Radio Technology Metropolia/A.

Koivumäki

Antenna fundamentals: With answers to questions and problems

(See also Chapter 9 in the textbook.)

1. a) Make up a definition for the term "antenna".

Answer: One definition: Antenna is a device which moves electromagnetic energy from two
dimensional space to three dimensional space and vice versa. Another definition: A conductor by
which electromagnetic waves are sent out or received. Other definitions may be found from the web.
b) Make a list of different types of antennas you know.
Answer: One list: http://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/main.php. Another list:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Radio_frequency_antenna_types.
c) An antenna can transmit and/or receive radio waves. It can be shown that an antenna is a
reciprocal device. This means that the properties of an antenna do not depend on whether it
operates as a receive antenna or as a transmit antenna. It follows from reciprocity e.g. that in antenna
measurements the antenna under test can be either the receiving antenna or the transmitting antenna,
whichever is easier to realize. The measurement result is valid for both receive mode and transmit
mode of the antenna.
For instance, it is very easy to measure the impedance of an antenna by using the antenna as a
transmit antenna (i.e. a signal is fed into the antenna) and then measuring the signal reflecting back
from the antenna. If the antenna under test is used as a receive antenna, it is almost impossible to
measure its impedance.
d) Why does a transmit antenna radiate an electromagnetic field? The answer comes from the
physics of atomic particles: when a charged particle is accelerated or decelerated, it radiates an
electromagnetic field. The accleration of charged particles is realized by causing a RF current to
flow on the outer surface of a conducting object. The surface current is generated by feeding a RF
signal from a transmitter into the antenna. And the other way round: When an RF electromagnetic
field hits a conducting surface, an RF current will start flowing on the surface. Then this surface
current generates a signal into a cable attaced to the antenna, and the signal goes into a reciever.
e) Some important electrical properties of antennas are: gain, directivity, radiation pattern, sidelobe
level, beamwidth, polarization, cross-polarization, impedance, losses, efficiency, bandwidth etc.
And because of reciprocity, the value of each for a given antenna does not depend on whether the
antenna receives or transmits.

2. Radiation pattern. See Chapter 9.1 in Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and
Sensor Applications.

3. Isotropic antenna is an antenna which radiates at an equal strength to all directions.

Sketch the radiation pattern of an isotropic antenna.

a) in polar co-ordinate system

b) in rectangular co-ordinate system
Answer: a) Circle:

θ
b) Horizontal line:
P(θ)/dB

4. If signal power PT is input into an isotropic antenna, what will be the power density of the
radiated field at distance r?

You can deduce the answer in these six steps:

(a) What does power density mean?

(b) So, what is the unit of power density?
(c) How is the transmit power PT distributed between different directions?
(d) If we think that the antenna is at the center of a sphere with radius r, how will the transmit
power PT be distributed on the surface of this sphere?
(e) What is the area of a sphere of radius r?
(f) So, what will be the power density caused by the isotropic transmit antenna at distance r from
the antenna?
P
Answer: S = T 2
4π r

5. Signal power of PT is input to an isotropic transmit antenna. Make an Excel worksheet to

calculate power density S, electric field strength E and magnetic field strength H at distance r. Then
calculate values of S, E and H for
a) PT = 10 W, r = 100 m
b) PT = 10 W, r = 1 km
c) PT = 10 W, r = 10 km
d) PT = 100 W, r = 10 km

PT EH E2 H 2Z0
Answer: Using S = and S = = = and Z0 = 377 Ω.
4π r 2 2 2Z 0 2
a) S = 79.6 µW/m2 E = 245 mV/m H = 650 µA/m
b) S = 796 nW/m 2
E = 24.5 mV/m H = 65.0 µA/m
c) S = 7.96 nW/m 2
E = 2.45 mV/m H = 6.50 µA/m
d) S = 79.6 nW/m2 E = 7.75 mV/m H = 20.5 µA/m

6. Gain is one of the most important properties of an antenna.

Something to contemplate about gain:

(a) If the gain of an amplifier is 30 dB and a signal power of 1 mW is input to the amplifier, what
is the output power? Answer: 30 dBm = 1 W
(b) Where does the additional signal power come from? Not from thin air, or what do you think?
Answer: It comes from the power source of the amplifier.
(c) Do you think antenna gain means the same thing as amplifier gain? Answer: No
(d) If the gain of a transmit antenna is 30 dB, and a signal power of 1 mW is input to the antenna,
what is the power radiated from the antenna to the atmosphere? Remember that basically an
antenna is just a piece of conducting material shaped in a proper way. Answer: Radiated
 power is less than 1 mW. In ideal case (no power losses in antenna) it would be exactly 1
mW.

7. So, obviously, the gain of an antenna does not mean the same as the gain of an amplifier.

(a) Let's assume that signal power PT is input to an (imaginary) isotropic transmit antenna.
(b) Then this isotropic antenna will generate power density Si at distance r from the antenna.
P
According to section 4, this power density is Si = T 2 .
4π r
(c) Next, let's replace the isotropic antenna with a real world antenna. The same signal power PT
is input into this antenna.
(d) If this real antenna generates power density S at distance r in the direction of the main beam of
its radiation pattern, the gain of the antenna is defined to be
S
G=
Si
(e) In other words: An antenna with gain G will generate at a given distance a power density
which is G times as large as would be the power density generated by an isotropic antenna
with same input power at the same distance.
S
(f) Normally, antenna gain is given in decibels: G(dB) = 10 ⋅ log dB .
Si

(g) Often, dBi is used as the unit of antenna gain. dBi is read e.g. "decibel over isotropic".
(h) Another dB unit of antenna gain sometimes used is dBd,
"decibel over dipole". dBd value of gain shows, how many Half wave dipole:
dB the gain is larger than the gain of a half wave dipole is.
(i) The gain of a half wave dipole can be shown to be 2.15 dBi.
So, if the gain of a certain antenna is said to be x dBd, then it
could as well be said to be (x + 2.15) dBi.
(j) How many dBi and dBd is the gain of an isotropic antenna?
Answer: 0 dBi = −2.15 dBd CABLE
λ/2
(k) How many dBd is the gain of a half wave dipole antenna?
Answer: 0 dBd

8. Enhance the Excel sheet you made in section 5 by adding

antenna gain in dBi as a new variable. Then calculate values of S, E
and H for
a) G = 15 dBi, PT = 10 W, r = 100 m
b) G = 4 dBd, PT = 10 W, r = 1 km
GPT EH E2 H 2Z0
Answer: Using S = and S = = = and Z0 = 377 Ω.
4π r 2 2 2Z 0 2
a) In the formula we use G = 101.5 ⇒ S = 2.52 mW/m2 E = 1.38 V/m H = 3.65 mA/m
b) G = 4 dBd = 6.15 dBi, so we use G = 100.615
⇒ S = 3.28 µW/m2 E = 49.7 mV/m H = 132 µA/m

9. The directivity of an antenna is almost the same thing as the gain, but not quite.

(a) Gain is a property of the antenna.

(b) Directivity is a property of the radiation pattern of the antenna.
(c) If the radiation pattern of the antenna is P( θ, ϕ ) , its directivity can be calculated as follows:
4 ⋅π
D=
∫∫ P(θ , ϕ )dΩ
4π

So, directivity is the ratio of the maximun power density to the average power density
radiated by the antenna.
(d) For a totally lossless antenna (meaning that all signal power fed into the antenna is radiated
to the atmosphere), directivity is equal to gain, D = G.
(e) A practical antenna always has losses (due to the resistivity of the antenna material, non-
matched antenna impedance, polarization imperfections etc.). So, in practice, always G < D.
(f) If antenna losses are L dB, G(dB) = D(dB) − L .
(g) The directivity of an isotropic antenna is always 1 (or 0 dB), but if it is lossy, it has a gain
of < 1 (or < 0 dB)
(h) In real life, a small antenna (compared to wavelength) often has quite high losses, so often it
has a gain of < 0 dB, even if it may have a directional radiation pattern (with D > 0 dB).

10. Both gain and directivity indicate, how effectively the antenna directs its radiation to the
direction of the main lobe of its pattern. So:

(a) The smaller the beamwidth of the antenna, the larger is the gain and directivity of the antenna.
(b) The higher the sidelobes of the antenna, the smaller is the gain and directivity of the antenna.
Why? Answer: Smaller beamwidth means that less power is radiated outside the main beam,
so more power goes into the direction of the main beam. Higher sidelobes mean that less
power is radiated into the direction of main beam.

11. Capture area (effective area) of an antenna

(a) We can think that a recieve antenna functions by capturing all the signal power from a certain
area around the antenna. This area is called the capture area, or effective area of the antenna, and
it is denoted by Ae.
(b) It can be shown that capture area depends on the gain of the antenna and on the wavelength of
λ2 ⋅ G
the incoming radio wave as follows: Ae = (Here G is not in dB.)
4π
(c) If an antenna with capture area Ae is in an incoming electromagnetic field with power density S,
the signal power recieved by the antenna is PR = Ae ⋅ S .
(d) Make an Excel worksheet to calculate the power received (dBm), when frequency f (MHz),
receive antenna gain G (dB) and electric field strength E (dBµV/m) are given. Then calculate PR
for
a) f = 100 MHz, G = 8 dB, E = 54 dBµV/m (FM radio reception)
b) f = 12 GHz, G = 38 dB, E = 20 dBµV/m (satellite TV reception)
c) f = 900 MHz, G = 1 dBd, E = 40 dBµV/m (GSM reception)

E2 λ2 ⋅ G
Answer: Using S = and Ae = and PR = Ae ⋅ S :
2Z 0 4π
a) λ = 3 m G = 100.8 E = 1054/20 µV/m ⇒ PR = −58.2 dBm
b) λ = 25 mm G = 103.8 E = 1020/20 µV/m ⇒ PR = −103.8 dBm
c) λ = 333.3 m G = 100.315 E = 1040/20 µV/m ⇒ PR = −96.2 dBm

(e) There is a 900 MHz whip antenna of length λ/4 and of gain 2 dBi on the roof of a car. What is
the capture area of the antenna? Compare this area to the physical size of the antenna.
 λ2G (33.3 cm) 2 ⋅ 100.2
Answer: Ae = = = 139.9 cm 2
4π 4π
If the capture area is imagined to be a square, its sides are 11.8 cm.
Since λ = 33.3 cm, the length of the antenna is 8.3 cm. So, the antenna fits well inside the
capture area.

(f) The capture area of a reflector antenna (dish antenna, parabolic antenna) is given by
Ae = η ⋅ A ,
where A is the actual area of the reflector (i.e. the area defined by the rim of the reflector) and η
is the aperture efficiency (also known as surface efficiency) of the antenna. If the reflector is
circular with diameter D, then of course
πD 2
Ae = η ⋅ .
4
The value of η is normally between 0.5 ... 0.7 and the most typical value for practical reflector
antennas is perhaps η = 0.6, which can be used, if no other value is given.
(g) Derive an equation for the gain of a reflector antenna when the diameter D of the reflector,
aperture efficiency η of the antenna and wavelength λ of the radio wave radiated are given.
 πD 
2
  πD  2 
Answer: G = η   . In decibels: G = 10 ⋅ log η    dBi .
 λ    λ  
(h) Make an Excel sheet to calculate the gain of a reflector antenna, when frequency f (GHz),
reflector diameter D (m) and aperture efficiency η (%) are given. Then calculate G (dB) for
f = 12 GHz, η = 70 % and D = 30cm, 60 cm, 1 m, 2 m, 5 m, and 10 m.
Answer: For given reflector sizes we get these gains:
29.98 dB, 36.00 dB, 40.44 dB, 46.46 dB, 54.41 dB, 60.44 dB

12. Radio link

(a) If signal power PT is fed into a transmit antenna with gain GT , power density at distance r will
G P
be S = T T2 . (See. 7e ja 4f.)
4π r
(b) If there is a receive antenna with gain GR at distance r, it has a capture area of
λ2GR
Ae = , so it receives a signal power of
4π
λ2GR GT PT GRGT PT
PR = Ae ⋅ S = ⋅ = .
4π 4π r 2
(4π ) 2r 2 / λ2
(c) In this way we have derived the basic link budget equation, which is normally given as
P ⋅G ⋅G
PR = T T R
L
 4π ⋅ r 
2

where L =   is called the free space loss of the radio link.

 λ 
(d) Link budget equation with decibels: PR (dBm) = PT (dBm) + GT (dB) + GR (dB ) − L(dB)
(e) Make an Excel worksheet to calculate PR of a radio link, when transmit power PT (dBW),
antenna gains GT and GR (dB), frequency f (MHz) and distance r (km) are given. Then solve these:
a) The transmit power of a TV satellite is 40 W and the diameter of the reflector of the transmit
antenna is 80 cm. The diameter of the receive antenna is on 120 cm. Distance from the satellite to
Finland is 40 000 km, frequency is 11.5 GHz. How many dBm is the signal received by the receive
antenna?
b) A satellite link has a frequency of 12 GHz. The satellite antenna reflector size is 1 m, the ground
station has a 2 m antenna. The aperture efficiency of each antenna is 70%. The power received by
the ground station (i.e. the input signal power to the receiver) must be −75 dBm. What must be the
transmit power of the satellite transmitter (dBW)?
c) Same problem with f = 24 GHz. Suppose that the aperture efficiency of the antennas is still 70%.
(This calls for certain changes in the antennas, when the frequency is doubled, but is a valid
assumption).
d) Make conclusions from the answers to b) and c) bearing in mind that the frequencies used in
satellite communication will get higher in the future.

Answers:
a) Link budget equation: PR = PT + GT − L + GR .
 40 W 
Values: Transmit power PT = 40 W = 10 ⋅ log  dBm = 46.02 dBm
 1 mW 
c 3 ⋅ 10 8 m/s
Wavelength: λ = 0 = = 0.0261 m
f 11.5 ⋅ 10 9 Hz
  πDT  2    π ⋅ 0 .8 m  
2

Gain of transmit antenna: GT = 10 ⋅ log η    dB = 10 ⋅ log 0.7 ⋅    dB = 38.13 dB

  λ     0.0261 m  
  πD  2    π ⋅ 1 .2 m  
2

Gain of receive antenna: G R = 10 ⋅ log η  R   dB = 10 ⋅ log 0.7 ⋅    dB = 41.65 dB

  λ   
  0. 0261 m  
(Aperture efficiencies of the antennas were not given, here η = 0.7 is used for both antennas.)
Path loss = free space loss:
 4π r  2   4π r   4π ⋅ 40000 ⋅ 103 m 
L = 10 ⋅ log    dB = 20 ⋅ log  dB = 20 ⋅ log  dB = 205.70 dB
 λ    λ   0.0261 m 
So, received signal power is
PR = PT + GT − L + G R = 46.02 dBm + 38.13 dB − 205.70 dB + 41.65 dB
= −79.90 dBm.

b) Link budget equation: PR = PT + GT − L + GR . Now transmit power PT is unknown, we get it with

PT = PR − GT + L − G R .
Values with same equations as above:
λ = 0.025 m, PR = −75 dBm, GT = 40.44 dB, GR = 46.46 dB, L = 206.07 dB.
⇒ Required transmit power is PT = 44.17 dBm =ˆ 10 44.17 / 10 mW = 26.16 W

c) New wavelength: λ = 0.0125 m.

⇒ antenna gains and path loss increase by 6.02 dB: GT = 46.46.44 dB, GR = 52.48 dB,
L = 212.09 dB.
⇒ Required transmit power is PT = 38.16 dBm =ˆ 10 38.16 / 10 mW = 6.54 W

d) Frequency is doubled ⇒ wavelength is halved ⇒ both transmit and receive antenna gains are
increased by 6 dB (if aperture efficiency can be maintained, and it can with proper antenna
engineering); free space loss is also increased by 6 dB. Because there are two antenna gains but only
one path loss, the net increase of received signal power is 6 dB, if transmit power is not changed. ⇒
We can decrease transmit power by 6 dB, if we want the received power to remain the same.