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𝑛𝑥 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑥 2
1+𝑥 =1+ + +⋯
1! 2!
PRINCIPLES IN M A T H E M A T I C S
Polyhedrons
Polyhedrons are solids whose faces are plane polygons.
n = number of
vertices of each
polygon,
f =number of faces
of the polyhedron,
e =number of edges
of the polyhedron,
and
v =number of
vertices of the For any polyhedron
polyhedron.
𝑛𝑓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 =
a = length of the 2
edge 𝑛𝑓
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 =
𝑚
Solids for which Volume = (Area of base) x (Altitude)
Solids in which V = Ab × h
This is a group of solids in which the
volume is equal to the product of
the area of the base and the
altitude. Two types of solids belong
to this group namely, prisms and
cylinders
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 ℎ
where V = volume, Ab = area of the base, and h = altitude.
prism
Prisms are polyhedron whose bases
are equal polygons in parallel
planes and whose sides are
parallelograms.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 ℎ = 𝐴𝑟 𝐿
Ar = Area of right section
L = Lateral edge
Ab = Area of base
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑃𝑅 𝐿 Pr = Perimeter of right section
Right Circular
Cylinder
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 h = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Like cylinder and prism, the name of pyramid and cone is according to the
shape of the base. If the base is pentagon, the pyramid is called
pentagonal pyramid, and if the base is circle, the cone is called circular
cone. The formula for the volume of these solids is
1
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 ℎ
3
Where Ab = area of the base, and h = altitude.
cone
The surface generated by a moving
straight line (generator) which
always passes through a fixed point
(vertex) and always intersects a
fixed plane curve (directrix) is called
conical surface. Cone is a solid
bounded by a conical surface
whose directrix is a closed curve,
and a plane which cuts all the
elements. The conical surface is the
lateral area of the cone and the
plane which cuts all the elements is
the base of the cone.
1
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏 ℎ Where Ab = area of the base, and h = altitude.
3
The Right Circular Cone
Any cone with circular right section is a
circular cone. Right circular cone is a circular
cone whose axis is perpendicular to its base.
Properties of Right Circular Cone
• The slant height of a right circular cone is the
length of an element. Both the slant height and
the element are denoted by L.
• The altitude of a right circular is the
perpendicular drop from vertex to the center of
the base. It coincides with the axis of the right
circular cone and it is denoted by h.
• If a right triangle is being revolved about one of
its legs (taking one leg as the axis of revolution),
the solid thus formed is a right circular cone. The
surface generated by the hypotenuse of the
1 2
triangle is the lateral area of the right circular
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
3
cone and the area of the base of the cone is the
surface generated by the leg which is not the
axis of rotation. 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟𝐿
• All elements of a right circular cone are equal.
• Any section parallel to the base is a circle whose
center is on the axis of the cone.
• A section of a right circular cone which contains Slant height, L = 𝑥 2 + ℎ2
the vertex and two points of the base is an
isosceles triangle.
pyramids
A pyramid is a polyhedron with a If two pyramids have equal base area and
polygon base of any shape, and all other equal altitude, any section made by a cutting
faces are triangles which have common plane parallel to the base are equal. From the
vertex. figure, if 𝑨𝒃𝟏 = 𝑨𝒃𝟐 then 𝑨𝒚𝟏 = 𝑨𝒚𝟐
The pyramid is said to be a right pyramid if the
Properties of a Pyramid vertex is directly above the centroid of the
The lateral faces are all triangles meeting at base, otherwise it is an oblique pyramid
the vertex of the pyramid
The altitude of the pyramid is shortest
distance between the vertex and the base.
It is the drop distance from the vertex
perpendicular to the base.
If a cutting plane parallel to the base will
pass through the pyramid, the smaller
pyramid thus formed is similar to the original
pyramid. By similar solids
𝐴𝑏 ℎ2
=
𝐴𝑦 𝑦 2
Regular pyramids
A regular pyramid is one whose base is a
regular polygon whose center coincides
with the foot of the perpendicular dropped
from the vertex to the base
ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅
𝑛
ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ⋯ ℎ𝑛−1 + ℎ𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅
𝑛
Where:
AR = area of the right section
n = number of sides.
frustum
Frustum of a pyramid (cone) is a portion of pyramid (cone) included
between the base and the section parallel to the base not passing through
the vertex
1
𝑉= 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴1 𝐴2 ℎ
3
Properties of a Sphere
Every section in the sphere made by a cutting plane is a circle. If
the cutting plane passes through the center of the sphere, the
section made is a great circle; otherwise the section is a small
circle.
For a particular circle of a sphere, the axis is the diameter of the
sphere perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
The ends of the axis of the circle of a sphere are called poles.
The nearer the circle to the center of the sphere, the greater is its
area.
The largest circle in the sphere is the great circle.
The radius (diameter) of the great circle is the radius (diameter)
of the sphere.
All great circles of a sphere are equal.
Every great circle divides the sphere into two equal parts called
hemispheres.
The intersection of two spherical surfaces is a circle whose plane
is perpendicular to the line joining the centers of the spheres and
whose center is on that line. (See figure to the right.)
A plane perpendicular to a radius at its extremity is tangent to
the sphere.
FORMULAS FOR A SPHERE
Surface Area, A
The surface area of a sphere is equal to
the area of four great circles.
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑅2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷 2
Volume, V
4 3
𝑉= 𝜋𝑅
3
1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷 3
6
Spherical Zone Area of the Zone
A zone is that portion of the surface of The area of any zone (one base
the sphere included between two or two bases) is equal to the
parallel planes. product of its altitude h and the
circumference of the great
circle of the sphere.
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅ℎ
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅(2ℎ + 𝑎)
Volume, V
The volume of spherical segment of two
bases is given by
1
𝑉= 𝜋ℎ(3𝑎2 + 3𝑏2 + ℎ2 )
6
The volume of spherical segment of
one base is given by
1 2
𝑉 = 𝜋ℎ (3𝑅 − ℎ)
3
Spherical Wedge and Spherical Lune
A spherical wedge is a solid formed Volume of wedge, Vwedge
by revolving a semi-circle about its
diameter by less than 360°. Spherical
Volume of wedge / central angle = Volume of sphere / 1 revolution
Lune is the curve surface of the
wedge, it is a surface formed by 4
𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉𝑤𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜃
revolving a semi-circular arc about = 3
=
its diameter by less than 360. 𝜃 3600 270
Area of Lune,Alune
𝐴1 𝑥1 2
= 2
𝐴2 𝑥2
𝑥1 𝑦1
=
𝑥2 𝑦2