque, Tm = 90π / 2 π = 45 Nm
Power of engine = Tmω
= 45 x 2πx600/60 = 2827 W
= 2.827 kW
Max. Fluctuation of energy is given by the area of the triangle
above the mean torque line. There are three triangles above
mean torque and they are equal because of symmetry.
Max. Fluctuation of energy, ∆E = ½. ac. bf
ac = 2.af = 2.dg.bf/bg = 2 x 60 x 15/30 = 600
= 60 x π/180
= π/3 rad
∆E = ½ x 15 x π/3 = 7.854 Nm

Coefficient of fluctuation of energy = ∆E / WD per cycle
= 7.854 / 90π
= 0.0278 = 2.78 %
2
∆E = Iω ks
I = ∆E/ω2ks
= 7.854 / (2πx600/60)2. 0.04
= 0.05 kg.m2
Example 5.5:
A machine requiring a driving torque of 2000 + 300.Sin θ Nm is
driven by a directly coupled two stroke engine whose turning
moment is given by 2000 + 400.Sin 2θ Nm. The average speed
is 180 RPM. Determine
(a) The moment of inertia of fly wheel to limit the speed
fluctuation to with in + 2.5 % of mean speed.
(b) The maximum angular acceleration of the fly wheel and the
corresponding crank position.
(c) The maximum angle by which this fly wheel leads or lags an
imaginary flywheel which is rotating at a constant speed of 180
RPM.
Solution:

Given Data: N = 180 RPM; ks = + 2.5 % of N;
Engine Torque,Te = 2000 + 400.Sin 2θ; machine Torque, Te =
2000 + 300.Sin θ;
The TM diagrams for engine and the machine are shown in the
fig. below.
At any instant, the variation in torque, ∆T is given by

∆T = Te - Tm
= 2000 + 400.Sin 2θ - 2000 + 300.Sin θ
= 400.Sin 2θ - 300.Sin θ
Angles at which ∆T = 0:
400.Sin 2θ - 300.Sin θ = 0
Sin 2θ/ Sin θ = ¾
2 Sin θ Cos θ / Sin θ = ¾
Cos θ = 3/8
θ = 680 and 2920
Also from the fig. it can be seen that at angle π, ∆T = 0
Max. Fluctuation of energy occurs between angles 680 and 1800
∆E

180
= [-200 Cos 2θ - 150 Sin 2θ]
68
= [-200 - (-248)] = 48 Nm
∆E = Iω2ks
I = ∆E/ω2ks
= 48 / (2πx180/60)2. 0.025
= 5.4 kg.m2
The angle at which ∆T is maximum, is given by the equation

(∆T) = 0
(400 Sin 2θ – 300 Sin θ) = 0
800 Cos 2θ - 300 Cos θ =0
800 (1 - 2 Cos2 θ) - 300 Cos θ =0
16 Cos2 θ + 3 Cos θ - 8 = 0
Cos θ = -3 ± √ [(-3)2 – 4 x 16 x (-8)]
2 x 16
= 0.62 or – 0.807
θ = 51.70 and 308.30 or 143.80 and 216.20
∆T = 400 Sin 103.4 – 300 Sin 51.7 at θ = 51.70

= 153.7 Nm
∆T = - 153.7 at θ = 308.30
Negative sign indicates retardation.
∆T = 400 Sin 287.6 – 300 Sin 143.80
0
at θ = 143.80
= - 558.5 Nm
∆T = 558.5 at θ = 216.20
∆T = Iα where α is angular acceleration

αmax = ∆Tmax / I = 558.5 / 5.4 = 103.4 rad/s2
Occurs at crank positions 216.20 and 143.80
If the machine and engine torques are taken as mean value, the
imaginary fly wheel runs at 180 RPM uniformly.
The actual fly wheel speed will be 180 RPM at angles 0, 68, π
and 2920.
The maximum angle by which this fly wheel leads or lags the
imaginary flywheel which is rotating at a constant speed of 180
RPM is 2920.
Example 5.6:
A single cylinder IC engine working on the 4-stroke cycle
develops 75 kW at 360 RPM. The fluctuation of energy can be
assumed to be 0.88 times the energy developed per cycle. If the
fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 1 % of the mean speed
and the maximum centrifugal stress in the fly wheel is to be 5.5
MN/m2 estimate the mean diameter and the cross sectional area
of the rim. The material of the rim has a density of 7.2 gm/cm3.
Solution:
Given Data: Power = 75 kW; N = 360 RPM; ks = ± 1 % of N =
0.02; ∆E = 0.88 x Energy/cycle; ρ = 7.2 gm/cm3 = 7200 kg/m3;
σ = 5.5 MPa
Torque, T = kW x 103x 60 / 2πN
= 75 x 103 x 60 / 2π x 360
= 1989 Nm
Energy / cycle = T.θ = 1989 x 4π = 25000 Nm
∆E = 0.88 x 25000 = 22000 Nm
σ = ρv2
5.5 x 106 = 7200 x v2
v2 = 5.5 x 106 / 7200 v = 27.64 m/s

v = πDN/60 where D = dia. of rim
D = 27.64 x 60 / 360 π = 1.47 m
∆E = mv2ks
22000 = m x 27.642x 0.02
m = 22000 / 27.642x 0.02
= 1440 kg
m = ρ.V = ρ.π.D.A where A = cross sectional area of rim
1440 = 7200. π.1.47.A
A = 1440 / 7200.π.1.47
= 0.043 m2
5.4 Fly wheels used in punching press:
Slider crank mechanism, which is used in punching or riveting

presses, is shown in Fig. 5.4. Punching takes place in every one
revolution. But actual punching operation is done during a small
portion of a revolution. The input is generally supplied by an
electric motor of constant torque. The load is high when actual
punching takes place and very low during the remaining cycle.
Thus the load is varying. The fly wheel stores energy during idle
period and supplies energy to the press during punching time.
Actual punching takes place during the crank angle (θ2- θ1).
Let energy E1 required for punching a hole of diameter d mm in
a plate of thickness t mm.
Energy supplied by motor/ revolution = E1
Energy supplied during (θ2- θ1),
E2 = E1 (θ2- θ1) / 360
Energy to be supplied by the fly wheel = E1 – E2
∆E = E1 – E2
= E1 [1- (θ2- θ1)/360]

(θ2 - θ1) / 360 is approximately equal to t / 2S = t / 4r
Where S is the stroke of the press and r is the crank length.
∆E = E1 [1- (t / 2S)]
Fig. 5.4
Example 5.7:
The cycle of a shearing machine has duration of 12 sec. and the
torque required by the operation of crank is given below. The
motor speed is 1500 RPM and delivers constant torque.
Estimate (a) power of the motor (b) % variation in motor speed
per cycle if the effective flywheel on the motor shaft equivalent
to mass of 25 kg. at a radius of gyration of 20 cm. (c) speed
fluctuation on the fly wheel.

Solution:
Given Data: Cycle time = 12 s; mass of fly wheel, m = 25 kg;
k = 20 cm; speed of motor, N =1500 RPM
TM diagram is shown in the fig. above.
Mean Torque,
Tm = (Area under the curve) / 2π
= [150π/2+ (1200-150). π/4 + ½. π/4(1200 -150)
+ 150.π.3/2]/2π
= 346.9 Nm
Work done /cycle = Tm. 2π = 346.9 x 2 π = 2180 Nm
Power = (Work done /cycle) / cycle time
= 2180 / 12 = 181.7 W
Referring to TM diagram, mean torque line cuts the curve at B
and C.

Hence ∆T at B and C is zero.
Max. fluctuation of energy, ∆E equals to the area of the curve
above the mean torque line.
EC = hi x EG / G h
= π/4 x (1200-346.9) / (1200-150)
= 0.638 rad
∆E = BE x BF + ½ (EC x EG)
= π/4 x (1200-346.9) + ½ (0.638 x (1200-346.9)
= 942.2 Nm
∆E = Iω2ks
ks = ∆E / Iω2
= 942.2 / [25 x 0.22 x (2π x 1500/60)2]
= 0.038
Variation in motor speed per cycle = 3.8 %
Speed fluctuation on the fly wheel:
Nmax – Nmin = N.ks
= 1500 x 0.038
= 57.3 RPM
Example 5.8:
A punching machine having a stroke of 10 cm, punches 1.25 cm
hole once in every 10 seconds in a 1 cm thick steel plate. During
punching operation, it does 600 Nm of work per square cm of
sheared area. The maximum linear speed of the fly wheel rim is
not to exceed 30 m/s. design a suitable fly wheel if this speed is
not to fall below 27.5 m/s.
Solution:
Given Data: stroke, S = 10 cm; dia. of hole, d = 1.25 cm; plate
thickness, t = 1 cm;
Time for punching one hole, T = 10 s;
Energy / sq. cm of sheared area = 600 Nm;

Max. speed, vmax. = 30 m/s; Min. speed, vmin. = 27.5 m/s.
Mean speed, v = (30+27.5)/2 = 28.75 m/s
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed , ks = (vmax. – vmin.) / v
= (30– 27.5) / 28.75
= 0.087
Shear area of one hole = π.d.t
= π x 1.25 x 1 = 3.927 cm2
Energy required to punch one hole, E1 = 600 x 3.927 = 2356 Nm
∆E = E1 [1- (t / 2S)]
= 2356 [1 – 1/ 2 x 10]
= 2238 Nm
Mass of the fly wheel:
∆E = mv2ks
m = ∆E / v2ks = 2238 / 28.752x 0.087
= 31.12 kg
Example 5.9:
A single cylinder 4 –stroke oil engine develops 160 kW power
at a speed of 400 RPM and drives a machine at 750 RPM. The
engine shaft carries a flywheel with mass moment of inertia of
114 kgm2. The machine shaft also carries a flywheel with a mass
moment of inertia of 8 kgm2. If the fluctuation of energy is 80%
of indicated work per cycle, what is the coefficient of fluctuation
of speed? If the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is required to
be lowered to a total value of 1%, what is the moment of inertia
of additional rotating mass to be fitted to the machine shaft?
Solution:
Given Data: Power = 160 kW; fluctuation of energy is 80% of
indicated work per cycle; Ie = 114 kg.m2; Im = 8 kg.m2 ; ωe = 400
RPM; ωm = 750 RPM;
Torque, T = kW x 103x 60 / 2πN

= 160 x 103 x 60 / 2π x 400
= 3820 Nm
Energy / cycle = T.θ = 3820 x 4π = 48000 Nm
∆E = 0.8 x 48000 = 38400 Nm
Equivalent I on machine shaft = Im + Ie / G2
G = ωm / ωe = 750/400 = 1.875
= 8 + 114 / 1.8752
= 40.43 kg.m2
ωm = 2π x 750 /60 = 78.54 rad
∆E = Iωm2ks
ks = ∆E / Iωm2 = 38400 / 40.43x 78.542
= 0.154
= 15.4%
If ks = 0.01
I = ∆E / ωm2ks = 38400 / 78.542 x 0.01 = 622.5 kg m2
Additional I on m/c shaft = 622.5 – 40.43 = 582 kgm2
Exercise – 5
1. A machine is coupled to an engine which produces a

torque of 1000 + 300 Sin2θ Nm, where θ is the crank
angle. Mean speed of the engine is 500 RPM. The mass
and radius of gyration of a fly wheel attached to the
engine crank shaft are 350 kg and 200 mm respectively.
Calculate (a) the mean power of the engine (b) Total
fluctuation of speed in RPM when the resisting torque is
a constant. (Ans. 52.36 kW. 3.9 RPM)

2. The turning moment diagram of a 4-stroke engine is
assumed to be represented by 4 triangles, the areas of
which from the line of zero pressure are
Suction stroke: -440 sq.mm
Compression stroke: -1600 sq.mm
Expansion stroke: 7200 sq.mm
Exhaust stroke: -660 sq.mm
Each sq. mm of area represents 3 Nm of energy. If the
resisting torque is uniform, find the mass of the flywheel
to keep the speed between 218 and 222 RPM when the
radius of gyration of the wheel is 1.25 m.
(Ans. 1217 kg)
3. A punching machine carries out 12 holes per minute.

Each hole of 40 mm diameter in 35 mm thick plate
requires 8 Nm of energy/ mm2 of the sheared area. The
punch has a stroke of 95 mm. Find the power of the
motor required if the mean speed of the wheel is 20 m/s.
If the total fluctuation of the speed is not to exceed 3 %
of the mean speed, determine the mass of the fly wheel.
(Ans. 7.04 kW, 2392 kg)
4. A punching press is required to punch 30 mm diameter

holes in a plate of 20 mm thick at the rate of 20 holes per
minute. It requires 6 Nm of energy per mm2 of sheared
area. If punching takes place in 1/10th of a second and
the RPM of the flywheel varies from 160 to 140 RPM,
determine the mass of the flywheel having radius of
gyration of 1 m. (Ans. 332.7 kg)

An Epitome
of
Chapter 6
6.0 Balancing of rotating masses:
Practically, the rotors of machinery have some eccentricity. The
geometric centre of the rotor may not coincide with its mass
centre along their length. The reasons may be attributed to
1. Non homogeneity of the material
2. Limitations in manufacturing processes
3. Errors in mounting
4. key ways or shrink fits
Hence a rotor or a disc may be considered as a lumped mass
located at the mass centre of the rotor or disc and rotating at a
radius equal to its eccentricity from the axis of rotation as shown
in Fig. 6.1. This mass during rotation experiences a centripetal
acceleration and needs a force to produce it. The reaction to this
force is known as centrifugal force which is equal and opposite
of it and acts radially outwards.
Fig. 6.1

The effect of the centrifugal force will be
1. To bend the shaft and produce vibrations
2. Increase the load on the bearings
3. Increase the stresses in the members
The centrifugal force is given by
Fc = mω2.r where ω = angular velocity, rad/s
r = radius of rotation, m
Fc = centrifugal force, N
6.1 Balancing :
Balancing is defined as the process of designing or modifying a
machine in which the unbalanced forces are eliminated or
minimized.
6.2 Static Balancing:

A system of rotating masses is said to be in static balance if the
combined mass centre of the system lies on the axis of rotation.
6.3 Dynamic Balancing:

A system of rotating masses is said to be in dynamic balance,
when the resultant centrifugal force as well as the resultant
couple is zero.
6.4 Balancing of single rotating mass:
1. Balancing mass is in the same plane:

Let a mass m be rotating in a circular path as shown in fig. 6.2.
Then centrifugal force acting radially outwards, will act on the
mass. This mass is known as disturbing mass. If another mass is
attached to the shaft in the opposite side such that the centrifugal
forces due to both the masses are equal and opposite, then the
unbalanced force is zero. Here both the masses are in the same

plane so that they do not constitute a couple. The second mass is
known as balancing mass.
Fig. 6.2
Centrifugal force due to disturbing mass = m.ω2.r
Centrifugal force due to balancing mass = mb.ω2.rb
m.ω2.r = mb.ω2.rb
m.r = mb.rb
mb = m.r / rb
2. Balancing mass is in different plane:

If the balancing is to be in a different plane, a single
balancing mass can not completely balance since the
centrifugal forces due to balancing mass and the
disturbing mass being equal, opposite and separated by a
distance, constitute a couple. Hence at least two
balancing masses are required to balance the force as
well as couple.
Fig. 6.3 (a) shows the balancing masses placed on the
same side to the disturbing mass, where as Fig. 6.3 (b)
shows the balancing masses on either side of the
disturbing mass.
The following conditions should be satisfied for
complete balancing
1. Resultant dynamic force on the shaft should be zero.

2. Algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any
point on the shaft should be zero.
Fig. 6.3 (a)

Fc + Fc1 = Fc2
m.ω2.r + m1.ω2.r1 = m2.ω2.r2
m.r + m1.r1 = m2.r2
Also taking moments about O
Fc.d1 =Fc2.d
m.ω2.r.d1 = m2.ω2.r2.d
m.r.d1 = m2.r2.d
m2.r2 = m.r.d1 /d Similarly m1.r1 = m.r.d2 /d
Fig. 6.3 (b)

Fc = Fc1+Fc2
m.ω2.r = m1.ω2.r1 + m2.ω2.r2
m.r =m1.r1 + m2.r2
Also taking moments about O
Fc.d1 =Fc2.d
m.ω2.r.d1 = m2.ω2.r2.d
m.r.d1 = m2.r2.d
m2.r2 = m.r.d1 /d Similarly m1.r1 = m.r.d2 /d
It can be seen from the above figures that, when three forces are
in complete balance, the middle force will be opposite to the
remaining two forces.
6.5 Balancing of several rotating masses in the same

plane:
When several masses are rotating in the same plane, centrifugal
forces due to each mass will act radially out wards. The resultant
of these forces in the same plane can be found out either by
analytical method or graphical method. A balancing mass in the
same plane can be added such that the centrifugal force due to
the resultant and the balancing mass are equal and opposite.
1. Analytical method:
Let a system forces act in a plane as shown in Fig. 6.4.
Resolving each centrifugal force horizontally and vertically and
finding total horizontal force and vertical force,
Total Horizontal force,
∑H = Fc1.Cos θ1 + Fc2.Cos θ2 + …
= m1.r1Cos θ1 + m2.r2Cos θ2+ … (Fc is proportional to m.r )
Similarly total vertical force,
∑V = m1.r1Sin θ1 + m2.r2Sin θ2+ …
Resultant Force, Fc = √ [(∑H)2 + (∑V)2

Angle of the resultant θr is given by
Tan θr = ∑V / ∑H
The quadrant, in which θr lies, depends on the signs of the
numerator and the denominator.
Tan θr = Sin θr / Cos θr = ∑V / ∑H
As the force due to balancing mass is equal to the resultant
force, balancing mass is given by
Fc = mb.rb where mb = balancing mass
rb = radius at which m is placed.
As the force due to balancing mass is opposite to resultant force,
the Angle, θb, at which the balancing mass is to be placed will
be 180 + θr.
Fig. 6.4

2. Graphical method:
The polygon of forces is drawn to some scale. If
the forces are not balanced the polygon will not
be closed. The closing line of the polygon
represents the force due to the mass to be added
for balancing.
The direction of the radius of rotation of the
balancing mass will be parallel to the closing line
of the polygon. The forces may be represented by
the product, m.r instead of m.ω2.r as .ω is same
for all the forces.
Fig. 6.4 (a)
Fig. 6.4 (a) shows the polygon of forces and the

line do→ represents the force mbrb, where as line
od→ represents the resultant of the forces. The
position of the balancing mass will be parallel to
vector do.
mbrb = do→
mb = do→ / rb

6.6 Balancing of several rotating masses in different
planes:
When several masses are rotating at different planes, at

least, two masses are needed at two planes say, L and M
to balance completely.
1 Analytical method:
Fig. 6.5
Let masses m1, m2 m3 and m4 be rotating at radii r1, r2, r3

and r4 respectively. Masses mL and mm, rotating at radii
rL and rm in the plane L and M respectively, are required
to balance. Taking plane L as reference plane, let l1, l2,
l3, l4 and lm be the distances of the planes A1, A2, A3, A4
and M respectively as shown in Fig. 6.5.
Resolving forces due to masses along X and Y axes, the
resultant force and couple must be zero for complete
balance.
mLrL.Cos θL + mmrm.Cos θm + ∑ miri.Cos θi = 0 -1
mLrL.Sin θL + mmrm.Sin θm + ∑ miri.Sin θi = 0 -2
Taking moments about the reference plane L,
mmrm.lm Cos θm = - ∑ miri. li.Cos θi -3
mmrm.lm Sin θm = - ∑ miri. li.Sin θi -4
Squaring and adding eq. (3) and (4)
mmrm.lm = √ [(∑ miri. li.Cos θi)2 + (∑miri. li.Sin θi)2 ]
Eq. (4) / (3) gives
Tan θm = -∑ miri. li.Sin θi / -∑ miri. li.Cos θi
Having known mm and θm, values of mL and θL can be

obtained from equations (1) and (2).
2 Graphical method:
(a) Method 1
The balancing masses in planes L and M for each disturbing
mass taken separately are calculated. Then all the balancing
masses in plane L are combined to get a single resultant
balancing mass. Similarly all the balancing masses in the plane
M are combined to get a single resultant balancing mass in the
plane M.
Data pertaining to Fig. 6.5 may be tabulated for convenience as
shown below. There will be each line in the table for each
disturbing mass.
Columns 7 and 8 give the values of balancing forces in planes L
and M due to the disturbing masses m1, m2, m3 and m4
respectively.
Resultants of the balancing forces at planes L and M can be
obtained by drawing force polygon at each plane. The direction
of the balancing masses at planes L and M will be parallel to the
resultant vectors of the force polygons in planes L and M.

Plane Mass Radii Fci / ω2 Distance Balancing Force /
mi ri miri from ω2 at
L M L M
di xi (mLrL) (mmrm)
mirixi /d miridi /d
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A1 m1 r1 m1r1 d1 x1 - m1r1x1/d m1r1d1/d
A2 m2 r2 m2r2 d2 x2 -m2r2x2/d -m2r2d2/d
A3 m3 r3 m3r3 d3 x3 -m3r3x3/d -m3r3d3/d
A4 m4 r4 m4r4 d4 x4 m4r4x4/d -m4r4d4/d
The signs of the balancing forces are to be considered carefully.

The following convention for signs may be taken.
1. The centrifugal force due to disturbing mass is taken as + ve.
2. When three forces are in equilibrium, the middle force is
opposite in direction to the remaining two forces.
The disturbing mass m1 in plane A1 is to the left of planes L and
M. The balancing force to the mass m1 at plane L is the middle
one. This will be opposite to the remaining two. As disturbing
mass m1 is taken as positive, the balancing mass at L will be
negative and the balancing mass at M will be positive.
Fig. 6.5 (a) shows the balancing masses at planes L and M and
the respective force polygons.
Positive balancing forces are drawn radially out wards and the
negative balancing forces radially inwards.
Vectors o1d→ and o2d→ are resultants of the balancing forces at

planes L and M respectively.
mLrL = o1d→ and mmrm = o2d→
Angles θL and θm are the angles of vectors o1d→ and o2d→ from
the X-axis.

Fig. 6.5 (a)
(b) Method 2. (Reference plane method)

A force, F acting on a shaft at a plane,1 can be transferred to
plane 2 by adding two equal and opposite forces, F at a point, O
as shown in the fig. 6.6. The equilibrium will not be disturbed.
The effect of this will be a
single force, F acting in the
same direction as original force
at O along with a couple equal
to F.l acting in a plane
containing line of action of
forces, F and F ( at O and O1)
and the shaft.
Fig. 6.6
The couple tends to rotate the shaft about point O. Axis of
rotation of the couple lies along OA perpendicular to the plane
of couple.
The direction of the couple vector can be obtained by the right
hand screw rule. Keeping the right hand screw parallel to the
direction of the vector and rotating the screw in the sense of
angular velocity, the advancement of the screw gives the
direction of vector.
Thus a force, F at O1 can be replaced by a force F acting at O
and a couple equal F.l acting about O. The couple vector will be
perpendicular to the force vector.
In the balancing problems, it is convenient if the couple vectors

are drawn by turning them through 900 so that the vectors will
be parallel to the force vectors. As all the couple vectors are
turned through the same angle, the relative positions remain
same.
Several masses rotating in different planes may be conveniently
balanced by transferring all the forces to a reference plane.
The following steps simplify the procedure.
1. Choose one of the balancing planes as a reference
plane, say plane L, plane M being the second
balancing plane.

2. Each centrifugal force is transferred to the reference
plane (RP)
-Magnitude and direction of the Force at
reference plane is same as that of disturbing force
- Couple, C = F x distance between the original
force and RP
3. Prepare the data relating to Fig. 6.5 as shown in table
below. Planes are written in the same order starting
from left to right including the two balancing planes
L and M.
Plane Mass Radius, Fci / ω2 Distance Couple/ ω2
mi ,kg ri ,m miri from miri li , kgm2
1 2 3 4 RP, li, m 6
5
A1 m1 r1 m1r1 - l1 -m1r1l1
L (RP) m L r L m r
L L 0 0
A2 m2 r2 m2r2 l2 m2r2l2
A3 m 3 r 3 m 3 r3 l 3 m 3r3l3
M mm rm mmrm lm mmrmlm
A4 m 4 r 4 m 4 r4 l 4 m4r4l4
4. Draw the couple polygon of the couples taken from

coloumn 6. as shown in Fig. 6.7
Fig. 6.7

Couple vectors for the masses on one side of the RP
are drawn radially outwards and the couples of the
other side of RP are drawn radially inwards.
The closing side of the polygon (vector d’o’)
represents the couple due to the balancing mass in
the plane M.
mm rm lm = d’o’
mm = d’o’ / rm lm
The angular position of mass mm is parallel to vector
d’o’.
5. Now Force polygon of forces given in coloumn 5 can
be drawn as shown in Fig. 6.7
Closing side of the polygon (eo) gives the magnitude
and direction of balancing force at plane L.
mL rL = eo
mL = eo / rL
The angular position of mass mL is parallel to vector
eo.
Example 1:
A rigid rotor has all its unbalance in one plane and can be
considered to consists of three masses m1= 5 kg; m2= 3 kg at an
angle of 1650 CCW from m1 and m3 = 8 kg at an angle of 850
CW from m1. The radii r1= 20 cm; r2= 8 cm; r3= 14 cm.
Determine the balancing mass at a radius of 10 cm. Specify its
location with respect to m1.
Solution:
Given data: The arrangement of masses is shown in figure
below assuming the mass m1 is horizontal.
m1 = 5 kg; r1 = 20 cm θ1 = 00
m2 = 3 kg; r2 = 8 cm θ2 = 1650
m3 = 8 kg; r3 = 14 cm θ3 = (360-85) =2750

Balancing mass, mb =? ; rb = 10 cm
Graphical method:
The forces are proportional to the product, miri. All the forces
act radially outwards.
Force polygon is drawn as shown in fig.
The unbalanced force is given by the vector co. The vector co is
at an angle of 129.40 with respect to m1.
mb.rb = co = 136. 4 k g.cm
mb = 136.4 / 10 = 13.64 kg. The position of mb is at 129.40 w.r.t
m1

Analytical method:
Resolving each centrifugal force horizontally and vertically and
finding total horizontal force and vertical force,
Total Horizontal force,
∑H = m1.r1Cos θ1 + m2.r2Cos θ2+ m3.r3Cos θ3
= 100 Cos 0 + 24 Cos 165 + 112 Cos 275
= 86.58
Similarly total vertical force,
∑V = m1.r1Sin θ1 + m2.r2Sin θ2 + m3.r3Sin θ3
= 100 Sin 0 + 24 Sin 165 + 112 Sin 275
= -105.36
Resultant Force, mb.rb = √[(∑H)2 + (∑V)2

= √[(86.58)2 + (-105.36)2
= 136.37
mb = 136.37 / 10 = 13.637 kg
Angle of the resultant, θr is given by
Tan θr = ∑V / ∑H
= -105.36 / 86.58 = -1.22 (Sin is –ve and Cos is + ve
th
in 4 quadrant)
θr = - 50.60
Angle of the balancing mass, θb = -50.6 + 180 = 129.40
Example 2:
A shaft carries weights P, Q, R and S weighing 12, 20, 30 and
16 kg respectively, placed 45 cm apart. Measuring anticlockwise
from P, Q makes 2400, R makes 1350 and S makes 2200. The
radii are 40, 30, 15 and 45 cm respectively and shaft runs at 180
RPM. Find the magnitude and direction relative to P of the
unbalanced force and couple about a plane midway between P
and Q.

Solution: The arrangement of the masses is shown in the figure
below.
ω = 2π. 180 / 60 = 18.85 rad / s
Let L be the plane where the unbalanced force and couple exist.
The table for forces and couples for various masses, taking
plane L as reference plane is shown below.
Plane Mass Radius, Fci / ω2 Distance Couple/ω2
mi ,kg ri ,m miri from RP, miri li ,
li , m kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
P 12 0.4 4.8 - 0.225 -1.08
L(RP) mL rL mLrL 0 0
Q 16 0.3 4.8 0.225 1.08
R 20 0.15 3.0 0.675 2.03
S 30 0.45 13.5 1.125 15.19
Couple polygon is drawn from the column 6 of the table. The

unbalanced couple is given by the vector do.
do = 17.37 kg.m2
Unbalanced couple, Cb = 17.37 ω2
= 17.37 x (18.85)2 = 6172 Nm
Force polygon is drawn from the column 4 of the table. The
unbalanced force is given by the vector d’o’.
d’o’= 14.7 kg.m

Unbalanced force, Fb= 14.7 ω2
= 14.7 x (18.85)2 = 5223 N
Angular position w.r.t. P is 470 CCW
Example 3:
A rotor is balanced by attaching two 2 kg trial masses in each of
the planes A and B as shown in figure at a radius of 15 cm.
Complete dynamic balancing is obtained with angular position,
shown in figure. Determine the position and mass of the

material to be removed from each of the planes C and D at a
radius of 19 cm in order to balance the rotor when the trial
masses are removed.
Solution:
Given data: data is shown in coloumns 1 to 3 of the table below.
Plane Mass Radius, Fci / ω2 Distance Couple/

mi ,kg ri ,m miri from RP, ω2
li , m miri li ,
kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
A1 2 0.15 0.3 -0.15 -0.045
A2 2 0.15 0.3 -0.15 -0.045
C(RP) mc 0.19 0.19mc 0 0
D md 0.19 0.19md 0.5 0.095md
B1 2 0.15 0.3 0.7 0.21
B2 2 0.15 0.3 0.7 0.21
Let mc and md be the masses in planes C and D at a radius of 19

cm which are balanced by trial masses at planes A and B. Their
magnitude and angular positions can be obtained by drawing
couple and force polygons. When trial masses are removed,

these masses are to be removed in planes C and D for complete
balance.
Taking Plane C as reference plane, forces and couples are

calculated and tabulated in coloumns 4 and 6 above. Couple
polygon and force polygons are drawn as shown above. It may
be noted that in couple polygon, the vectors oa and ab are
negative and drawn radially inwards to their respective mass
positions.
From the couple polygon, vector do represents the couple due to

mass at D.
0.095 md = do = 0.152 kgm2
md = 0.152 / 0.095 = 1.6 kg angular position is 19.40 from
horizontal direction.
From the force polygon, vector e’o’ represents the couple due to
mass at C.
0.19 mc = e’o’ = 0.450 kgm

mc = 0.450 / 0.19 = 2.37 kg angular position is -1520 (i.e.
2080) from horizontal direction.
Analytical method:
Taking moments about the reference plane C,
mdrd.ld = √ [(∑ miri. li.Cos θi)2 + (∑miri. li.Sin θi)2 ]
Values of (miri.li) are taken from coloumn 6 of the above table.
0.095 md= √ [(-0.045Cos 90 -0.045Cos 330 + 0.21 Cos 120

+ 0.21 Cos 270)2 + (-0.045 Sin 90 -0.045 Sin 330
+ 0.21 Sin 120 + 0.21 Sin 270)2]
= √ [(-0.144)2 + (-0.0506)2]
= 0.1525
md = 0.1525 / 0.095 = 1.6 kg
Tan θd = -∑ miri. li.Sin θi / -∑ miri. li.Cos θi

= 0.0506 / 0.144
θd = 19.360
Resolving forces due to masses along horizontal and vertical

axes
mcrc.Cos θc + mdrd.Cos θd + ∑ miri.Cos θi = 0 -1
mcrc.Sin θc + mdrd.Sin θd + ∑ miri.Sin θi = 0 -2
Values of (miri.) are taken from coloumn 4 of the above table.
0.19 mc Cos θc + 0.19 x 1.6.Cos 19.36 + 0.3 Cos90 + 0.3 Cos

330 + 0.3 Cos 120 + 0.3 Cos 270 = 0
0.19 mc Cos θc = - 0.397 -3

0.19 mc Sin θc + 0.19 x 1.6.Sin 19.36 + 0.3 Sin 90 + 0.3 Sin 330
+ 0.3 Sin 120 + 0.3 Sin 270 = 0
0.19 mc Sin θc = - 0.211 -4
Squaring and adding equations 3 and 4

0.19 mc = √(0.3972 + 2.9112)
mc = √[(-0.397)2 +(- 0.211)2] / 0.19
= 0.45 / 0.19
= 2.37 kg
Eq. 4 ÷ Eq. 3
Tan θc = -0.211 / -0.397
θc = 2080 (θc lies in 3rd quadrant as both Sin and Cos
are – ve )
Example 4:
The bearings of a shaft at A and B are 5 m apart. The shaft
carries three eccentric masses C, D and E which weigh 1.6 kN,
1.7 kN and 0.85 kN respectively. The eccentricity measured for
each mass from the axis of rotation is 0.5 cm, 0.3 cm and 0.6 cm
and the distance from A is 1.3 m, 3 m and 4 m respectively.
Determine the angular position of each mass with respect to C
so that no dynamic force is exerted at B. Also find the dynamic
force at A for this arrangement. The shaft runs at 100 RPM.
Solution:
Given data: speed, N = 100 RPM; Weights at C, D and E:
Wc = 1.6 kN; Wd = 1.7 kN We = 0.85 kN
ω = 2.π.100 / 60 = 10.47 rad/s
mc = 1.6 x 1000 / 9.81 = 163 kg; md = 1700 / 9.81 = 173 kg;
me = 850 / 9.81 = 86.6 kg
Dynamic force at B, Fb = 0

Let A be the reference plane. As there is no dynamic force due
to the revolving masses C, D and E at bearing B, the couple
polygon will be closed from which the angular positions can be
obtained.
The dynamic force at A can be obtained from the force polygon.
Let Fa represent the dynamic force or reaction at bearing A. The
actual dynamic force is given by Fa. ω2.
Taking A as reference plane and assuming the position of mass

at C as horizontal, forces and couples are calculated and
tabulated in the table given below.
Plane Mass Radius, Fci / ω2 Distance Couple/ ω2

mi ,kg ri ,m miri, from RP, miri li ,
kg.m li , m kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
A (RP) - - Fa 0 0
C 163 0.005 0.815 1.3 1.06
D 173 0.003 0.519 3 1.56
E 86.6 0.006 0.519 4 2.08
B - - 0 5 0
Taking the values from coloumn 6, couple polygon is drawn as

shown below. The relative angular positions of D and E with
respect to C are measured.
The relative angular positions are shown in figure below.

θd = 76.60 and θe = 226.80
From the force polygon, the closing vector c’o’ represents Fa
Fa = c’o’ = 0.594 kg.m
Dynamic force at A = Fa. ω2
= 0.594 x 10.472 = 65.1 N
Example 5:
A shaft carries 3 pulleys A, B and C at a distance apart 60 cm
and 120 cm. The pulleys are out of balance to the extent of 2
kg, 1.75 kg and 2.5 kg respectively at a radius of 2.5 cm in each
case. The angular positions of the out of balance masses in the
pulleys B and C w.r.t A are 900 and 2100 respectively.
Determine the position and magnitude of the balance masses
required in planes L and M midway between planes A, B and C
respectively. The radius of rotation of balance weight is 12.5
cm.

Solution:
Given data:
ma = 2 kg; ra = 2.5 cm θa = 00
mb = 1.75 kg; rb = 2.5 cm θb = 900
mc = 2.5 kg; rc = 2.5 cm θc = 2100
rL = rM =12.5 cm
The arrangement of pulleys is shown in figure below.
Method 1:
Let mL and mM be the balancing masses to be added in planes L
and M. The given data is tabulated as shown below.
Plane Mass Radii Fci / ω2 Distance Balancing Force / ω2

mi ri miri from at
L M L M
di xi (mLrL) (mmrm)
mirixi /d miridi /d
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A 2 0.025 0.05 0.3 1.2 -0.0667 0.0167
B 1.75 0.025 0.04375 0.3 0.6 -0.0292 - 0.0146
C 2.5 0.025 0.0625 1.5 0.6 0.0417 - 0.1042
Note:
Forces due to disturbing masses A, B and C are taken as positive.
Balancing force of mass A at L is opposite to that of forces at A and
M, because plane L is the middle of A and M. Hence M is positive.

Mass B is in the middle of Planes L and M. Hence it is opposite to
both the balancing forces at L and M. Hence Forces at L and M are
negative.
Balancing force of mass C at M is opposite to that of forces at C and
L, because plane M is the middle of C and L. Hence L is positive.
Coloumns 7 and 8 give the balancing forces at planes L and M.

The resultant of these forces at planes L and M are obtained
from the force polygons as shown below.
From the balancing force polygon at L, the vector oc , which is

the resultant of the three forces, represents the balancing force
at plane L.
mL.rL = oc = 0.1143 kg.m
mL = 0.1143 / 0.125
= 0.914 kg
θL = - 1540 = 2060 CCW to mass A
Similarly from balancing force polygon at M,
mM.rM = o’c’ = 0.1133 kg.m
mL = 0.1133 / 0.125
= 0.906 kg
θM = 19.30 CCW to mass A

Method 2:
Let mL and mM be the balancing masses to be added in planes L
and M. Taking plane L as reference plane, forces and couples
are calculated and tabulated in the table below.

mi ,kg ri ,m miri, kg.m from RP, ω2
li , m miri li ,
kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
A 2 0.025 0.05 -0.3 -0.015
L(RP) mL 0.125 0.125 mL 0 0
B 1.75 0.025 0.04375 0.3 0.0131
M mM 0.125 0.125mM 0.9 0.113mM
C 2.5 0.025 0.0625 1.5 0.0938
From the couple polygon, vector co represents couple due to

mass at plane M.
0.113 mM = 0.102
mM = 0.102 / 0.113 = 0.903 kg and θM = 19.40

From the force polygon, vector d’o’ represents force due to
mass at plane L.
0.125 mL = 0.1143
ML = 0.1143 / 0.125 = 0.911 kg and θL = -1540 or 2060 CCW
to mass A
The balancing mass positions are shown in the figure above.
Example 6:
A,B,C and D are 4 masses carried by a rotating shaft at radii
100, 125, 200 and 150 mm respectively. The planes in which the
masses revolve are spaced 600 mm apart and the mass of B, C
and D are 10 kg, 5 kg and 4 kg respectively. Find the required
mass A and the relative angular settings of the 4 masses so that
the shaft shall be in complete balance.
Solution:
Given data:
ma = ? kg; ra = 100 mm
mb = 10 kg; rb = 125 mm
mc = 5 kg; rc = 200 mm
md = 4 kg; rc = 150 mm
The arrangement of the masses is shown in figure above.

Assume the direction of mass B as horizontal. Taking plane of

mass A as reference plane, forces and couples are calculated and
tabulated in the table below.

mi ,kg ri ,m miri, from RP, ω2
kg.m li , m miri li ,
kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
A(RP) ma 0.1 0.1 ma 0 0
B 10 0.125 1.25 0.6 0.75
C 5 0.2 1.0 1.2 1.2
D 4 0.15 0.6 1.8 1.08
From coloumn 6 couple polygon can be drawn as the magnitude

of all the three masses and direction of mass B are known. The
direction of the forces due to masses C and D can be obtained
from the vectors of masses C and D of the couple polygon.
The angle of mass C w.r.t mass B, θc = 100.30 CCW

The angle of mass D w.r.t mass B, θd = 242.30 CCW

Having known the directions of masses C and D, force polygon
is drawn from the values in coloumn 4.
From the force polygon, vector c’o’ represents force due to mass
at plane A.
0.1 ma = 0.74 kg.m
ma = 0.74 / 0.1 = 7.4 kg
θa = 156.50 CCW to mass B
Example 7:
Three pulleys A, B and C are mounted on a shaft, B being in
centre and the other two are at ends. The shaft is supported in
two bearings 1200 mm apart with 300 mm overhang at both
ends. The masses of pulleys A, B and C are 64 kg, 72 kg and 48
kg with their centers of masses 10 mm, 11 mm and 12 mm away
from the axis of rotation respectively. The pulleys are arranged
such that the shaft with pulleys is in static balance. Determine
(1) the relative angular positions of pulleys, (2) the dynamic
forces exerted on the bearings when the shaft rotates at 300
RPM.
Solution:
Given data:
ma = 64 kg; ra = 10 mm ; N = 300 RPM
mb = 72 kg; rb = 11 mm
mc = 48 kg; rc = 12 mm
ω = 2π. 300/ 60 = 31.4rad / s
The arrangement of pulleys is shown in figure below.

L and M are the planes of bearings. As the system is in static
balance, the resultant C.G of the pulleys lie on the axis of the
shaft. The force polygon closes. No unbalanced force exists.
Only unbalanced couple exists which will be same about any
plane. The unbalanced couple results in equal and opposite
reactions at the two bearings.
Assume the direction of mass A as horizontal. Taking plane of

mass A as reference plane, forces and couples are calculated and
tabulated in the table below.

kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
A(RP) 64 0.01 0.64 0 0
B 72 0.011 0.792 0.9 0.713
C 48 0.012 0.576 1.8 1.037

Planes L and M are not included in the table as there are no
masses at these planes.
The unbalanced couple is equal to the couple formed by the
equal and opposite forces (reactions) FL and Fm exerted at the
bearings during rotation.
From coloumn 4 force polygon can be drawn as the magnitude

of all the three masses and direction of mass A are known. The
direction of the masses B and C can be obtained
The angle of mass B w.r.t mass A, θb = 131.40 CCW
0
The angle of mass D w.r.t mass A, θc = 261.1 CCW
Having known the directions of masses B and C, couple

polygon is drawn from the values in coloumn 6. The closing
side, ab gives the value of unbalanced couple.
Unbalanced couple = ab = 0.832 kg.m2
= 0.832 x ω2 N.m
= 0.832 x (31.4)2 = 820.3 N.m
Reactions at bearings:
FL x 1.2 = 820.3
FL = 820.3 / 1.2 = 683.6 N
Dynamic reactions at bearings = 683.6 N
Alternate method:
The reactions at bearings may be determined by including the
planes L and M in the table as shown below. Let FL and Fm
represent dynamic forces on bearings at planes L and M due to
unbalanced couple.
Taking L as reference plane, forces and couples are tabulated as
given below.

kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
A 64 0.01 0.64 -0.3 -0.192
L(RP) - - FL 0 0
B 72 0.011 0.792 0.6 0.4752
M - - FM 1.2 1.2FM
C 48 0.012 0.576 1.5 0.864
From the couple polygon

1.2 FM = vector co = 0.832 kg.m2
FM = 0.832 / 1.2 = 0.6933 kg.m θM = 380
Dynamic force at M = 0.6933. ω =0.693 x (31.4)2 N
2
= 683.6 N
From the force polygon
FL = vector d’o’ = 0.6933 kg.m θL = 2180
Dynamic force at L = 0.6933. ω2 =0.6933 x (31.4)2 N
= 683.6 N
It may be noted that the reactions at planes L and M are equal

and opposite. The relative angular positions of the masses and
bearing reactions are shown in the end view of the shaft above.
Exercise - 6
1. The bearings of a shaft at A and B are 5 m apart. The
shaft carries three eccentric masses C, D and E which
weigh 160 kg, 170 kg and 85 kg respectively. The
eccentricity measured for each mass from the axis of
rotation is 0.5 cm, 0.3 cm and 0.6 cm and the distance
from A is 1.3 m, 3 m and 4 m respectively. Determine
the angular position of each mass with respect to C so
that no dynamic force is exerted at B. Also find the
dynamic force at A for this arrangement. The shaft runs
at 300 RPM. ( Ans. 76.60, 226.80, 575.5 N at 192.30)
2. A rotor is balanced by attaching two 2 kg trial masses in

each of the planes A and B as shown in figure at a radius
of 15 cm. Complete dynamic balancing is obtained with
angular position, shown in figure. Determine the position
and mass of the material to be removed from each of the
planes C and D at a radius of 10 cm in order to balance
the rotor when the trial masses are removed.
(Ans. 2.6 kg, 42.80; 4.25 kg, 2120)

3. A shaft, running in bearings A and B to zero, has two
concentrated masses of 8 kg and 12 kg rigidly fixed to it
as shown in figure below, the masses and the axis of the
shaft all being in the same plane. Find the reactions at
the bearings A and B when the shaft is rotating at 240
RPM.
In order to reduce the reactions at A and B, a mass, m is
fixed to the shaft as shown dotted in the figure. Find the
magnitude of this mass and its distance from the bearing
A. (Ans. 486.4 N, 650.6 N, 18 Kg, 200 mm)
4. A shaft carries four eccentric masses A, B, C and D in

the order along its axis as per the details given below.
Find the mass of B and relative angular positions of the
masses in order to obtain complete balance.
(Ans. 0,44 kg, 155.40)
Plane Mass ,kg Radius, Distance
mm from A, mm
A 0.4 50 0
B ? 62 300
C 1 25 600
D 0.5 38 900

5. A shaft carries four wheels A, B, C, D equally spaced
250 mm apart. The unbalance values (m.r) for A and C
are 0.06 and 0.07 kg.m respectively. The direction of
unbalance in C is 900 to that of A, which may be taken as
reference direction. The out of balance amounts in B and
D are not known initially but the complete rotor is
dynamically balanced by adding a mass of 0.4 kg to
wheel B at a radius of 600 mm and an angle of 2150 to
the reference direction and by removing material of mass
0.1 kg from D at a radius of 450 mm and an angle of
1200.. Determine the initial and final unbalance values
for B and D
(Ans. B: 0.148 kg.m, 43.90, 0.097 kg.m,201.30
D: 0.0085 kg.m, 27.90, 0.0461 kg.m ,310.60)

An Epitome
of
Chapter 7
7.0 Balancing of reciprocating masses:
The inertia force on the piston of a reciprocating engine, shown

in Fig. 7.1, is given by
Fi = - mr.ω2r (Cos θ + Cos 2 θ/n) where n = l/r
= - (Fp + Fs)
Where
Primary disturbing force, Fp = mr.ω2r Cos θ
Secondary disturbing force, Fs = mr.ω2r Cos 2θ/n
Fig. 7.1
The inertia force is an unbalanced force which increases the

bearing loads and stresses in the members. Hence both primary
and secondary disturbing forces are needed to be balanced.
It is seen from the above equations, that
Fp = 0 when θ = 900 and 2700
Fp is maximum (± mr.ω2r ) when θ = 00 and 1800
Fs is maximum (± mr.ω2r /n) when θ = 00, 900, 1800 and 2700
The unbalanced force due to reciprocating masses varies in
magnitude but acts along line of stroke, OP which is constant.

Where as the unbalanced force due to rotating masses, varies in
direction but constant in magnitude. Thus a single rotating mass
can not balance a reciprocating mass completely.
7.1 Balancing by a rotating mass:

Assuming the reciprocating mass, mr is placed at A, as shown in
Fig. 7.2.
Centrifugal force due to mr at A = mr.ω2r
The component of this force along line of stroke is mr.ω2r.Cos θ
which is equivalent to the disturbing force due to reciprocating
mass, acting along OP.
Fig. 7.2.
Hence by keeping a balancing mass, mb opposite to the crank at

a radius rb,
The component of the force due to it along the line of stroke =
mb.ω2rb.Cos θ.
Resultant force = mr.ω2r.Cos θ - mb.ω2rb.Cos θ
= (mr.r - mb.rb) ω2Cos θ
If mr.r = mb.rb, then resultant is zero.
But due to mass mb an unbalanced force component
perpendicular to line of stroke, equal to mb ω2 rb.Sin θ exists.

The net effect is that the disturbing force is shifted to the
direction perpendicular to the line of stroke.
In view of this a compromise is made and a fraction, c of the
reciprocating mass is balanced instead of the whole mass.
mb.rb = c.mr.r where c <1 (generally 0.5 to 0.75)
Resultant unbalanced force along line of stroke

= mr.ω2r.Cos θ – c.mr.ω2r.Cos θ
= (1-c) mr.ω2r.Cos θ
Resultant unbalanced force ┴ to line of stroke = mb.ω2rb.Sin θ
= c.mr.ω2r.Sin θ
Resultant unbalanced force
= mr.ω2r√ [(1-c)2 Cos2 θ + c2.Sin2 θ]
If the balancing mass is required to balance rotating masses as

well as a partial balance of reciprocating masses, then
mbrb = M.r + c.mr.r where M = mass of rotating parts.
= r (M + c.mr)
(M+c.mr) is the total equivalent revolving mass at crank radius,
r.
7.2 Partial balancing of locomotives:

A locomotive engine includes two cylinders of the same
dimensions and the cranks are positioned at 900 to each other.
7.2.1 Inside cylinder locomotive:

The two cylinders are placed symmetrically with in the frame
(wheels).
7.2.2 Outside cylinder locomotive:

The two cylinders are placed symmetrically out side the frame.

7.2.3 Uncoupled locomotive:
The crank effort is transmitted to one pair of wheels only.
7.2.4 Coupled locomotive:

The crank effort is transmitted to two or more pairs of wheels.
Driving wheels are driven by connecting rod and the trailing
wheels are driven by out side coupling rods. Coupling rods
revolve with the crank pin hence the mass of the coupling rods
are considered as revolving masses.
7.2.5 Effect of partial balancing:

Fig. 7.3 shows a lay out of a locomotive engine. As a portion of
reciprocating masses (c.mr) at P1 and P2 are balanced, some
unbalanced forces along line of strokes of the two cylinders
exist.
Fig. 7.3
The net primary unbalanced force causes variation in the tractive

force of the engine along the line of stroke.

The two unbalanced primary forces of the two cylinders
constitute a couple. This couple results in swaying the leading
wheels from side to side. Hence it is known as swaying couple.
The unbalanced force perpendicular to the line of stroke is
known as hammer blow. This will alter the net pressure on the
wheels and rail.
1. Variation of the tractive force:

The net unbalanced primary force
= (1-c) mr.ω2r.Cos θ + (1-c) mr.ω2r.Cos (90+θ)
= (1-c) mr.ω2r.Cos θ - (1-c) mr.ω2r.Sinθ
= (1-c) mr.ω2r (Cos θ – Sinθ)
The variation of tractive force is maximum when
d (Cos θ – Sinθ) /d θ = 0
θ = 1350 or 3150
When θ = 1350, variation of tractive force = -√2 (1-c) mr.ω2r
When θ = 3150, variation of tractive force = +√2 (1-c) mr.ω2r
Hence Max. Variation of tractive force = ±√2 (1-c) mr.ω2r
2. Swaying couple:
Taking moments about the engine centre line, the resultant
unbalanced couple or swaying couple =
(1-c) mr.ω2r.Cos (θ). a / 2 - (1-c) mr.ω2r.Cos (90+θ).a / 2
= (1-c) mr.ω2r(a / 2) (Cos θ + Sinθ)
Swaying couple is maximum when d (Cos θ + Sinθ) /d θ = 0
θ = 450 or 2250
When θ = 45 , Swaying couple = (1-c) mr.ω2r.a √2
0
When θ = 3150, Swaying couple = - (1-c) mr.ω2r. a / √2
Maximum swaying couple = ± (1-c) mr.ω2r. a / √2

3. Hammer blow:
The unbalanced force perpendicular to the line of stroke =
mb.ω2rb.Sin θ
This is maximum when θ = 900 or 2700
Max. Hammer blow = ± mb.ω2rb
If P is the static wheel load, then
Net Pressure between the wheel and the rail = P ± mb.ω2rb
Limiting condition when the wheel does not lift from the rail is
P - mb.ω2rb = 0
P = mb.ω2rb
Max. Permissible speed, ω = √ (P / mb.rb)
7.2.6 Secondary unbalanced forces:

Secondary unbalanced forces are very small for large l/r ratios.
Further as the cranks are at 900 apart, secondary forces of one
set are equal and opposite to the other set.
7.3 Balancing of coupled locomotive engines:

Two or three pairs of wheels are coupled together to increase the
adhesive weight. The cranks of the coupling rods are placed at
1800 to the adjacent driving cranks or wheels. Each coupled axle
is separately considered for determining the position and
magnitude of the balance masses required.
For the driving axle, there will be
2 sets of coupling rod masses
2 sets of cylinder masses
2 sets of balancing masses in the plane of wheels
Driving wheel is known as leading wheel and the coupled wheel
is known as trailing wheel.
Hammer blow can be reduced by equally distributing the
balance masses required for the reciprocating parts between
coupled wheels and the driving wheels.

Fig. 7.4 shows the layout of two inside cylinder locomotive with
two coupled wheels.
Fig. 7.4 Coupled inside cylinder locomotive
Balancing masses can be graphically obtained using the table 1

for driving wheels in the same way as is done in the case of
balancing of rotating masses.
Fig. 7.5 represents a schematic view of the angular positions of
the cranks and their planes of rotation. The required balancing
mass, my for the driving wheel (vector c’o’), which is obtained
by drawing a couple polygon, is shown in the fig. 7.5.
myrbly = c’o’
(c’o’ must be multiplied by the scale to get the value in kgm2)
my = c’o’ / rbly the direction is parallel to vector c’o’.
By drawing the force polygon, the required balancing mass, mx

for the driving wheel can be obtained.

Mxrb = eo
(eo must be multiplied by the scale to get the value in kgm)
mx = eo / rb the direction is parallel to vector eo.
In a similar way the balancing masses for trailing wheels can be

obtained using the table 2.The masses for hammer blow can be
obtained using the table 3 in the same way.
Fig.7.5
Masses to be balanced for each driving wheel:

1. Part of the mass of the coupling rod (generally half,
say 0.5mc)
2. Whole of the revolving masses + a portion (generally
half) of the partial reciprocating masses. Say
(M+0.5.c.mr)
Masses to be balanced for each trailing wheel:

1. Remaining part of the mass of the coupling rod
(0.5mc )
2. Remaining part of the partial reciprocating masses
(0.5.c.mr)
Masses to be balanced for hammer blow for each driving and
trailing wheel:
1. The partial reciprocating masses to be balanced for
each wheel (0.5.c.mr)
Table 1. Driving wheel:

Plane Mass Radius Fci / ω2 Distance Couple/ ω2
mi ,kg ri , m miri kgm fromRP, miri li , kgm2
li , m
1 2 3 4 5 6
L X( mL = 0.5mc rc
RP) mx rb
A mA = M+0.5.c.mr r
B mB = M+0.5.c.mr r
Y my rb
M mM = 0.5mc rc
Table 2. Trailing wheel:

Plane Mass Radius Fci /ω2 Distance from Couple/ ω2
mi ,kg ri , m miri kgm RP, li m miri li kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
L mL=0.5mc rc
X(RP) m’ x rb
A m A=0.5.c.m r r
B mB=0.5.c.mr r
Y m’y rb
M m M = 0.5m c rc

Table 3. Hammer blow:
Plane Mass Radius Fci / ω2 Distance Couple/ ω2
mi ,kg ri ,m miri kgm from RP, li m miri li kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
X(RP) m”x rb
A mA =0.5.c.mr r
B mB =0.5.c.mr r
Y m”y rb
7.4 Balancing of multi-cylinder in-line engines:
When the cylinder centre lines of the engine are in the same
plane and also on the same side of the centre line of the crank
shaft, the engine is known as multi cylinder In-line engine. The
engine will be in complete balance when it satisfies the
following conditions.
1. Primary balance:
∑mr.ω2r Cos θ = 0 - Primary force polygon must close.
2
∑mr.ω r.a Cos θ = 0 - Primary couple polygon also must close.
Where ‘a’ is the distance of the plane of rotation of the crank

from a parallel reference plane.
2. Secondary balance:
∑mr.ω2r Cos (2θ) /n = 0
∑mr(2ω)2 (r/4n) Cos (2θ) = 0
∑mr.ω2r.a Cos (2θ)/n = 0

∑mr (2ω)2 (r/4n).a. Cos (2θ) = 0
This is equivalent to a crank of length (r/4n) with an angular

velocity of (2ω) at an angle 2θ from IDC as shown in the fig.7.6

Fig. 7.6
This imaginary crank is known as secondary crank. The

imaginary crank and the real crank coincide at IDC. For
secondary balance, the force and couple polygons of the
secondary cranks should close.
Fig. 7.7 shows the arrangement of an identical six cylinder in-

line engine with firing order 1, 4,2,6,3 and 5.
Side view shows the relative positions of the cranks as per the
firing order and the front view shows the planes of rotation of
the cranks.
Fig.7.7

The relative positions of the secondary cranks are at twice the
angles of their respective primary cranks.
From the tables 4 and 5, it can be observed that the force and
couple vectors are same resulting in the similar force polygon
and couple polygon.
Force and couple polygons of both primary and secondary
cranks, shown in Fig.7.7 (a), indicate that the engine is in
complete balance.
Table 4. Primary forces and couples:

Plane Mass Radius Force, Fci / ω2 Distance Couple,Ci / ω2
mi ,kg ri, m miri , kgm from RP miri li , kgm2
1 2 3 4 li , m 6
5
1 mr r mrr -l1 -mrrl1
4 mr r mrr +l3 +mrrl3
Table 5. Secondary forces and couples:

Plane Mass Radius Fci . n / ω2 Distance Ci .n /ω2
mi ,kg ri /4n, m miri , kgm from RP miri li , kgm2
1 2 3 4 li , m 6
5

Force vector for primary cranks = Fci / ω2
Couple vector = Ci / ω2
Force vector for Secondary cranks = Fci .n / ω2
Couple vector = Ci .n / ω2
Fig. 7.7a
7.5 Balancing of multi-cylinder radial engines (Direct

and reverse crank method):
Primary unbalanced force due to mass, m:
FP = m.ω2r Cos θ
Imagine the mass, m is divided into 2 equal masses (m/2) and
placed at C and C’as shown in fig. 7.8 (a).
Fig. 7.8 (a)
The components of these masses along line of stroke

= 2 [(m/2).ω2r Cos θ]
= m.ω2r Cos θ , same as FP.

The components of these masses normal to line of stroke will be
equal and opposite.
Hence the reciprocating mass at piston is equivalent to keeping
2 rotating masses of half the value at crank positions c and c’. If
these masses are balanced the, the primary disturbing forces are
balanced.
Here the crank OC, which is the actual crank, is known as
primary direct crank and the crank OC’ is imaginary one and is
known as primary reverse crank.
Secondary unbalanced force due to mass, m:
Fs = m.ω2r Cos θ /n = m (2ω)2 (r/4n) Cos (2θ)
Imagine the mass, m is divided into 2 equal masses (m/2) and
placed at D and D’ on the radii equal to r/4n ,at angles 2 θ on
either side of the line of stroke, rotating with an angular velocity
of 2ω , as shown in the fig. 7.8 (b).
Fig. 7.8 (b)
The components of these masses along line of stroke will be

equal to the secondary disturbing force, FS.
The components of these masses normal to line of stroke will be
equal and opposite.

Crank OD is known as secondary direct crank and OD’ is
known as secondary reverse crank. If the masses at these cranks
are balanced, then the secondary disturbing forces are balanced.
It can be seen that the primary as well as secondary direct and
reverse cranks coincide at inner dead centre. For complete
balance of the engine, both primary and secondary direct and
reverse cranks should be balanced.
1. Balancing of 3-cylinder radial engine:
Fig. 7.9 (a) shows a 3- cylinder radial engine. The lines of

strokes are at 1200 apart. Connecting rods are connected to a
common crank. All the three cylinders are identical.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.9
It may be convenient to use tables 6A and 6B for locating the

positions of direct and reverse cranks of primary as well as
secondary disturbing forces for the purpose of verifying the
unbalanced forces, if any, for a given configuration of actual
crank of the engine.

In Fig. 7.9 (a) the crank for cylinders 1, 2 and 3 is at 00, 1200
and 2400 from their respective inner dead centers.
The positions of the primary cranks are as shown in Fig. 7.9 (b)
Table 6A: Primary cranks:

Cyli Direct crank, Primary Reverse crank, Primary
nder CW motion CCW motion
0
1 0 from IDC of cyl.1 00 from IDC of cyl.1
2 1200 from IDC of cyl.2 1200 from IDC. of cyl. 2
0
3 240 from IDC of cyl.3 2400 from IDC of 3
From Fig. 7.9 (b), it can be seen that
Primary direct cranks are unbalanced. The total unbalanced
force = 3(m/2).ω2r
Primary reverse cranks are balanced.
The positions of secondary cranks are shown in Fig. 7.9(c)

taking the values from table 6B.
(c)
Fig. 7.9

Table 6 B: Secondary cranks:
Cyli Direct crank, Secondary Reverse crank, Secondary
nder CW motion CCW motion
1 00 from IDC of cyl.1 00 from IDC of cyl.1
2 2x1200=2400 from IDC of 2x1200 = 2400 from IDC of
cyl.2 cyl.2
3 2x2400 =4800 from IDC of 2x2400 = 4800 from IDC of
cyl. 3 cyl.3
Similarly From Fig. 7.9 (c), it can be seen that Secondary direct
cranks are balanced.
Secondary reverse cranks are unbalanced.
The total unbalanced force = 3[m/2) (2ω)2 r/4n] = 3(m/2).ω2r/n
2. Balancing of 2-cylinder 600 V engine:
600 V engine consists of two cylinders with their line of strokes

are placed at an angle of 600.
If the angle is 900, then the engine is called a 900 V engine.
Fig. 7.10 shows the arrangement of 600 V engine and the
positions of the direct and reverse cranks for both primary and
secondary disturbing forces.
Primary force due to direct cranks = 2(m/2).ω2r = m.ω2r
(vertical)
Primary force:
Due to reverse cranks (vertical) = (m/2).ω2r.Cos 60 +
(m/2).ω2r.Cos 60 = ½. m.ω2r
Due to reverse cranks (Horizontal) = -(m/2).ω2r.Sin 60 +
(m/2).ω2r.Sin 60 =0

Fig. 7.10
Secondary force due to direct cranks:

Vertical = 2.(m/2).ω2r.Cos 30 /n = √3.m.ω2r /2.n Upwards
Horizontal = - (m/2).ω2r.Sin 30/n + .(m/2).ω2r.Sin 30/n = 0
Secondary force due to reverse cranks = 0

7.6 Balancing V engines ( analytical method):
Fig. 7.11 shows a V engine of included angle of 2α when the

common crank is at an angle θ from the horizontal axis (X-axis).
Fig. 7.11
The unbalanced force along X-axis:

∑H = m.ω2r Cos (θ-α) Cos α + m.ω2r Cos (θ+α) Cos (-α)
The unbalanced force along Y-axis:
∑V = m.ω2r Cos (θ-α) Sin α + m.ω2r Cos (θ+α) Sin (-α)
Resultant Force = √ (∑H)2 + (∑V)2
= 2 m.ω2r√ [(Cos2 α Cos θ)2 + Sin2 α Sinθ)2]
The angle of the resultant force from X-axis, tan β = ∑V / ∑H
Tan β = Sin2 α Sinθ / Cos2 α Cos θ
If 2 α = 900
Resultant Force = m.ω2r and Tan β = Tan θ; Hence β = θ
Resultant force acts along the crank and hence can be fully
balanced by a mass keeping diametrically opposite to the crank
at a suitable distance such that m.r = mb.rb.

Similarly the resultant secondary unbalanced force can be
evaluated.
∑H = [Cos 2(θ-α) Cos α + Cos 2(θ+α) Cos (-α)] m.ω2r/n
∑V = [Cos 2(θ-α) Sin α + Cos (θ+α) Sin (-α)] m.ω2r/n
Resultant Force, Rs = √ (∑H)2 + (∑V)2 ; Tan βs = ∑V / ∑H
Example 1:
The following data refer to two cylinder locomotive with cranks
at 900 Reciprocating mass per cylinder = 300 kg; crank radius=
0.3 m; Driving wheel diameter = 1.8 m; Distance between
cylinder centre lines = 0.65 m; Distance between driving wheel
central planes = 1.55m Determine:
1. The fraction of the reciprocating masses to be
balanced, if the hammer blow is not to exceed 46
kN at 96.5 km/hr.
2. The variation in tractive effort
3. Maximum swaying couple.
Solution:
The arrangement of crank positions and planes of rotation are
shown in the fig. below.

Given data:
mr = 300 kg; r = 0.3 m; dia of driving wheels, D = 1.8 m;
Distance between cylinder centre lines, a = 0.65 m
Hammer blow, H = 46 kN; velocity,
V = 96.5 kmph =96.5 x1000/ 3600 = 26.81 m/s
ω = V / R = 26.81 / 0.9 = 29.8 rad/s
Table for forces and couples:

Plane Mass Radius Force, Fci / Distance from Couple,Ci /
mi ,kg ri ,m ω2 RP, li, m ω2
miri , kgm miri li , kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
X -RP mx rx mx.rx 0 0
1 300c 0.3 90c 0.45 40.5c
2 300c 0.3 90c 1.1 99c
Y my ry my.ry 1.55 1.55my.ry
Hammer blow, H = myry ω2 = 46000N

myry = 46000 / 29.82 = 51.8 kgm
1.55 myry = bo = 107c
myry = 107c/1.55 = 69c
c = 51.8 / 69 = 0.75
The variation in tractive effort = ± √2 (1-c) mr ω2 r
= ± √2 (1-0.75) 300 x 29.82 x 0.3
= 28257 N
Maximum swaying couple
= ± (1-c) mr ω2 r. a / √2
= ± (1-0.75) 300 x 29.82 x 0.3 x 0.65 / √2
= 9184 Nm
It can be seen from force polygon that mxrx (vector c’o’) is also
equal to 69c = 69 x 0.75 = 51.75 kgm

Example 2:
A two cylinder uncoupled locomotive with cranks at 900 has a
crank radius of 325 mm. The distance between the centers of
driving wheels is 1.5 m. The pitch of the cylinders is 0.6 m. The
diameter of the driving wheel is 1.8 m. The radius of centers of
gravity of balance masses is 0.65 m. The pressure due to dead
load on each wheel is 40 kN. The masses of reciprocating and
rotating parts per cylinder are 330 kg and 300 kg respectively.
The speed of the locomotive is 60 kmph. Find 1) the balancing
masses both in magnitude and position required to be placed in
the planes of driving wheels to balance whole of the revolving
parts and two thirds of the reciprocating masses. 2) Maximum
permissible speed of the locomotive.
Solution:
Given data:
mr = 330 kg; M = 300 kg ; c= 2/3; r = 0.325 m; rb = 0.65 m;
Driving wheels Dia., D = 1.8 m; Distance between cylinder
centre lines = 0.6 m; Distance between wheels = 1.5 m;
Dead load, P = 40 kN; speed = 60 kmph;
The arrangement of crank positions and planes of rotation are
shown in the fig. below.

Mass to balanced per cylinder = 330 x 2/3 + 300
= 220 + 300
= 520 kg.
Let mx and my be the masses to be added at wheel planes for
balancing. Forces and couples are calculated and shown in the
table below.
Plane Mass Radius Force, Fci / Distance Couple,Ci /

mi ,kg ri ,m ω2 from RP, li, ω2
miri , kgm m miri li , kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
X -RP mx 0.65 0.65 mx 0 0
1 520 0.325 169 0.45 76.05
2 520 0.325 169 1.05 177.45
Y my 0.65 0.65 my 1.5 0.975my
Couple polygon and force polygon are drawn from the values
given in coloumns 6 an4 respectively as shown below.

0.975 my = bo = 193.06 kg.m
θy = 360 – 113 = 2470 relative to cylinder 1
my = 193.06/0.975 = 198 kg
Similarly From the force polygon

0.65 mx = c’o = 128.7 kg.m
θx= 360 – 157 = 2030 relative to cylinder 1
mx = 128.7/0.65 = 198 kg
Balancing mass for reciprocating mass alone:

mbr = 198 x 220 / 520 = 83.8 kg
Max. Permissible speed,V:
ω = √ (P / mb.rb)
= √ (40000 / 83.8 x 0.65) = 27.1 rad/s
V = 27.1 x 1.8/ 2 = 24.4 m/s = 87.8 kmph
Example 3:
A four cylinder engine has two outer cranks set at 1200 to each
other and their reciprocating masses are each 350 kg. The
distances between the planes of rotation of adjacent cranks are
45, 75 and 60 cm. respectively. If the engine is to be in complete
primary balance, find the reciprocating mass and relative
angular position for each of inner cranks. Each crank is 30 cm
long.
Solution:
Given data: m1 = m4 = 350 kg; r = 0.3 m; complete primary
balance. Outer cranks at 1200
Let m2 and m3 be the reciprocating masses of cylinders 2 and 3.
Take plane of cylinder 2 as reference plane.
The arrangement of primary crank positions and planes of

rotation of the engine is shown in the fig. below.
Primary unbalanced forces and couples of each cylinder are

calculated and tabulated as shown in the table below.

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 350 0.3 105 - 0.45 - 47.25
2(RP) m2 0.3 0.3 m2 0 0
3 m3 0.3 0.3 m3 0.75 0.225 m3
4 350 0.3 105 1.35 141.75

Couple polygon is drawn from the values of coloumn 6 of the
above table. Vector bo represents couple due to mass m3.
0.225 m3 = bo = 170.36 kg.m
m3 = 170.36 / 0.225
= 757.2 kg
Angle of mass m3 = (360 – 46)
= 3140 to the direction of mass 1 CCW
Having known the mass m3, force polygon is drawn from the
values of coloumn 4 of the above table. Vector c’o’ represents
force due to mass m2.
0.3 m2 = c’o’ = 222.24 kg.m
m2 = 222.24 / 0.3
= 740.8 kg
Angle of mass m2 = 1610 to the direction of mass 1 CCW
Relative angular positions of primary cranks are as shown in the
end view.
Example 4:
For the engine shown in problem 3, examine the status of
secondary balance if the ratio of connecting rod to crank is 5.
Determine the unbalanced force and couple in the central plane
if any. The engine speed is 200 RPM.
Solution:
Given data: m1 = m4 = 350 kg; m2 = 740.8 kg; m3 = 757.2 kg; r
= 0.3 m for all 4 cranks; n = 5; N = 200 RPM
θ1 =0 0; θ2 = 1610; θ3 = 3140; θ4 = 1200; complete primary
balance.
The angles of secondary cranks are twice the respective original

crank angles in the same direction. Planes of rotation remain the

same. Crank length = r/4n; angular velocity twice that of
original.
Max. Secondary unbalanced force = mr.ω2r / n
Max. Secondary unbalanced couple = mr.ω2r.L / n
Where L = distance from reference plane
Assuming the cranks rotate counter clockwise,
θ1s =0 0; θ2s = 3220; θ3s = 6280 = 2680; θ4s= 2400
ω = 2π x 200 / 60 = 20.9 rad / s
The arrangement of secondary crank positions and planes of

Taking plane L as reference plane, Secondary unbalanced forces
and couples of each cylinder are calculated and tabulated as
shown in the table below.
Plane Mass Radius Force, Fci n / Distance Couple, Ci..n

mi ,kg ri.4n, ω2 from RP /ω2
m = miri , kgm li , m = miri li , kgm2
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 350 0.3 105 - 0.9 - 94.5
2 740.8 0.3 222.24 - 0.45 - 100.01
L(RP) - - Fs 0 0
3 757.2 0.3 227.16 0.3 68.15
4 350 0.3 105 0.9 94.5
Force polygon and couple polygon are drawn from the values of
coloumns 4 and 6 respectively.
Force polygon is not closed. Hence Secondary forces are not
balanced. The vector o’d’ represents the resultant of the four
forces. This resultant is the unbalanced secondary force.
o’d’ = 505 kg.m = m.r
Secondary unbalanced force, Fs:
Fs = m.ω2r / n
= 505 x (20.9)2 / 5
= 44118 N acts at an angle 2960 CCW to crank 1.
Couple polygon is also not closed. Hence Secondary couples are

not balanced.
The vector od represents the resultant of the four couples at
plane L.
This resultant is the unbalanced secondary couple.
od = 239.65 kg.m2 = m.r.l

Secondary unbalanced couple, Cs:
Cs = m.ω2r .l/ n
= 239.65 x (20.9)2 / 5
= 20936 N.m acts at an angle 2020 CCW to crank 1.
Example 5:
Show that a 4-stroke 6-cylinder engine that has equal
reciprocating masses and crank spacing is completely balanced
for primary, secondary forces and couples for a firing order 1-5-
3-6-2-4.
Solution:
Given data: reciprocating masses for all engines = m kg; planes
of rotation of cranks are equispaced, say L, m; firing order = 1-
5-3-6-2-4; Cranks be equal say, r, m
The arrangement of primary crank positions and planes of
rotation of the engine is shown in the fig. below. Let M be the
central plane.
Relative crank positions are as per the firing order. Cranks are
1200 apart as shown above. For clockwise rotation of cranks, the
order of firing is 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Taking plane M as reference plane, primary forces and couples
of each cylinder are calculated and tabulated as shown in the
table below.

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 m r mr -2.5L -2.5mrL
2 m r mr -1.5L -1.5mrL
3 m r mr - 0.5 L -0.5mrL
M - - Fm 0 0
4 m r mr 0.5 L 0.5mrL
5 m r mr 1.5 L 1.5mrL
6 m r mr 2.5 L 2.5mrL
Force polygon and couple polygon are drawn from the values of
coloumns 4 and 6 respectively.
It may be noted that vectors 1, 2 and 3 in couple polygon (oa, de
and eo) are drawn radially inwards as their values are negative.
In force polygon, all the vectors are drawn radially outwards.

As the force polygon is closed, primary unbalanced force, Fm at
plane M is zero.
Similarly there is no primary unbalanced couple at plane M as
the couple polygon is also a closed one.
Secondary forces and couples:

The arrangement of secondary crank positions and planes of
Secondary crank lengths are r /4n and angles 2θi.

The values in coloumn 4 and 5 are Fci n / ω2 and Ci. n /ω2
respectively. Force and couple polygons are drawn as shown
below.

From the force and couple polygons, it is observed that both are
closed polygons indicating that there are no unbalanced
secondary forces or couples in the central plane M of the engine.
Hence the engine is completely balanced about the central plane.
Example 6:
A three cylinder radial engine has axes at 1200 to one another
and their connecting rods are coupled to a single common crank.
The stroke length is 100 mm and length of each connecting rod
is 150 mm. If the mass of the reciprocating parts per cylinder is
2 kg, determine the primary and secondary force of the engine
running at 2400 RPM.
Solution:
Given data: Stroke = 100 mm; l = 150 mm; m = 2 kg; N = 2400
RPM
Radius, r = 100/2 = 50 mm n = 150 / 50 = 3
ω = 2π x 2400 / 60 = 251.3 rad / s
Direct and reverse cranks method is more convenient to check
for the primary and secondary unbalanced forces of radial
engine.
The crank angles from the respective line of stroke for each
cylinder are calculated and tabulated in the tables below.
The angles for reverse cranks of both primary and secondary are
measured in negative direction.
Primary cranks
Cylinder
Direct crank Reverse crank
0
1 0 00
2 1200 - 1200
0
3 240 - 2400

Secondary cranks
Cylinder
Direct crank Reverse crank
0
1 0 00
0
2 2x120 = 240 -2x120 = - 2400
0
3 2x240 =480 -2x240 = - 4800
The relative angular positions of direct and reverse cranks for

both primary and secondary forces are shown in the figure
below.

Primary forces:
From direct cranks figure it can be seen that
Primary direct cranks are unbalanced. All the forces are acting
vertically upwards.
The total unbalanced force = 3(m/2).ω2r
= 3 x 1 x (251.3)2 x 0.05
= 9473 N
Primary reverse cranks are balanced as seen from the reverse
cranks figure.
Secondary forces:
Similarly from secondary cranks figure, it can be seen that
Secondary direct cranks are balanced.
Secondary reverse cranks are unbalanced.
The total unbalanced force = 3(m/2).ω2r/n
= 3 x 1 x (251.3)2 x 0.05 / 3
= 3158 N
Exercise - 7
1. For an inside locomotive with two cranks at 900 angle,

the mass of reciprocating parts per cylinder is 300 kg.
The distance between cylinder centre lines is 600 mm
and between the planes of rotation of wheels is 1.5 m.
Each balanced mass is introduced in the planes of wheels
to balance two-third of the reciprocating parts. The crank
radius is 325 mm and diameter of driving wheels are
1.875 m. Determine the maximum variation of tractive
force, swaying couple and hammer blow when the
locomotive is running at a speed of 95.25 kmph.
(Ans. 36514 N; 10954 Nm; 39364N)

2. In a reciprocating engine which has four cylinders in
line, the masses of the reciprocating parts are 1 kg per
cylinder. The stroke is 120 mm; the length of connecting
rod is 200 mm. the cylinders are spaced 120 mm apart. If
the cylinders are numbered 1 to 4 from one end, then in
an end view the cranks appear at successive intervals of
900 in the order 1, 4, 2 , 3. The engine speed is 2000
RPM. Find with reference to the central plane of the
engine, the maximum value of any primary and
secondary out of balance effects.
(Ans. 447.3 Nm primary couple alone)
3. Each crank and the connecting rod of a six cylinder 4-

stroke engine are 60 mm and 240 mm respectively. The
pitch distance between the cylinder centre lines are 80,
80, 100, 80, 80 mm respectively. The reciprocating mass
of each cylinder is 104 kg. The engine speed is 100
RPM. Determine the out of balance primary and
secondary forces and couples on the engine if the firing
order be 1-4 -2 -6 -3-5. Take a plane mid way between
the cylinders 3 and 4 as the reference plane.
(Ans. completely balanced)
4. A three cylinder radial engine driven by a common crank

has the cylinders spaced at 1200. The stroke is 125 mm;
length of the connecting rod is 225 mm and the mass of
the reciprocating parts per cylinder 2 kg. Calculate the
primary and secondary forces at crank shaft speed of
1200 RPM.
(Ans. Primary direct; 2963 N; Secondary reverse; 823 N)

5. Show the location of primary and secondary direct and
reverse cranks for a V-90 engine when the crank is
aligned with V–axis.
(Ans. Primary: 00, 00; 900 CCW, 900 CW; Secondary:
450 CW, 450 CCW, 1350 CCW, 1350 CW: all angles
from V-axis)

An Epitome
of
Chapter 8
8.0 Vibrations:
Every elastic system can perform vibrations or to and fro
motions of different patterns or modes. If the
configuration of the vibrating system can be specified by
a single coordinate, then it is called a system of single
degree freedom.
When a body is displaced from its equilibrium position
by an external force, work is done by the external force
overcoming the internal elastic forces which resist
deformation. This work is stored as strain energy. When
the external force is removed and the body is released,
the internal forces tend to restore the body to its original
equilibrium position.
8.1 Natural vibrations:

Vibrations, which are maintained by the elastic forces
alone, are called Free or Natural vibrations. Here friction
or any other resistance offered to the motion, are
neglected.
8.2 Damped vibrations:

Vibrations, in which there is a reduction in amplitude
over every cycle of motion due to some external or
internal resistance, are called damped vibrations. The
body finally comes to rest in its original equilibrium
position.
8.3 Forced vibrations:

Vibrations, in which external force (periodic disturbing
force) is applied to the body resulting in vibrations of the
same frequency as that of the periodic external applied
force, are called forced vibrations.
8.4 General Terminology:

8.4.1 Time period or period of vibration: The
time taken for performing one cycle. T =
2π/ω
8.4.2 Cycle: One to and fro motion.
8.4.3 Circular frequency: The angular velocity
of the body , ω rad/s
8.4.4 Frequency: The No. of cycles performed
in unit time. f = ω / 2 π ,Hz (Hertz) or c/s
(Cycles per second)
8.4.5 Resonance: The condition in which the
frequency of external force is same as the
natural frequency of the body is known as
resonance. Resonance causes very large
amplitudes of vibration which are
dangerous.
8.5 Types of vibrations:

8.5.1 Longitudinal vibrations: Displacement is
parallel to the axis of the body.
8.5.2 Transverse vibrations: Displacement is
perpendicular to the axis of the body.
8.5.3 Torsional vibrations: Angular
displacement. (Twist)
8.6 Methods of finding frequency of free longitudinal

vibrations:

8.6.1 Equilibrium method:
Let a mass of m kg, be suspended by a spring of
stiffness, k N/m.
Fig. 8.1
Let the mass be displaced an amount of x, m
from its static equilibrium position and released
as shown in Fig. 8.1.
From the free body diagram the forces acting on
the body are:
Inertia force = - m.
Restoring force of the spring = -k.x
As per D’Alembert’s principle, Fi + ∑ F = 0
-m. - k.x = 0
+ (k / m). x = 0
This equation is analogous to the differential
equation of simple harmonic motion having
angular velocity of ω rad/s
+ ω2.x = 0 for which the
solution is, x = X. sin ω.t
Hence the circular frequency of the above system
is given by
ωn2 = k/m, rad/s.
ωn = √ (k/m)
The frequency f = ωn / 2 π

= ½π. √ (k/m)
= ½π √(w.g / δ.w)
f = ½π√(g/δ.) = 0.4985/√ (δ)
8.6.2 Rayleigh’s method:

Maximum Kinetic energy = Maximum potential
energy
Let the motion of the mass be a simple harmonic
about the static equilibrium position, given by the
equation
x = X. Sin (ωn.t)
Max. Velocity, max = ωn.X
Max. Amplitude = X
Max. KE = ½ . m. ωn2.X2
Max. PE = ½ k.X2
½ m. ωn2.X2 = ½ k.X2
ωn2 = k/m
ωn =√ (k/m)
8.6.3 Energy method:

Sum of KE and PE is constant
d (KE + PE) = 0
dt
d (½ m. 2 +½ k.x2) = 0
dt
m. + k.x = 0
m. + k.x = 0
ωn = √ (k/m)
8.6.4 Natural frequency when mass of the

spring, m1, is considered

ωn = √ {k/(m + m 1/ 3)}
Equivalent mass of the system = m + (m1/3)
8.7 Frequency of free Transverse vibrations:
Referring to Fig. 8.2, ∑ F = 0

m. + k.x = 0
f = ½π. (g / δ.)1/2 = 0.4985/ (δ)1/2
Static deflection,
δ = W.L3/3EI for cantilever beams
= W.L3/48.EI for simply supported central load
= W.a2.b2/3EIL for simply supported point load at distances of
a and b from each end.
for simply supported UDL of w N/m:
f = π/2.√(5.g / 384.δ) where δ = 5w.L4/384EI
Fig. 8.2
8.7.1 Whirling of shaft:

Critical or whirling or whipping speed is the speed at
which a shaft tends to vibrate violently in transverse
direction
Let e = eccentricity and
y = deflection due to centrifugal force.
ω = Angular velocity of the shaft
Centrifugal force = m(y+e) ω2 Refer Fig. 8.3
Resisting force = k.y

m(y+e) ω2 = k.y
m.y. ω2 + m.e. ω2 –k.y = 0
y = m.e. ω2 /(k- m.ω2)
= e / [(k/m ω2 )-1]
= e / [(ωn2/ ω2) –1]
When ω = ωn , deflection y is infinitely large.
Fig. 8.3
The speed of the shaft corresponding to its natural frequency is

the whirling speed.
If ω is rapidly increased beyond ωn, ωn / ω > 1 hence y is
negative.
The shaft bends in opposite direction. If y approaches –e then
the centre of mass G of the rotor approaches centre line of
rotation. Then the rotor runs steadily. This phenomenon is
useful in turbines

8.7.2 Natural frequency of shaft with several concentrated
loads:
1. Energy (Raleigh’s) method:
Let Wi be the loads acting on the
shaft as shown in the fig. 8.4 and
yi are the deflections under the
respective loads if acted alone.
Potential energy is maximum at

extreme points.
Max. P.E = ∑( load x Fig. 8.4
max.deflection under the load)
=g / 2 ∑my
KE = ½ ∑m.y2
Max. KE = ω2 /2 . ∑m.y2
Max. KE = Max. PE
½ g ∑my = ½ ω2 . ∑m.y2
ω2 = g. ∑my / ∑my2
ω = √ (g. ∑my / ∑my2
f = ½π.√ (g. ∑my / ∑my2
2. Dunkerley’s method:
Let fn1, fn2,…fnn be the natural frequencies when each respective
load acts separately. And fns be the natural frequency of the shaft
under its own weight. Refer Fig. 8.5
According to Dunkerley, an approximate value of the lowest
natural frequency of the shaft, when several loads are acting on
the shaft, is given by the equation:
1/fn2 = 1/fn12 +1/fn22 + …..1/fns2

Substituting fni = 0.4985/ √ (δi) and
Fns = π/2.√(5.g / 384.δ) = 0.5615 / √δs

(1/fn)2 = δ1 / (0.4985)2 + δ2 / (0.4985)2 + …δs / (0.5615
fn = 0.4985 / √ (δ1 + δ2 + …..+ δs /1.27)
Fig. 8.5
8.8 Frequency of free Torsional vibrations:
When a disc having mass moment of inertia (MOI) of I

attached to a shaft of negligible mass, having torsional
stiffness of q, is subjected to an initial torque, the system
undergoes natural torsional vibrations.
Refer fig. 8.6 and 8.6 (a)
Let θ, rad be the angular displacement of the disc from its

equilibrium position.
Stiffness q = GJ/L Nm/rad where G = modulus of rigidity
J = Polar MOI of shaft
= π.d4/32
L = length of the shaft
Inertia torque of the disc = - I .
Restoring torque = - q.θ
∑T=0

= - I - q.θ = 0
= + (q /I).θ = 0
ω2 = q/I
ω = √ (q/ I)
f = ½ π √ (q/ I)
Fig. 8.6
Fig. 8.6 (a)
8.9 Inertia of the shaft:

If the inertia of the shaft is considered, the natural
frequency can be given by the equation
f = ½π . √ [q / (I+ I1/3)] where I1 = MOI of the
shaft.
Equivalent inertia of the system = I+ I1/3
8.10 Torsionally equivalent shaft:
If the shaft has different diameters at different sections and

carries the disc at one end as shown in Fig. 8.7, the natural
frequency can be determined by considering an equivalent shaft,
having uniform diameter through out its length.

Let θ = total twist of the shaft θ = T.L/GJ
θ1, θ2, θ3 are the twists in sections L1, L2, L3.
θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3
T.L/GJ = T.L1/GJ1+ T.L2/GJ2+ T.L3/GJ3
L/J = L1/J1+ L2/J2+ L3/J3
32.L/ π.d4 = 32.L1/ πd 14 +32.L2/ πd 24 +32.L3/ πd 34
L/ d4 = L1/ d 14 +L2/ d 24 +L3/ d 34
Equivalent shaft is that shaft which will have the same torsional
stiffness as that of the shaft with varying cross section. Twists in
both the shafts are equal.
Fig. 8.7
Generally the diameter of the equivalent shaft is taken as equal
to one of the diameters of the original shaft
Taking d =d1

L = L1. (d 1 / d 1)4 +L2 (d 1/ d 2)4 )+ L3(d 1/ d 3)4
L = L1 + L2.( d 1/ d 2)4 + L3.(d 1/ d 3)4
Example 8.1:
Find the natural frequency for the system shown below. Also
write the governing differential equation of motion
Let x be the displacement of mass.

Spring deflection = x Cosα
Spring force = k.x.Cosα acting along the axis of the spring.
Spring force along the direction of x = k.x.Cos2α
Inertia force of the mass = m
m + k.x.Cos2α = 0
+ (k.Cos2α / m).x = 0
ω = √ [k.Cos2α / m)] = √ (k / m) .Cosα
Example 8.2:
Determine the natural frequency and write the equation of
motion for the following system.

Solution:
Mass and rotor possess kinetic energy by virtue of their
velocities. Spring has potential energy (strain energy) because of
its deflection under the action of forces.
Maximum kinetic energy is equal to maximum potential energy.
Assuming the mass and rotor under go harmonic vibrations with
circular frequency, ω rad/s
Let rotor rotate an angle θ from initial position.
Corresponding displacement of mass m, x = R.θ
Velocity of mass m , v = R
Spring displacement is also = R.θ
Total kinetic Energy of the system, KE = ½[I 2 + m (R )2]
KE will be maximum when the velocity is maximum.
Maximum velocity, max = ω.θ
where θ is maximum deflection for SHM
Maximum KE max = ½ω2.θ2[I + mR2]
Potential Energy, PE = ½[k(Rθ)2]
PEmax = ½[k (Rθ)2]
KE max = PEmax
½ω2.θ2 [I + mR2] = ½ [k(Rθ)2]
ω2= kR2 / [I + mR2]
ω = √ [kR2 / (I + mR2)]
Equation of motion can be written as

+ [kR2 / (I + mR2)] θ = 0
Alternate method:
d/dt (KE + PE) =0

2
d/dt [½(I + m (R )2) + ½ k (Rθ)2] =0

d/dt [½ (I + mR2) 2
] + ½[k(Rθ)2] =0
(I + mR2) + kR2 θ = 0
(I + mR2) + kR2 θ = 0
+ [kR2 / (I + mR2)] θ = 0 Equation of motion
ω2= kR2 / [I + mR2]
ω = √ [kR2 / (I + mR2)]
Example 8.3:
Solution:
Let rotor rotate an angle θ from initial position.
Corresponding displacement of mass m, x = r.θ
Velocity of mass m , v = r
Spring displacement = R.θ
2
Total kinetic Energy of the system, KE = ½[I + m (r )2]
Potential Energy, PE = ½[k(Rθ)2]

d/dt (KE + PE) =0
2
d/dt [½(I + m (r )2) + ½ k (Rθ)2] =0
d/dt [½ (I + mr2) 2
] + ½[k(Rθ)2] =0
(I + mr2) + kR2 θ =0
(I + mr2) + kR2 θ = 0
+ [kR2 / (I + mr2)] θ = 0 Equation of motion
ω2= kR2 / [I + mr2]
ω = √ [kR2 / (I + mr2)]
Example 8.4:
Solution:
Let θ be the angle turned by the lever.

Total kinetic Energy of the system,
KE = ½[I 2 + m1 (c )2 + m2 (b )2]
KEmax = ½ω2.θ2[I + m1.c2 + m2.b2]
Potential Energy, PE = ½[k1 (cθ)2 + k2 (bθ)2 +k3(aθ)2]
PEmax = ½ θ2 [k1c2 + k2b2 +k3a2]
KEmax = PEmax
½ω2.θ2[I + m1.c2 + m2.b2] = ½ θ2 [k1c2 + k2b2 +k3a2]
ω = √ [(k1c2 + k2b2 +k3a2) / (I + m1.c2 + m2.b2)]
Equation of motion:
+ [(k1c2 + k2b2 +k3a2) / (I + m1.c2 + m2.b2)] θ = 0
Example 8.5:
Determine the natural frequencies for the following systems.
Solution:
(a) Force on each spring = 2W where W = mg
Static deflection of mass m , δ = 2 (deflection of spring 1 +
deflection of spring 2)
δ = 2[2(W / k1) +2(W/k2)]
= 4W[(1 / k1) +(1/k2)]

= 4mg [(k1+k2) / k1.k2]
Natural frequency,
ω = √ [g/ δ] = √ [g k1.k2 / 4mg (k1+k2)]
ω = √ [k1.k2 / 4m (k1+k2)]
(b) Force on spring 1 = W where W = mg

Force on spring 2 = W/2
Static deflection of mass m, δ = deflection of spring 1 + ½
deflection of spring 2
δ = (W / k1) + ½ (W/2k2)]
= W [1/k1 + 1/4k2]
=mg [(4k2 + k1)/ 4k1k2]
ω = √ [g/ δ] = √ [g.4.k1.k2 / mg (4 k1+k2)]
ω = √ [4k1.k2 / m (k1+ 4k2)]
Example 8.6:
The initial displacement and velocity of a spring mass vibrating
system, with a natural frequency of 5 rad / s, are 120 mm and 2
m/s respectively. Find the equation of motion. What will be the
displacement after 2.5 seconds?
Solution:
Let the equation of motion of the system be in the form
x = A Cos ωt + B Sin ωt;
= -Aω Sinωt + Bω Cos ωt
when t =0
x = A = 0.12 m;
=Bω
B = / ω = 2/5 = 0.4
The equation becomes
x = 0.12 Cos5t + 0.4 Sin5t
Let 0.12 = X sinΦ and 0.4 = X cos Φ

x = X [ sinΦ. Cos5t + cos Φ. Sin5t]
x = X Sin (5t + Φ)
X = √(0.12)2 + (0.4)2 = 0.42
x = 0.42 Sin (5t+0.29)
Φ = tan-1 0.12/0.4 = 0.29 rad
Equation of motion is
x = 0.42 Sin (5t+0.29)
When t = 2.5 s
x = 0.42 Sin (12.79)
= 0.093 m = 93 mm
Example 8.7:
A spring mass system has a natural frequency of 5 rad / s. By
increasing the mass by 1 kg, the frequency is altered by 10%.
Find the original mass of the system.
Solution:
Let m be the original mass. New mass = m+1 kg
Natural frequency, ω = 5 rad / s ;
ω = √k/m = 5
k/m =25
k =25m
Altered frequency = 0.9ω (frequency decreases when
mass is increased)
√k/(m+1) = 0.9 x 5 = 4.5
k/(m+1) = 20.25
25m / (m+1) = 20.25
25m = 20.25(m+1) = 20.25m +20.25
4.75m = 20.25
m = 20.25/4.75 = 4.263 kg

Example 8.8:
A circular disc having 10 kg mass is mounted at mid span of 25
mm diameter shaft supported by two bearings. Due to
manufacturing inaccuracy, the mass center is shifted by 0.025
mm away from the geometric centre of the disc. If the span
between two bearings is 500 mm and the shaft rotates at 4000
RPM, determine the amplitude of vibration and reactions on the
bearings. Take modulus of elasticity, E = 2 x1011 N/m2
Solution:
Given data:
Mass ,m = 10 kg; shaft dia. ,d = 25 mm eccentricity, e = 0.025
mm; span, l = 500 mm; speed, N = 4000RPM ; E = 2x1011 N/m2
ω = 2.π x 4000 /60 = 419 rad / s
Staic deflection of shaft, δ = m.g.l3 / 48 EI

I = π. (0.025)4 / 64 = 1.9175 x 10-8 m4
δ = 10 x 9.81 x 0.53 /48 x 2 x1011 x 1.9175 x 10-8 = 0.0000667 m
Natural frequency, ωn = √ (g/ δ)
= √ (9.81/ 0.0000667) = 383.5 rad / s
Amplitude, y = e / [(ωn / ω )2 – 1]
= 0.025 / [(383.5 / 419)2 – 1]
= -0.154 mm
(- indicates deflection is opposite to dynamic force)
Dynamic force on shaft, F = k.y
where k = stiffness of the shaft = m.ωn2
F = m.ωn2.y
= 10 x 383.52 x 0.154 x 10-3 = 226.5 N
Reaction on each bearing,
Rb = m.g /2 + F/2
Rb = (10 x 9.81 + 226.5) / 2 = 162.3 N

Example 8.9:
A shaft 1.2 m long has diameter of 45 mm for half the length
and 60 mm for the remaining length. One end of the shaft is
fixed and other end carries a rotor of mass 200 kg with a radius
of gyration of 45 mm. find the frequency of free torsional
vibration neglecting the inertia of the shaft. Take G = 84 GN /
m2 .
Solution:
Considering a torsionally equivalent shaft of 45 mm diameter
through out to the given stepped shaft, Length of the equivalent
shaft is given by
Le = 600 + 600 x (45/60)4
= 790 mm
Torsional stiffness,
q = GJ / Le = 84 x 109 x π (0.045)4 / 32 x 0.790
= 42806 Nm /m
Frequency, ω = √ (q / I)
= √ [42806 / 200 x (0.045)2]
= 325 rad / s
Frequency, f = ω / 2π = 325 / 2π = 51.72 Hz

Example 8.10:
A shaft of 50 mm diameter and 3 m long is simply supported at
the ends and carries three loads of 1000 N, 1500 N and 750 N at
1 m, 2 m and 2.5 m from the left support. The Young’s modulus
for the shaft material is 200 GPa. Find the frequency of
transverse vibrations
Solution:
Let δ1, δ2 and δ3 be the static deflections when loads 1000 N,

1500 N and 750 N act one at a time alone respectively.
Static deflection, δ = W.a2.b2 / 3 EIL
Moment inertia, I = [π (0.050)4/64] = 3.06796 x 10-7 m4
δ1 = 1000 x 12 x 22 / 3 x 200 x 109 x 3.06796 x10-7 x 3

= 0.00724 m
δ2 = 1500 x 22 x 12 / 3 x 200 x 109 x 3.06796 x10-7 x 3
= 0.0109 m
δ3 = 750 x (2.5)2 x (0.5)2 / 3 x 200 x 109 x 3.06796 x10-7 x 3
= 0.00212 m
Natural frequency, fn = 0.4985 / √ (δ1 + δ2 + δ3 )

= 0.4985 /√ (0.00724 + 0.0109+ 0.00212)
= 3.502 Hz

8.11 Damped Vibrations:
Damping may be classified as 1. Viscous damping, 2. Coulomb
or friction damping, 3. Structural damping. The damping force
is proportional to the velocity in viscous damping, to the normal
reaction in friction damping.
Structural damping is due to the internal friction. It is attributed
to the hysteresis loss due to the cyclic stresses in elastic
materials. The energy loss per cycle is proportional to the square
of the amplitude and independent of frequency.
Viscous damping is extensively used.
8.12 Spring mass system with viscous damping:
Fig. 8.8
From the free body diagram, Refer Fig. 8.8
∑F = 0

Let c be the resistance offered by the viscous media per unit
velocity.
c = damping coefficient in Ns/m
m. +c + k.x = 0
The solution for this second order differential equation will be in
the form of
x = A.e λ1.t + B.e λ2.t
The auxiliary equation in terms of operator D is
mD2 + c.D +k = 0
The roots of this equation, λ1 and λ2 are given by
λ1, λ2 = {-c ± √(c2 – 4km)}/2m
= -c/2m ± √ [(c/2m)2 – k/m]
The roots are equal, if c/2m)2 – k/m = 0
The corresponding damping coefficient is called critical
damping coefficient denoted by cc.
(cc / 2m)2 = k/m
cc / 2m = √ (k/m) = ωn
cc = 2mωn = 2√(k.m)
The actual damping coefficient, c may be expressed as multiple
of cc.
Let the ratio of actual damping coefficient to the critical
damping coefficient be ζ (zeta).
c / cc = ζ
c = ζ.cc
λ1, λ2 = -c/2m ± √(c/2m)2 – k/m)
c / 2m = ζcc / 2m
= ζ.2.mωn /2m
= ζ.ωn
λ1, λ2 = -ζωn ± √ [(ζωn )2 – (ωn)2]
= ωn [-ζ ±√(ζ2 -1)]
The solution of the differential equation depends on the value of
ζ

If ζ > 1, over damping occurs. The roots are real and different.
ζ < 1, it is under damping. The roots are imaginary and
complex conjugates.
ζ = 1, it is critical damping. The roots are equal and each
equals to -ωn.
1. Over damping:
m. +c + k.x = 0 Refer Fig. 8.9
x = A.e λ1.t + B.e λ2.t
= Ae ωn.t [-ζ + √(ζ2 -1)] + Be ωn.t [-ζ - √(ζ2 -1)] ζ> 1
Constants A and B can be determined from the initial
conditions.
As the power is negative, the magnitude of the resultant
displacement approaches zero.
It is an equation for aperiodic motion. Hence no vibrations exist.
The displacement gradually comes to zero.
Fig. 8.9
2. Under damping
m. +c + k.x = 0 Refer Fig. 8.10
x = Ae λ1.t + Be λ2.t
= Ae ωn.t [-ζ + i √(1-ζ2)] + Be ωn.t [-ζ -i√(1-ζ2)] as ζ< 1

= e - ζ ωn.t(Ae iωd.t + Be -iωd.t) where ωd = ωn√(1-ζ2)
= e- ζ ωn.t[A{cos( ωdt )+ i.sin (ωdt) }+ B{cos( ωdt )- i.sin (ωdt)}]
x = e - ζ ωn.t[(A+B)cos( ωd.t )+ i.(A-B)sin (ωd.t) - (a)
Let A+B = X.sin φ and i(A-B) = X.cos φ
where X and φ are constants.
X = √[(A+B)2 - (A-B)2]
Tan φ = (A+B) / i(A-B)
Substituting the values of X and φ in equation (a) and
simplifying,
x = e - ζ ωn.t.X.sin(ωd.t+φ)
x = X.e- ζ ωn.t.sin(ωd.t+φ)
x = Xsin φ , a constant when t =0
2
ωd is damped frequency = ωn√(1-ζ )
X.e- ζ ωn.t is the decreasing amplitude for the given values of ζ
and ωn. It becomes 0 at t = ∞
sin(ωd.t+φ) indicates periodic motion
X is the max. amplitude
φ is the phase difference (leading)
Fig. 8.10

3. Critical damping
m. +c + k.x = 0 Refer Fig. 8.11
x = (A+ Bt)e λt w hen only one root exists
= (A + Bt)e -ωn.t as ζ = 1
-ωn.t
e approaches zero as t approaches ∞
The displacement gradually becomes zero as time tends to ∞
The motion is again aperiodic. Hence no vibrations exist.
Fig. 8.11
8.13 Logarithmic decrement:

The amplitude of damped vibrations decreases each cycle
Let X0 be displacement at the starting.
When t = Td (time period of the damped vibrations.)
X1 = Xe- ζ ωn.td.sin(ωd.Td+φ),
= Xe- ζ ωn.td.sin(ωd.2 π / ωd +φ)
X1 = Xe- ζ ωn.td.sin (2 π +φ)
= Xe- ζ ωn.td.sinφ
X2 = Xe- ζ ωn.2Td .sinφ
X3 = Xe- ζ ωn.3Td .sinφ
..
..
Xn = Xe- ζ ωn.Td .sinφ
Xn+1 = Xe- ζ ωn.(n+1)Td .sinφ

Xn /Xn+1 = e +ζ ωnTd
X0/X1 = X1/X2= X2/X3=…. Xn/Xn+1
X1/Xn = X1/X2 x X2/X3 x…. Xn-1/Xn
X1/Xn = (X1/X2)n-1
The ratio of two successive amplitudes is constant.
The natural logarithm of the ratio of two successive
amplitudes is known as Logarithmic Decrement (δ).
δ = loge (Xn / Xn+1) = loge (e + ζ ωn.td )
= ζ ωn.Td. loge (e)
= ζ ωn.Td
= ζ ωn.2. π / ωd
= ζ ωn.2. π / ωn√1- ζ2)
= 2. π ζ / √(1- ζ2)
δ = 2. π ζ / √(1- ζ2)
Example 8.11:
A machine of 75 kg is mounted on springs and is fitted with a
dash-pot to damp out vibrations. There are three springs, each of
stiffness 10 N/mm and it is found that the amplitude of vibration
diminishes from 38.4 mm to 6.4 mm in two complete
oscillations. Assuming that the damping force varies as the
velocity, determine:
1. The resistance of the dash pot at unit velocity
2. The ratio of the frequency of damped vibration to
the frequency of the undamped vibration
3. The periodic time of the damped vibration.
Solution:
Given data:
m =75 kg; 3 springs; k =3 x 10 = 30 N/mm; x0 = 38.4 mm; x2
=6.4 mm

Natural frequency, ωn = √ k/m = √ 30 x 103 / 75 = 20 rad / s
x0 / x1 = (x0 / x2)1/2 = (38.4 /6.4)1/2= 2.45
Logarithmic decrement, δ = loge (x0 / x1) = loge 2.45 = 0.896
δ = 2π ζ / √ (1- ζ2) = 0.896
4π2 ζ2 = (1- ζ2) x 0.8962
ζ2 [39.48 + (0.896)2] = 0.8962
ζ = √ (0.8962/ 40.28) = 0.141

The resistance of the dash pot at unit velocity, c:
c = 2m ωn. ζ = 2 x 75 x 20 x 0.141 = 423 N/m
The ratio of the frequency of damped vibration to the frequency

of the undamped vibration, ωd / ωn
ωd / ωn = √ (1- ζ2 ) =√ (1- 0.1412) = 0.99
Damped frequency, ωd = ωn √ (1- ζ2 ) =20 x √ (1- 0.1412)

= 19.8 rad/s
Damped time period, Td = 2 π / ωd = 2 π / 19.8 = 0.317 s
Example 8.12:
A mass of 24 kg is suspended by a spring along with a dashpot.
The spring has a stiffness of 20 N/mm. Damping coefficient of
the dash pot is 0.15 N.s /mm. Initially the system is at rest and a
velocity of 140 mm / s is imparted to the mass.
1. Determine the equation of motion.
2. Find the displacement and velocity of the mass after 0.5
seconds.

Solution:
Given data:
m =24 kg; k =20 N/mm; c = 0.15 N/mm/s At t=0 , x = 0 & =
140 mm / s
Natural frequency, ωn = √ k/m = √ (20 x 103 / 24) = 28.9 rad / s
ζ = c / 2m ωn = 0.15 x 103 / 2 x 24 x 28.9 = 0.108
ωd = ωn. √ (1- ζ2) = 28.9 √ (1- 0.1082) = 28.7 rad / s
x = X.e- ζ ωn.t.Sin(ωd.t+φ)
At t=0, x = 0
0 = X.e- ζ ωn.t.Sin(ωd.t+φ)
Sin (φ) = 0 as X can not be zero
φ=0
x = X.e- ζ ωn.t.Sin (ωd.t)
= X.e- ζ ωn.t. ωd. Cos (ωd.t) + X. (- ζ ωn.) .e- ζ ωn.t.Sin (ωd.t)
At t=0, = 140 mm / s = 0.140 m/s
0.140 = X ωd.
X = 0.140 / 28.7 = .00488 m = 4.88 mm
Now the equations of displacement and velocity can be written
as
x = 4.88.e- 3.12 t.Sin (28.7.t)
= 140.1 e- 3.12.t.Cos (28.7 t) – 15.23 .e- 3.12.t.Sin (28.7 t)
= e- 3.12 t [140.1.Cos (28.7 t) – 15.23 Sin (28.7 t)]
Displacement, x = 4.88 e- 3.12.t.Sin (28.7 t)
Displacement, at t = 0.5 s
X = 4.88 e- 3.12 x 0.5 .Sin (28.7 x 0.5)

= 1.002 mm

Velocity, at t = 0.5 s
= e-3.12 x 0.5 [140.1 Cos (28.7x0.5) – 15.23 Sin (28.7x 0.5)]
= - 9.35 mm /s
Example 8.13:
In a single degree damped vibrating system, the suspended mass
of 4 kg makes 24 oscillations in 20 seconds. The amplitude
decreases to 0.3 of the initial value after 4 oscillations. Find the
stiffness of the spring, the logarithmic decrement, the damping
factor and damping coefficient.
Solution:
Given data:
m =4 kg; 24 oscillations in 20 seconds; x4 = 0.3 x0
Natural frequency, fn = 24 / 20 = 1.2 c/s
ωn = 2π fn = 1.2 x2 π = 7.54 rad / s
Spring stiffness, k = m ωn 2 = 4 x 7.542 = 227.4 N/m
x0 / x4 = 1 / 0.3 = 3.333
x0 / x1 = (x0 / x4)1/4 = 3.3331/4 = 1.351
Logarithmic decrement, δ =loge 1.351 = 0.301
δ = 2π ζ / √ (1- ζ2) = 0.301
1- ζ2 = [2π ζ / 0.301]2 = 435.7 ζ2
1 = 436.7 ζ2
ζ = √ (1/ 436.7) = 0.0479
Damping factor, ζ = 0.0479
Damping coefficient, c = 2m ωn ζ
= 2 x 4 x 7.54 x 0.0479 = 2.89 N.s / m
8.14 Forced damped vibrations:

From the free body diagram, Refer Fig. 8.12
∑F = 0
-m. -c - k.x + F.Sin ωt =0

m. +c + k.x = F.Sin ωt
Fig. 8.12
The total solution for this second order differential equation will
be in the form of
x = xc + xp where xc is complimentary Function (CF)and
xp is Particular integral.(PI)
CF :
m. +c + k.x = 0 -- (1)
Solution x = X.e- ζ ωn.t.sin(ωd.t+φd)
PI :
m. +c + k.x = F.Sin ωt -- (2)
Let the solution be x = A Sin ωt + B Cos ωt
= ω A Cos ωt – ω B Sin ωt

= -ω2 A Sin ωt – ω2 B Cos ωt
Substituting these values in equation (2)
m(-ω2 A Sin ωt – ω2 B Cos ωt) + c(ω A Cos ωt – ω B Sin ωt) +
k(A Sin ωt + B Cos ωt) = F.Sin ωt
At ωt = 0 -m ω2B +cωA +kB =0 –(3)
At ωt = π/2 -m ω2A -c ωB +kA =F - (4)
From eq. (3) A = -B (-m ω2+k) / c ω
From eq. (4) A (-m ω2+k) -c ωB = F
-B[(-m ω2+k)2 / c ω} -c ωB] = F
-B[{(-m ω2+k)2 / c ω} + c ω] =F
-B = F. c ω/ {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
A = F (k- m ω2)/ {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
Now the solution, x = A Sin ωt + B Cos ωt, for the Equation (2)
becomes
x = F.(k- m ω2) .Sin ωt - F. c ω .Cos ωt
{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2} {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
= F [(k- m ω2).Sin ωt - c ω Cos ωt]
{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
This equation can be brought into more convenient form by
assuming
k- m ω2 = X.cosφ and c ω = X.sin φ
X = √ {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
Tan φ = c ω / (k- m ω2)
x= F [(X.cos φ Sin ωt – X.sin φ Cos ωt]
{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
x= F [X.Sin (ωt – φ)]
{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
x = F.√{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2} [Sin (ωt – φ)]
{ (k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
x= F. [Sin (ωt – φ)]
√ {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}

The total solution:
x = X.e- ζ ωn.t.sin(ωd.t+φd) + F. [Sin (ωt – φ)]
√ {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
The first term is transient response which dies down after some
time. The second term is steady state response which continues
with the same frequency as that of the exciting force with
maximum amplitude
X= F .
√ {(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
= F /k .
√ {(1- m ω2 /k)2 + (c ω/k)2}
c / k = ζ.cc /k
= ζ.2mωn /k
= ζ.2ωn / ωn2
= 2 ζ ωn
X= δ .
√ [{1- (ω/ ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2]
Where δ = F/k = static deflection.
X/ δ = 1 .
2 2 2
√ [{1- (ω/ ωn) } + (2 ζ ω/ ωn) ]
X/ δ is known as Magnification factor (MF).
When ω = ωn , resonance occurs. At resonance
MF = 1 / 2 ζ
When damping is absent, ζ = 0
MF = 1 / {1- (ω/ ωn) 2}
It can be proved that the MF will be maximum under damping,
when ω/ ωn = √ (1-2 ζ2)
The maximum value of MF under damping is
MF max = 1/2 ζ√ (1-ζ2)
Fig. 8.13 shows the MF for various values of ω/ ωn.

Fig. 8.13
8.15 Vibration isolation and transmissibility:

The unbalanced rotating masses, if any, give raise to
vibrations in the machines. These vibrations are transmitted
to foundation causing damaging effects. The machines are
generally mounted on springs and dampers or any isolating
material in order to diminish the vibrations.
The vibratory forces reach the foundations through springs
and dampers. The resultant force transmitted to the
foundations is the vector sum of spring force and damping
force. Refer Fig. 8.14.

Fig. 8.14
Spring force being proportional to displacement = k.A
Where A is max. amplitude
Damping force being proportional to velocity = cω.A
These two forces are perpendicular to each other.
Resultant Transmitted force,
Ft = √ {( k.A)2 + (cω.A)2}
= A √{k2 + (cω)2}
As amplitude, A = F .
√{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
Ft = F.√{k2 + (cω)2}
√{(k- m ω2)2 + (c ω)2}
= F√{1+ (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2}
√ {{1- (ω /ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2}
Transmissibility (ε):
It is the ratio of force transmitted to the foundation to the
applied force.
ε = Ft / F
= √{1+ (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2} .
√{{1- (ω /ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2

Fig. 8.15
ε = √{1+ (2 ζ )2} When ω = ωn

2ζ
ε = ± 1/ [1- (ω/ ωn)2] When ζ = 0
ε =1 When ω /ωn = √2
From the Fig. 8.15, it can be seen that:

1. When ω /ωn < √2 ; ε > 1 i.e. transmitted force is always
more than excited force for all values of ζ and ε increases
as ζ decreases.
2. When ω /ωn >√2 ; ε < 1 and ε increases as ζ increases

3. When ω /ωn = √2 ; ε = 1
4. When ω /ωn = 1 ; ε is infinity. If the damping is used the,
magnitude of transmitted force can be reduced.
Thus in a system where ω /ωn can vary from zero to higher

values, dampers should not be used. Instead stoppers may be
used to limit the resonance amplitude.
Example 8.14:
A mass of 100 kg, is suspended on a spring having k =19600
N/m and is acted upon by a harmonic force of 39.2 N at the
undamped natural frequency. The damping may be considered
viscous with a coefficient of 98 N.s /m. Determine:
(a) Damped natural frequency
(b) Amplitude of vibration of the mass
(c) The phase difference between the force and the
displacement
Solution:
Given data:
m =100kg; 3 springs; k = 19600 N/mm; c = 98 N.s /m; applied
harmonic force = 39.2 N
Frequency of applied force,
ω = undamped natural frequency = ωn
Natural frequency, ωn = √ (k/m) = √ (19600/100) = 14 rad / s
Let applied force = F Sin ( ω t ) ω = ωn = 14 rad / s
= 39.2 Sin 14 t
Damping factor, ζ = c / 2 m ωn = 98 / 2 x 100 x 14 = 0.035
Damped natural frequency,

ωd = ωn. √ (1- ζ2) = 14 √ (1- 0.0352) = 13.99 rad / s
Amplitude, X = F / √ {(k- m ω 2)2 + (c ω)2}

= 39.2 / √ {(19600- 100 x 142)2 + (98 x 14)2}
= 39.2 / 98 x 14
= 0.0286 m = 28.6 mm
Tan φ = c ω / (k- m ω2)
= 98 x 14 / (19600 – 100 x 142) = ∞
Phase angle, φ = 900
Example 8.15:
A spring mass damper system has a time period of 0.4 sec. and
the ratio of two successive amplitudes under free vibrations is
1.8. If the system is excited under a harmonic excitation, the
steady state amplitude is found to be 5 mm at an excitation
frequency of 12 cpm. What will be the amplitude and the phase
if the same force is applied at a frequency of 15 cpm?
Solution:
Given data:
Time period, T = 0.4 s; x0 / x1 = 1.8; Amplitude, X 1 = 5 mm at
f1 = 12 cpm; f2 = 15 cpm
fn = 1 / T = 1/ 0.4 = 2.5 cps
ωn = 2π fn = 2 π.2.5 = 15.7 rad /s

Logarithmic decrement, δ = loge x0 / x1 = loge 1.8 = 0.588
δ = 2π ζ / √ (1- ζ2) = 0.588
1- ζ2 = [2π ζ / 0.588]2 = 114.2 ζ2
1 = 115.2 ζ2
ζ = √ (1/ 115.2) = 0.0932
X = (F/k) / √ [{1- (ω/ ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2]
Where F is exciting harmonic force
ω1 = 2π x 12 / 60 = 1.26 rad /s; ω 1 / ωn = 1.26 / 15.7 = 0.08
ω2 = 2π x 15 / 60 = 1.57 rad /s; ω 2 / ωn = 1.57 / 15.7 = 0.1
X1 = (F/k) / √ [{1- (0.08) 2}2 + (2 x 0.0932 x 0.08)2]

5 = (F/k) / 0.994
(F/k) = 5 x 0.994 = 4.97
X2 = (F/k) / √ [{1- (0.1) 2}2 + (2 x 0.0932 x 0.1)2]
= (F/k) / 0.99
= 4.97 / 0.99 = 5.02 mm
Tan φ = c ω / (k- m ω2)
= 2 ζ (ω 2 / ωn) / 1- (ω 2 / ωn )2
= 2 x 0.0932 x 0.1 / (1- 0.1 ) 2
Tan φ = 0.023
Phase angle, φ = 1.32 0
Example 8.16:
A machine having 300 kg mass is mounted on isolators. The
combined stiffness and damping coefficient of isolators are 5
MN / m and 3.2 kN.s /m. The machine is driven through a belt
by an electric motor of speed 3000 RPM. Determine the
vibratory amplitude of the machine at running speed due to
harmonic force of 1 kN. Also determine vibratory amplitude
when the machine speed passes through resonance condition.
Solution:
Given data:
m = 300 kg; k = 5 x 106 N/m; c = 3.2 x 103 N.s/m;
Speed, N = 3000 RPM;
Harmonic force, F = 1 x 103 N
ωn = √k/m = √ (5 x 106 /300) = 129 rad /s

ω = 2π x 3000 /60 = 314 rad / s
ω / ωn = 314 / 129 = 2.434
ζ = c / 2m ωn = 3.2 x 103 / 2 x 300 x 129 = 0.0413
X = (F/k) / √ [{1- (ω/ ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2]

= (1000 / 5 x 106 ) / √ [{1- (2.434) 2}2 + (2 x 0.0413 x 2.434)2]
= 4.06 x 10-5 m = 0.0406 mm
At resonance ω = ωn =129 rad/s
X res = (F/k) / 2 ζ
= (1000 / 5 x 106 ) / 2 x 0.0413
= 0.00242 m = 2.42 mm
Example 8.17:
In a single cylinder reciprocating engine supported on springs
and dash pot, the total mass == 400 kg, mass of the
reciprocating parts = 15 kg. Static deflection of the springs due
to system weight = 50 mm. Stroke = 200 mm, ratio of
consecutive amplitudes in free vibration of the system = 1:0.45.
The connecting rod is long enough to generate a near harmonic
motion of the reciprocating parts. Determine:
1. Amplitude of the engine vibration at 300 RPM
2. The force transmitted to the ground at this speed.
Solution:
Given data:
M = 400 kg; mr = 15 kg; stroke = 200 mm; static deflection, δs =
50 mm; x0 / x1 = 1/0.45; Speed N =300 RPM
Crank radius = stroke / 2 = 200/2 = 100 mm
k = m.g / δs = 400 x 9.81 / 0.050 = 78480 N/m
ωn = √k/m = √ (78480 / 400) =14 rad /s
ω = 2π x 300 /60 = 31.4 rad / s
ω / ωn = 31.4 / 14 = 2.244
Logarithmic decrement, δ = loge x0 / x1 = loge (1/0.45) = 0.7985
δ = 2π ζ / √ (1- ζ2) = 0.7985
1- ζ2 = [2π ζ / 0.7985]2 = 61.91 ζ2
1 = 62.91 ζ2
ζ = √ (1/ 62.91) = 0.126

Exciting harmonic force,
F = mrω2 r
= 15 x 31.42 x 0.1
= 1479 N
X = (F/k) / √ [{1- (ω/ ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2]
= (1479 / 78480) / √ [{1- (2.244) 2}2 + (2 x 0.126 x 2.244)2]
= 0.00462 m = 4.62 mm
Force transmitted to the ground, Ft :
Ft = F.√ {1+ (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2} / √[{{1- (ω /ωn) 2}2 + (2 ζ ω/ ωn)2]
= 1479.√ {1+ (2 x 0.126 x 2.244)2} / √ [{1- (2.244) 2}2 + (2 x
0.126 x 2.244)2]
= 417 N
Exercise - 8
1. A beam supported by 2 springs is shown in the figure
below. Determine the natural frequency of the beam.
(Ans. √ [k (a2 + b2) / mc2]
2. The system shown in figure below is constrained to

move in the vertical direction. Assuming pulleys mass

less and the strings around the pulleys remain taught,
derive the equation of motion and determine the natural
frequency and time period. m= 10 kg; k 1 = 2k2 = 4 k3 = 8;
k4 = 1000 N/m (Ans. 0.6325 rad/s, 9.934 s)
3. In a spring- mass-damper system, mass = 2.5 kg,

stiffness = 30 N/cm, and the free vibration amplitude
decreases 0.25 times the initial value after five
consecutive cycles. Determine the damping coefficient
of the system. (Ans. 7.67 N.s/m)
4. A shaft 200 mm diameter is supported in bearings 2.5 m

apart and carries three discs which weigh 250, 450 and
200 N and are situated respectively 60 cm, 150 cm and
195 cm from one of the bearings. Obtain the critical

speed using Dunkerley’s method. Material of the shaft is
steel. Take E =200 GPa. Density of steel = 7800 k g/m3
(Ans. 112.7 Hz)
5. A mass attached to a spring of stiffness 6 N/cm has

viscous damping device. When the mass was displaced
and released, the period of vibration was found to be 1.8
sec., and the ratio of consecutive amplitude was 4.2:1.
Determine the amplitude and phase when a force F = 4
Cos (3t) acts on the system.
(Ans. 0.014 m, 51.50)
6. The free vibration decay curve for a spring mass damper

system is shown in figure. If the mass of the system is 10
kg, determine the damping coefficient and the spring
stiffness.(Ans. 22.32 Ns/m, 9885 N/m)
7. Determine the lowest frequency of a simply supported

beam of length ‘L ‘, which carries masses m, 4m and 2
m at the quarter points. Take moment of inertia as ‘I’ and
young’s modulus ‘E’. ( Ans. 0.462 / √ (mL3/EI) c/s)

8. Figure shown below is a system with a spring constant, k
and coefficient of viscous damping, c. Find out the
critical damping coefficient of the system and frequency
of damped oscillations
(Ans. 2(a/ L) √ (k m), (a/2mL2) √ (4kmL2- c2 a2))

An Epitome
of
Chapter 9
9.0 Vibrations: Two Degrees of freedom

The two DOF systems are different from single DOF systems.
When two masses are suspended from two independent springs
the displacements of two masses are required to find the
frequencies of the vibrating masses. When 2 parameters are
needed to analyze the problem, the system is said to be vibrating
with 2 degrees of Freedom (DOF). When more than two
parameters are needed then the system is referred to as multi
degree freedom system. The 2 DOF and multi DOF problems
are alike.
Under certain initial conditions, all the masses vibrate with the
same frequency and the system is said to be vibrating in Normal
mode.
The phase difference of the displacements of the masses is either
00 or 1800.
9.1 Natural frequencies of 2-DOF system:
From the free body diagrams, Refer Fig. 9.1, the equations of
motion are
m1. 1 +k1.x1 - k2 (x2 – x1) = 0 k in N/m
m1. 1 + (k1+k2)x1 - k2x2 = 0 – (1) m in Kg
m2. 2 + k2 x2 – k 2 x1 = 0 – (2) ω in rad/s
Let x1 = A1 Sin ωt &
x2 = A2 Sin ωt
2
1 =-m1 ω A1 Sin ωt

2 =-m2 ω2 A2 Sin ωt
Fig. 9.1
Substituting the values of xi and I in equations 1 & 2 we get
(k1+k2 – m1 ω2) x1 – k2 x2 = 0 – (3)
-k2 x1 + (k2 –m2 ω2) x2 = 0 – (4)
For non trivial solution the determinant is zero.
(k1+k2 – m1 ω2) (k2 – m2 ω2) – (k2) 2 = 0

ω4 - ω2 {(k1 + k2) / m1 + k2 / m2} + k1 k2 / m1 m2 = 0
(ω)21, 2 = [(k1 + k2) / m1 + k2 / m2
± √ {(k1 + k2) / m1 + k2/ m2}2 – 4k1 k2 / m1 m2}] / 2

Thus system has two natural frequencies ω1 and ω2, neglecting
negative values. The lowest one is known as fundamental
frequency.
By substituting the each frequency in the equations (3) or (4) the
ratios of amplitudes can be known.
The ratio of the amplitudes gives the mode shapes of the
vibration. It can be seen that at lower frequency, the masses
move in the same sense and at higher frequency, the masses
move in opposite sense as shown in Fig. 9.2
Fig. 9.2
at ω = ω1
x11 / x21 = k2 / (k1+k2 – m1 (ω1)2 = k2 – m2 (ω1)2 / k2
Similarly at ω = ω2
x12 / x22 = k2 / (k1+k2 – m1 (ω2)2
= k2 – m2 (ω2)2 / k2
where
xij = displacement of ith mass under jth frequency.
9.2 Matrix representation:
The equations of motion may be expressed in the matrix form.

m1. 1 + (k1+k2) x1 - k2x2 = 0 – (1)
m2. 2 + k2 x2 – k 2 x1 = 0 – (2)
[m] { } + [k] {x} = 0
- ω2 [m] {x} + [k] {x} = 0
Where
-ω2 [m] + [k] = 0

-ω2 + [m] -1 [k] = 0
ω2 = [m] -1 [k]
ω2 = [H] where [m] -1 [k] = [H]
[H] - ω2 [I] = 0 where [I] is unity matrix.
The characteristic equation
│ [H] - ω2 [I] │= 0 from which the values of ω can be
obtained.
9.3 Dunkerley’s method:

The first natural frequency of a multi DOF system as shown in
Fig. 9.3, can be approximately calculated using Dunkerley’s
method. This value is slightly lower than the actual value.
Fig. 9.3
According to Dunkerley the first natural frequency is given by

the formula
1/ ω2 = a11m1 + a22 m2 + a33 m3 + …… ann mn

Where aij is the displacement of ith mass due to a unit force at jth
mass. a ij is the flexibility coefficient which is reciprocal of
stiffness.
For the system shown in the fig. above,
a11 = 1 / k1 a22 = 1/k1 + 1/k2 a33 = 1/k1 + 1/k2 + 1/k3
In general, if a stiffness matrix is given the flexibility matrix is
given by
[a] = [k]-1
Example 9.1:
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the
system shown below.
Solution:
Let x1 and x2 be the displacements of masses m1 and m2 and x2 >
x1.
From the free body diagrams, shown in the figure above,
1 +200 x1 - 300(x2 – x1) = 0
1 + 500 x1 – 300 x2 = 0
-ω2x1+ 500 x1 – 300 x2 = 0
(500 -ω2) x1 – 300 x2 = 0 – (1)

2 2 + 300 x2 – 300 x1 = 0
-2 ω2x2+ 300 x2 – 300 x1 = 0
- 300 x1 + (300-2 ω2) x2 = 0 – (2)
For non trivial solution of equations 1 and 2, the determinant is
zero.
(500 – ω2) (300 – 2ω2) – 300 2 = 0
2ω4 – 1300 ω2 + 150000 – 90000 = 0
2ω4 – 1300 ω2 + 60000 = 0
ω4 – 650 ω2 + 30000 = 0
(ω)2 = [650 +/- √ ( 6502 – 4 x 30000)] / 2
= 600 or 50
ω1 =7 rad / s and ω2 = 24 .5 rad / s
Substituting ω1 in equation 1
(500 -600) x1 – 300 x2 = 0
x1 / x2 = 300 / -100 = -3 / 1
(500 -50) x1 – 300 x2 = 0
x1 / x2 = 300 / 450 = 2 /3
Modes:
At ω = 24.5, Mode 1 Mode 2
x1 / x2 = -3 / 1
At ω = 7,
x1 / x2 = 2 /3
Mode shapes are shown in the
figure
Example 9.2:
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the
system shown below.

Solution:
Let x1 and x2 be the displacements of masses m1 and m2 and x2 >

x1.
From the free body diagrams, shown in the figure above,
1 - 300(x2 – x1) = 0
1 + 300 x1 – 300 x2 = 0
-ω2x1+ 300 x1 – 300 x2 = 0
(300 -ω2) x1 – 300 x2 = 0 – (1)
2 2 + 300 x2 – 300 x1 = 0
-2 ω2x2+ 300 x2 – 300 x1 = 0
- 300 x1 + (300-2 ω2) x2 = 0 – (2)
zero.
(300 – ω2) (300 – 2ω2) – 300 2 = 0

2ω4 – 900 ω2 + 90000 – 90000 = 0
ω2( 2 ω2 – 900) = 0
ω2 = 900 /2 = 450
ω = √ 450 = 21.2 rad /s Neglecting – ve
value

(300 -450) x1 – 300 x2 = 0
-150 x1 = 300 x2
x1 / x2 = 300 / -150 = -2 / 1.
Mode shape is shown in the
figure
Mass 1 and mass 2 vibrate with Mode shape

displacements opposite to each
other at any time. It is observed
that the displacements are in the
inverse proportions to their
masses. x1 / x2 = m2 / m1
The system behaves as two
independent spring mass systems
from point ‘o’ as if the spring is
fixed at o, as shown in the figure.
Point ‘o’ divides the length of the
spring in the ratio of their
displacements. Point o is known
as node.
As the length of the spring is proportional to the number of

coils, the ratio of the coils will also be in the ratio of
displacements of the masses.
n1 / n2 = x1 / x2 = 2 /1
Where n1 & n2 are No. of coils of the springs for mass, m1 & m2
respectively
Original number of coils, n = n1 + n2

n1 = n x 2/3 ; n2 = n x 1/3

Stiffness is inversely proportional to the No. of coils or turns.
k1. n1 = k2 . n2 = k. n
where k is the stiffness of the spring.
k1 = k.n / n1
= 300 x n / (n x 2/3)
= 300 x 3 /2 = 450 N/m
k2 = 300 x 3 /1 = 900 N/m
Example 9.3:
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes for coupled
pendulums shown below.
Solution:
Free body diagrams

Let θ1 & θ2 be the small angular displacements of pendulums 1
& 2 and θ2 > θ1. It is assumed that in the rest position the force
on the spring is zero.
Taking moments about O, the equations of motion can be
written as
mL2 1 + mgL θ1 – ka2(θ2 - θ1) =0 - 1
mL2 2 + mgL θ2 + ka2(θ2 - θ1) =0 - 2
Let ω be the frequency, eq. (1) can be written as
-m ω2 L2 θ 1 + mgL θ1 + ka2(θ2 - θ1) =0
( mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2 ) θ1 – ka2 θ2 = 0 - 3
eq. (2) can be written as
-m ω2 L2 θ2 + mgL θ1+ ka2 (θ2 - θ1) =0
- ka2 θ1 + (mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2) θ2 = 0 - 4

zero.
(mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2)2 - (ka2)2 = 0
(mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2 + ka2) (mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2 - ka2) =0
(mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2 + ka2) = 0

ω2 = (mgL + 2ka2) / mL2
= g / L + 2ka2 / mL2
Or
(mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2 - ka2) =0

ω2 = mgL / m L2 = g /L
This system has two frequencies, ω1 & ω2

ω1 = √ (g/L); ω2 = √ (g/L + 2 ka2/mL2)
Substituting the values of frequencies in Eq. 3:
(mgL + ka2 -m ω2 L2) θ1 – ka2 θ2 = 0

When ω = ω1
(mgL + ka2 -m .g L2/L ) θ1 = ka2 θ2
θ1 / θ2 = ka2 / (mgL + ka2 - m .g L)
=1
When ω = ω2
(mgL + ka2 -m L2 (g/L + 2 ka2/mL2)) θ1 = ka2 θ2
(mgL + ka2 -m g L - 2 ka2) θ1 = ka2 θ2
-ka2. θ1 = ka2 θ2
θ1 / θ2 = -1
Mode shapes:
θ11 / θ21 = 1 and θ12 / θ22 = -1
θij is amplitude of mass mi under frequency of ωj.
Example 9.4:
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the rod
supported by two springs shown below. Mass of the beam is m
kg and mass moment of inertia is J kg.m2.
Solution:
Let the beam has a linear displacement, x and angular
displacement, θ.

The equations of motion may be written as:
m +k(x – Lθ) + k(x + Lθ) = 0 and
J +k(x + Lθ).L - k(x - Lθ).L = 0
m +2kx = 0 J - 2 k L2.θ = 0
+ (2k / m) x = 0 - 2 k L2 / J.θ = 0
ω2 = 2k / m ω2 = 2k L2/ J
The two frequencies are:

ω1 = √ (2k / m) and ω2 = √ (2k L2/ J)
Here ω1 is for linear vibration and ω2 is for oscillatory vibration
about cg of the given rod.
Example 9.5:
Calculate the fundamental frequency, using Dunkerley’s
method, for the 2-DOF system of which mass and flexibility
matrices are given below.
Solution:
Given data:
From the given matrices:
m1 = 20 kg ; m2 = 40 kg ; a11 = 0.006 m ; a22 = 0.004 m
According to Dunkerley’s formula
1/ ω2 = a11m1 + a22 m2
= 0.006 x 20 + 0.004 x 40
= 0.28
2
ω = 1 / 0.28 = 3.57
ω = 1.9 rad /s

Example 9.6:
Calculate the fundamental frequency, using Dunkerley’s
method, for the 2-DOF system of which mass and stiffness
matrices are given below.
Solution:
Given data:
From the given matrices:
m1 = 20 kg ; m2 = 40 kg ;
[k]-1 = Adj[k] / l k l
l k l = (500 x 300) – (-300 x -300)

= 60000
Flexibility matrix, [a] = [k]-1
According to Dunkerley’s formula

1/ ω2 = a11m1 + a22 m2
= 0.005 x 1 + 0.0083 x 2
= 0.0216
2
ω = 1 / 0.0216 = 46.3
Fundamental frequency, ω = 6.8 rad /s
It may be noticed that this value is slightly less than the value (7
rad/s), obtained in example 9.1.
9.4 Free torsional vibrations- 2 rotor system:

A shaft, held in bearing, carries two rotors A and B at each end
as shown in Fig. 9.4.
It can vibrate torsionally such that the two rotors move in
opposite directions. Some length of the shaft is twisted in one
direction while the rest is twisted in opposite direction. Hence
there will be one section along the length of the shaft which
does not undergo any twist. This section is known as nodal
section.
The shaft behaves as if clamped at the nodal section. The point
of intersection of this nodal section with the axis of the shaft is
known as Node.
Fig. 9.4

The nodal section divides the shaft into two sections of lengths
la & lb each, which vibrate as two separate shafts. Both the
sections vibrate with the same frequency.
ωna = ωnb
√(qa / Ia ) = √(qb / Ib )
qa / Ia = qb / Ib
GJ/ Iala = GJ / Iblb
Iala = Iblb
la / lb = Ib / Ia
The node divides the length of the shaft in the inverse ratio of
moments of inertia.
It can also be shown that the amplitude ratio, from the similar
triangles O1AaO & O2AbO is given by:
Aa / Ab = la / lb
9.5 Free torsional vibrations- 3 rotor system:

When three rotors are attached to a shaft as shown in Fig. 9.5, it
can vibrate torsionally in three ways.
Case 1: Rotors A & B twists in the same sense and rotor C
twists in opposite sense. Two nodes at D & E exist.
Case 2: Rotors B & C twists in the same sense and rotor A
twists in opposite sense. One node at D exists.
Case 3: Rotors A & C twists in the same sense and rotor B
twists in opposite sense. One node at E exists.
All the rotors vibrate at the same frequency.
ωna = ωnc = ωnb
√(qa / Ia ) = √(qc / Ic ) = √(qb / Ib )
qa / Ia = qc / Ic = qb / Ib
GJ/ Iala = GJ / Ic ( 1/lc1 + 1/ lc2 )= GJ / Iblb
1 / Iala = 1 / Ic ( 1/lc1 + 1/ lc2 )= 1 / Iblb
1 / Iala = 1 / Ic [1/ (l1 –la ) + 1/ (l2 – lb] = 1 / Iblb
1 / Iblb = 1 / Ic [1/ (l1 –la ) + 1/ (l2 – lb]

As Iala = Iblb , la = Iblb / Ia
Ic / Ib = lb [1/ (l1 –lbIb /Ia) + 1/ (l2 – lb )]
This gives a quadratic equation in lb. One set of values (roots) of

this equation gives the position of two nodes. The frequency
thus obtained is known as two node frequency. The frequency
corresponding to one node position is called single node
frequency.
Fig. 9.5

The amplitudes Aa, Ab & Ac of rotors A, B & C are given by
Aa / Ac = la / lc1 and
Ab / Ac = lb / lc2
In general the possible No. of node points and frequencies is one
less than the No. of rotors.
9.6 Free torsional vibrations- Geared system

Two shafts carrying one rotor each are connected through gears
as shown in fig. 9.6.
Fig. 9.6

This system can be replaced by an equivalent shaft system with
the assumptions:
1. Inertia of shaft and gears at section C is negligible.
2. Loads are within elastic limits of gear teeth.
3. No back lash or slip in the gear drive.
The system can be reduced to 2-Rotor system shown at (b)
provided
1. KE of system (b) is equal to that of (a).
2. SE of system (b) is equal to that of (a).
Keeping the diameter of shaft in the new system same as that of

the shaft connecting rotor A, the length of the new shaft and the
equivalent MOI of rotor B’ to be connected at the other end of
the shaft can be calculated.
KE of section l 2’ = KE of section l2
(½) [Ib’ (ωb’ )2]= (½) [Ib (ωb )2]

(½) [Ib’ (ωa )2] = (½) [Ib (ωb )2]
Ib’ = Ib (ωb / ωa )2
Ib’ = Ib /Gr2 where (ωa / ωb ) = Gear ratio, Gr2
Strain Energy of section l2’ = S.E. of section l2
(½) [Tb’θb’] = (½) [Tbθb]

GJb’(θb’)2 / l2’ = GJb(θb)2 / l2 G = modulus of rigidity
2 4
l2’ = l2 Gr (da/db)
Where ( Jb’/ Jb) = ( Ja / Jb) = (da / db)4
θb’/θb = ωd t / ωb t
= ωa / ωb
= Gr2
Total length of equivalent shaft:
L = l1 + l2 Gr2 (da/db)4

In case the inertia of gearing is not negligible, an additional
rotor has to be considered at a distance l1 from rotor A (shown
in dotted).
MOI of the rotor = Ic’ = Ic + Id / Gr2
Then the system acts as 3–Rotor system.
Example 9.7:
A steel shaft 1.5 m long is 95 mm in diameter for the first 0.6 m
of its length, 60 mm in diameter for the next 0.5 m of the length
and 50 mm in diameter for the remaining 0.4 m of its length.
The shaft carries two fly wheels at two ends, the first having a
mass of 900 kg and 0.85 m radius of gyration located at the 95
mm diameter end and the second having a mass of 700 kg and
0.55 m radius of gyration located at the other end. Determine the
location of the node and the natural frequency of free torsional
vibration of the system. The modulus of rigidity of the shaft
material may be taken as 80 GPa.
Solution:

Given data:
ma = 900 kg; kA = 0.85 m; mB = 700 kg;
kB = 0.55 m; G = 80 GPa;
The given shaft may be reduced to an equivalent shaft of
uniform dia. 50 mm and length Le;
Le = 600 (50/95)4 + 500(50/60)4 + 400
= 46 + 241.1 + 400
= 687 mm
Let the node be at L’A and L’B from rotors A and B respectively.
I1.L’A = I2.L’B
L’A / L’B = I2. / I1
= 700 x 0.552 / 900 x 0.852
= 0.326
L’A + L’B = 687
0.326 L’B + L’B = 687
L’B = 687 /1.326 = 518 mm
Natural frequency, ωn = √ (qB / IB)
qB = GJ / L’B = 80 x 109 x π(0.05)4 / 32 x 0.518
= 94763 Nm /rad
ωn = √ (94763 / 700 x 0.552)
= 21.15 rad./s
fn = 21.15 / 2 π = 3.36 Hz
Position of node on original shaft, LB:
LB = 400 + (518 – 400) x 500/241.1
= 400 + 244.7 = 644.7 mm from rotor B
Example 9.8:
The mass moment of inertia of three rotors A, B and C are 100,
225 and 20 kg.m2 respectively. The distance between A and B is
100 cm and between B and C is 150 cm. The shaft is 8 cm in
diameter. If the G = 80 GPa. , find the frequencies of free
torsional vibration of the system.

Solution:
Given data:
Ia = 100 kg.m2; Ib = 225 kg.m2 Ic = 20 kg.m2; d = 8 cm; G = 80
GPa;
1 / Iala = 1 / Ic ( 1/lc1 + 1/ lc2 ) = 1 / Iblb

1 / 100la = 1 / 20 (1/lc1 + 1/ lc2) = 1 / 225lb
1 / 100la = 1 / 225lb
la = 2.25 lb
(1 / 20) (1/lc1 + 1/ lc2) = 1 / 225lb
(1 / 20) [1/ (l1 –la) + 1/ (l2 – lb] = 1 / 225lb
(1 / 20) [1/ (100 –2.25 lb) + 1/ (150 – lb] = 1 / 225lb

[1/ (100 –2.25 lb) + 1/ (150 – lb)] = 0.0888 / lb
lb [150 – lb +100 –2.25 lb] = 0.08888(100 –2.25 lb) (150 – lb)
250 lb – 3.25 lb2 = 1333.2 – 38.9 lb + 0.2 lb2
3.45 lb2 -288.9 lb + 1333.2 = 0
lb2 -83.74 lb + 386.4 = 0
lb = [+83.74 +/- √{(-83.74)2 – 4 x 386.4 }] / 2
lb = (83.74 +/- 73.94 )/2
= 78.8 or 4.9cm
la = 2.25 lb = 177.3 or 11 cm
Single node mode is shown in fig. (b). 2-node mode is shown in

fig. (c)
Natural frequency, ωn = √ (qb / Ib)
qb = GJ / lb = 80 x 109 x π(0.08)4 / 32 x 0.788
when lb =78.8 cm
= 408248 Nm /rad
ωn1 = √ (408248 / 225) = 42.6 rad./s

fn1 = 42.6 / 2 π = 6.9 Hz
This is fundamental frequency ( Single node frequency)
qb = GJ / lb = 80 x 109 x π(0.08)4 / 32 x 0.049

when lb = 4.9 cm
= 6565287 N.m / rad
ωn2 = √ (6565287 / 225) = 170.8 rad/s

fn2 = 170.8 / 2 π = 27.2 Hz
This is 2- node frequency)
Example 9.9:
An electric motor rotating at 1500 RPM drives a centrifugal
pump at 500 RPM through a single stage reducing gearing. The

M.I. of motor and the pump are 400 kg.m2 and 1400 kg.m2
respectively. The motor shaft is 45 in diameter and 180 mm
long. The pump shaft is 90 mm in diameter and 450 mm long.
Determine the frequency of torsional oscillations of the system,
neglecting the inertia of gears. The modulus of rigidity for the
shaft material is 84 GN /m2.
Solution:
Given data:
Im = 400 kg.m2; Ip = 1400 kg.m2; dm = 45 mm; l1 = 180 mm; dp
= 90 mm; l2 = 450 mm; Nm = 1500 RPM; Np = 500 RPM G =
84 GN/m2
Speed ratio, Gr = 1500/500 = 3

The given system can be reduced to an equivalent system with
uniform diameter of 45 mm length, le and equivalent MI of
pump, I’p as shown in the figure.

I’p = Ip / Gr2 = 1400 / 32 = 155.6 kg.m2
le = l1 + l2 (dm / dp)4.Gr2
= 180 + 450 (45/90)4.32 = 433.1 mm
Im.lm = I’p.lp
lm / lp = I’p / Im
= 155.6/400 = 0.389
lm = 0.389 lp
lm + lp = le = 433.1
lp (0.389 +1) = 433.1
lp = 433.1/ 1.389 = 311.8 mm

lm = 2.57 x 121.3 = 121.3 mm
Natural frequency, ωn = √ (qm / Im) = √ (qp / I’p)
qp = GJ / lp = 84 x 109 x π(0.045)4 / 32 x 0.3118
=108456 Nm /rad
ωn = √ (108456 / 155.6) = 26.4 rad./s

fn = 26.4 / 2 π = 4.2 Hz
Example 9.10:
If the M.I of pinion and gear of the system given in example 9.9
are 60 kg.m2 and 180 kg.m2 respectively, determine the natural
frequencies of the system.
Solution:
Given data:
Ipi = 60 kg.m2; Ig = 180 kg.m2
When MI of pinion and gear are considered, the system reduces
to an equivalent system with third rotor of moment of inertia, I3
at the place of gears in addition to Im and I’p. as shown in the
figure (a) below.

Equivalent MI of the gears, I3 = Ipi + Ig / Gr2
= 60 + 180 /32 = 80 kg.m2
Im.lm = I’p.lp
lm / lp = I’p / Im
= 155.6/400 = 0.389
lm = 0.389 lp
le = 433.1; l1 = 180 mm; l2 = (433.1 -180) = 253.1
1 / I3 (1/lc1 + 1/ lc2) = 1 / I’plp
(1 / 80) (1/lc1 + 1/ lc2) = 1 / 155.6lp
(1 / 80) [1/ (l1 –lm) + 1/ (l2 – lp] = 1 / 155.6lp
(1 / 80) [1/ (180 –0.389lp) + 1/ (253.1 – lp] = 1 / 155.6lp
[1/ (180 –0.389 lp) + 1/ (253.1 – lp)] = 0.514 / lp

lp [253.1 – lp +180 –0.389 lp] = 0.514(180 –0.389 lp) (253.1 – lp)
433.1 lp – 1.389 lp2 = 23417 – 143.1 lp + 0.2 lp2
1.589 lp2 -576.2 lp + 23417 = 0
lp2 -362.6 lp + 14737 = 0
lp = [+362.6 +/- √ {(-362.6)2 – 4 x14737}] / 2
lp = (362.6 +/- 269.3 )/2
= 316 or 46.7 mm

lm = 0.389 lp
= 122.9 or 18.2 mm
The node positions are shown in fig. (b) and (c)
Natural frequency, ωn = √ (qp / I’p)
qp = GJ / lp = 84 x 109 x π (0.045)4 / 32 x 0.316
when lp = 316 mm
=107014 Nm /rad
ωn1 = √ (107014 / 155.6) = 26.2 rad./s
fn1 = 26.2 / 2 π = 4.17 Hz
qp = GJ / lp = 84 x 109 x π(0.045)4 / 32 x 0.0467
when lp = 46.7 mm
= 724123 N.m / rad
ωn2 = √ (724123 / 155.6) = 68.2 rad/s
fn2 = 68.2/ 2 π = 10.9 Hz
9.7 Natural frequencies of Multi DOF system:

Holzer’s method (Numerical method):
Fig. 9.7
If a system can be represented by a series of lumped inertias
with intermediate elastic connecting elements as shown in Fig.
9.7, the natural frequencies can be determined by Holzer’s
method.
Considering rotor 1 and shaft 1 and equating inertia torque and
elastic torque
q1(θ1 – θ2) = I1ω2 θ1

θ2 = θ 1 –ω2 /q1 (I1θ1 )
Considering rotor 1 & 2 and shaft 2
q2(θ2 – θ3) = I1ω2 θ1 + I2ω2 θ2
θ3 = θ 2 –ω2 /q2 (I1θ1 + I2 θ2)
= θ 2 – ω2 /q2 ∑ (I θ)
Similarly
θn = θ n-1 –ω2 /qn-1 ∑ (I θ)
The following tabular procedure may be found easy in

determining the natural frequencies.
S.No. θ I Iθ ∑ (Iθ) ω2 /q ω2 /q ∑
(Iθ)
1 θ =1
2 θ2
3 θ3
4 θ4
5 θ5
6 θ6
1. Assume θ1 =1 rad. And start with an approximate value

of ω
2. Calculate θ2 , θ3 , θ4 ----- θ6 with the help of above table.
3. If ∑ (Iθ) is not equal to 0 but has some +ve value ,then
increase the value of ω and calculate values as per the
table again.
4. If ∑ (Iθ) has some –ve value then calculate the value of
ω for which ∑ (I θ) will be zero by interpolation. This
value is the natural frequency.
5. A graph ω - ∑ (I θ) can be plotted. The points where the
curve intersects with the x-axis gives the values of
natural frequencies.

For a system shown in Fig. 9.8, θ7 = 0 instead of ∑ (I θ).
Hence the graph ω – θn+1 is to be drawn for determining the
natural frequency.
Fig. 9.8
Exercise - 9
1. Two rotors A and B are attached to the end of a 500 mm

long shaft as shown in fig. The mass of the rotor A is 300 kg
and its radius of gyration is 300 mm and the corresponding
values of rotor B are 500 kg and 450 mm respectively.
Determine the position of node and frequency of torsional
vibrations. Take G = 80GPa.
(Ans. 235 mm from A, 27.4 Hz)

2. In a three- rotor system, an engine drives a centrifugal pump
through gears. The length of the shaft from engine flywheel
to the gear is 1 m with dia. 8 cm and the length of the shaft
from pinion to impeller is 40 cm with dia. 6 cm. The ratio of
engine and pump speed is 1/3. The moments of inertia of
engine flywheel, gear wheel, pinion and pump impeller are
100, 30, 11 and 1.25 kg.m2 respectively. The modulus of
rigidity of shaft material is 0.8 x 1011 N/m2. Find the
fundamental and the two node frequencies of the free
torsional oscillations. (Ans. 11.8 Hz, 74.9 Hz)
3. The crank shaft of a two cylinder engine can be idealized as

a lumped parameter model shown in fig. below. Determine
the first two natural frequencies of torsional oscillations
when k = 2 x 105 N.m /rad and J = 0.1 kg.m2.
(Ans. 197.5 Hz, 428.7 Hz)
4. Determine the natural frequencies and the mode shapes for

the system shown in the figure given below.
(Ans. 5 Hz and 11.8 Hz, x1/x2 = 1/1 and -2/1)

5. Find the natural frequency of the system given below using
matrix inversion method.
(Ans. O.4945√k/m, 1.06 √k/m, 1.905√k/m rad/s)

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An Epitome

1.0 Static Force Analysis:

1.1 Static Equilibrium:

1.2 Conditions for static equilibrium:

1.3 Dynamic force Analysis:

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Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

1.5 Free body diagrams:

1.6 Force convention:

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Forces acting on Link 2:

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1.9 Force analysis of 4 bar mechanism: Super-position

When more forces are acting on the mechanism, analysis can be

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Sub problem (b):

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Link 3 is a 2 force member.

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Fig. 1. 8 (a) Forces acting on the bearings

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1.10 Virtual work method:

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2. Locate the points of action of forces E, F, G on the

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T2ω + F2 ve’ - F3 vf’ - F4 vg’ = 0

1.11 Friction in mechanisms:

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For the mechanism shown in Fig. 1.12 let the directions of

For CCW rotation of link AB, DC also rotates CCW

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At slider 4, the normal reaction F14 deviates from vertical by an

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It is noticed that the input torque required, is increased due to

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Fig. 1.15 (a)

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Virtual work method:

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From the velocity diagram,

Pin forces can not be determined by the virtual work method.

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1. A 4-link mechanism is subjected to an external force, F =60 N

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2.1 D’ Alembert’s principle: It states that the inertia forces

2.2 Effect of number of forces acting on a rigid body:

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2.3 Dynamic force analysis of 4-bar mechanism:

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2.4 The velocity and acceleration of piston in slider-crank

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2.5 The velocity and acceleration of connecting rod in slider-

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2.6 Dynamically Equivalent system:

1. The sum of the two masses is equal to the mass of

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Let m = mass of the rigid body. Refer Fig. 2.3 (a)

2.6.1 Correction Couple: