Regulatory Framework for Business Transactions

Law on Obligation

1. Definition of Obligation: Article 1156 of the Civil Code defines an obligation as a juridical necessity to
give, to do or not to do.

2. Essential Elements or Requisites of an Obligation

a. An active subject, who has the power to demand prestation, also known as the obligee or
creditor.

b. A passive subject, who is bound to perform the prestation, also known as the obligor or
debtor.

c. Object or prestation, which is the promise or particular conduct to be performed in the

performance of an obligation, and may consist of giving, doing or not doing a thing.
i. Requisites of an object or prestation of an Obligation are
1. It must be possible, physically and juridically.
2. It must be determinate, or, at least, determinable according to pre-established
elements or criteria.
3. It must have possible equivalent in money.

d. Efficient cause, the tie which binds the parties to the obligation, also known as juridical tie or
vinculum.
i. Examples of juridical tie or vinculum
1. Relation established by law
2. Relation established by contract
3. Relation established by quasi-contract
4. Relation established quasi-delict or culpa aquiliania or tort
5. Relation established by crime or delict

3. Types of Obligation based on the definition

a. Positive obligation refers to an obligation which consists of giving or doing something.

b. Real obligation refers to an obligation which consists to the delivery or giving of personal or
real object.
c. Personal obligation refers to an obligation which consists of doing a particular prestation but
not delivery of an object.
d. Negative obligation refers to an obligation which consists of abstaining from some act.

4. Distinctions between Civil Obligation and Natural Obligation

I. Civil obligations derive their binding force from positive law or substantive law, while natural
obligations derive their binding effect from equity and natural justice.
II. Civil obligations can be enforced by court action or the coercive power of public authority,
while the fulfilment of natural obligations cannot be compelled by court action but depends
exclusively upon the good conscience of the debtor. However, voluntarily fulfilment of natural
obligation by the debtor will preclude him from asking for reimbursement from the creditor of
the amount he has voluntarily paid.

5. Sources of civil obligation demandable in a court of law

a. Law refers to the principles and regulations established in a community by some authority and
applicable to its people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies recognized
and enforced by judicial decision.
i. Only obligations expressly determined in the Civil Code or in special laws are
demandable.
ii. The obligations derived from law are never presumed.
iii. The law cannot exist as a source of obligations, unless the acts to which its principles
may be applied exist.
iv. The obligations and correlative rights arising from law shall be governed by the law by
which they are created.

b. Contract is a meeting of minds between two persons whereby one binds himself, with respect
to the other, to give something or to render some service.
i. Obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between contracting parties.
ii. Obligations arising from contracts should be complied with in good faith.

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 c. Quasi-contract is a juridical relation which arises from certain lawful, voluntary and unilateral
acts, to the end that no one may be unjustly enriched or benefited at the expense of another.

i. Two Types of Quasi-Contracts

1. Negotiorum Gestio refers to the voluntary management of the property or affairs

of another without the knowledge or consent of the latter.
i. Nature of Liability of Officious Managers in Negotiorum Gestio - The
liability is generally solidary unless the officious management was done
under imminent danger.

2. Solutio Indebiti refers to the juridical relation which is created when something
is received when there is no right to demand it and it was unduly delivered
through mistake.
i. Nature of Liability of Payees in Solutio Indebiti - The liability is solidary.

ii. Examples of Quasi-Contract

1. A person voluntary takes charge of the agency or management of business or

property of another without authority or consent of the latter.
2. A person receives something when there is no right to demand it or it was unduly
delivered through mistake.
3. A stranger gives support to a child of another person without the knowledge of
the person obliged to give support.
4. A person saves the property of another person during fire, flood, storm or other
calamity without the knowledge of the owner.

d. Quasi-delict or culpa aquiliana or torts refers to a source of an obligation wherein a person

by act or omission causes damage to another, there being fault or negligence.
i. Nature of Liability joint tortfeasors - The liability is solidary.

Requisites of Civil Action based on Tort or Quasi-Delict or Culpa-Aquiliana

i. There is no pre-existing relation between the offender and offended parties. (Exceptional
cases allow filing of civil action based on quasi-delict despite the presence of contractual
relations if the act that violated the contract constitutes a tortuous act on itself.)
ii. There exists a wrongful act or omission imputable o the defendant by reason of his fault
or negligence.
iii. There exists a damage or injury which must be proved by the person claiming recovery.
iv. There must be a direct causal connection or a relation of cause and effect between the
fault or negligence and the damage or injury, or that the fault or negligence be the cause
of the damage or injury.

e. Crime or delict refers to any act or omission which is punishable by law.

i. Nature of Liability of Criminals - The liability is solidary.

i. Persons who are exempted from criminal liability but still civilly liable for their
crime committed
1. An imbecile or insane person.
2. A person under 18 of age.
3. Any person who acts under the compulsion of an irresistible force.
4. Any person who acts under the impulse of an uncontrollable fear of an equal or
greater injury.

ii. Persons who are exempt from criminal liability and civil liability
1. Any person who acts in self-defense.
2. Any person who acts in the performance of his duties or obligations.
3. Any person suffering from battered woman syndrome.

iii. Components of Civil Liability arising from Crime

1. Restitution refers to restoration of the thing itself even though it be found in the
possession of a third person who has acquired it by lawful means.
2. Reparation of the damage caused shall be determined by the Court taking into
consideration of the price of the thing and its sentimental value.
3. Indemnification for consequential damages shall include not only those
caused the injured party but also those suffered by his family or by a third person
by reason of the crime.
6. Distinctions between quasi-delict and crime

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 a. The right violated by a quasi-delict is a private right while the right violated by a crime is a
public right.
b. Every quasi-delict gives rise to liability for damages to the injured party but there are crimes
from which no civil liability arises.
c. Criminal liability can never be compromised except in criminal negligence but liability from
quasi-delict can be compromised.
d. In quasi-delict, criminal intent is not necessary, while in crime, criminal intent is necessary
except in criminal negligence.
e. Claims arising from quasi delict must be proven by preponderance of evidence while crime
must be proven by proof beyond reasonable doubt.

7. Kinds of Thing or Object

a. A generic or indeterminate thing is only indicated by its kind, without being designated and
distinguished from others of the same kind. (Note: Generic thing never perishes.)
b. A determinate or specific thing is one that is individualized and can be identified or
distinguished from others of its kind.
i. Note: Loss as a mode of extinguishing an obligation is applicable only to obligation to
deliver a determinate or specific thing but not to obligation to deliver a generic or
indeterminate thing because generic thing never perishes.

8. Incidental or accessory obligations in an obligation to deliver a determinate thing

a. Obligation to preserve the determinate thing with due care.

i. Degree of diligence to be exercised by the obligor or debtor in the preservation of

determinate thing
1. Diligence required by law
a. Contract of common carrier – Extraordinary diligence
b. Contract of bank deposits – Extraordinary diligence
2. Diligence stipulated in the contract
a. The stipulation must be valid. Waiver of future fraud or future gross
negligence is null and void.
3. Ordinary diligence or diligence of a good father of a family or diligence of a
reasonably prudent person.

b. Obligation to deliver the fruits of the determinate thing if the fruits occur after the
obligation to deliver the determinate thing arises.

i. Kinds of fruits under the Civil Code

1. Natural fruits are the spontaneous products of the soil, and the young and other
products of animals.
2. Industrial fruits are those produced by lands of any kind through cultivation or
labor.
3. Civil fruits are fruits as a result of civilization or fruit arising out of a juridical
relation or contracts such as are the rents of buildings, the price of leases of
lands and other property and the amount of perpetual or life annuities or other
similar income.

c. Obligation to deliver the accessions and accessories of the determinate thing.

i. Accessories refer to those which destined for the embellishment, use or their
preservation of another thing or more importance, have for their object the completion of
the latter for which they are indispensable or convenient.
ii. Accessions include everything which is produced by a thing, or which is incorporated or
attached thereto, either naturally or artificially.

9. Types of Rights of Creditor over the thing and its fruits (Moment the right is obtained)

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 a. A real right is the power belonging to a person over a specific thing, without a passive subject
individually determined, against whom such right may be personally exercised. It refers to a
right that can be exercised against the whole world thereby allowing an action to recover the
ownership or possession of a specific thing regardless of the possessor of such thing. Real right
over a determinate thing is acquired from the moment of its actual or constructive delivery.
b. A personal right is the power belonging to one person to demand of another, as a definite
passive subject, the fulfillment of a prestation to give, to do or not to do. It refers to a right that
can be exercised only against a specific person thereby prohibiting an action to recover the
ownership or possession of a specific thing if already with a third person but only allows action
for damages against a specific person. Personal right over a determinate thing is acquired from
the moment provided by the Civil Code or Special Law.

10. General remedies available to creditor when the debtor fails to comply with his obligation
a. Action for specific performance with damages
b. Action to rescind the obligation with damages
c. Action for damages

11. Remedies of the creditor in the case the debtor fails to comply with his obligation to deliver a
determinate or specific thing
a. Action for specific performance in addition to damages under Article 1170
b. Action for damages if action for specific performance becomes legally impossible

12. Remedies of the creditor in the case the debtor fails to comply with his obligation to deliver an
indeterminate or generic thing
a. Action for specific performance with damages
b. He may ask the obligation to be complied with by a third person at the expense of the debtor
with damages.

13. Remedy of the creditor if the debtor fails to do the prestation in obligation to do
a. The creditor or third person may do it in a proper manner at the expense of the debtor.

14. In an obligation to do whereby only the debtor can do the thing, remedy of the creditor if the
debtor fails to do the prestation
a. Action for indemnification for damages

15. In case a public official or officer of a private corporation refuses to perform his ministerial duty,
remedy of the injured person
a. Special civil action of mandamus

16. In an obligation to do, remedy of the creditor in case the debtor did it in contravention of the
tenor of the obligation or did it poorly
a. The creditor or third person may do it in a proper manner or it may be decreed that what had
been poorly done be undone at the expense of the debtor.

17. In an obligation consisting in not doing, remedy of the creditor in case the debtor does what has
been forbidden him
a. It shall be undone at the expense of debtor with indemnification for damages.

18. Definition of Delay – Default – Mora refers to the non-fulfilment of the obligation with respect to time.

19. Requisites in order that the debtor may be in default or for debtor’s delay or mora to exist
a. The obligation must be demandable and already liquidated.
b. The debtor delays performance of the obligation.
c. The creditor demands the performance either judicially or extrajudicially.

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20. As a general rule, judicial or extrajudicial demand is necessary for delay to exist. However, the
following are the cxceptional instances when demand by the creditor shall not be necessary in
order that delay may exist
a. When the obligation expressly so declares that demand is excused or waived.
b. When the law expressly so declares that demand is excused or waived.
c. When from the nature and the circumstances of the obligation it appears that the designation of
the time when the thing is to be delivered or the service is to be rendered was a controlling
motive for the establishment of the contract.
d. When demand would be useless, as when the obligor has rendered it beyond his power to
perform.

21. Moment of delay in reciprocal obligation

a. From the moment one of the parties fulfills his obligation.

22. Types of Delay or Default (Mora)

a. Mora solvendi – Debtor’s delay
i. Effects of delay on the part of the debtor
1. The debtor becomes liable for damages for the delay.
2. When it has for its object a determinate thing, the delay places the risk of the
thing on the debtor.
b. Mora accipiendi – Creditor’s delay
i. Effects of the delay on the part of the creditor
1. The creditor becomes liable for damages.
2. The debtor may relieve himself of the obligation by the consignation of the thing.
3. The creditor bears the risk of the loss of the thing.
4. The responsibility of the debtor for the thing is reduced and limited to fraud and
gross negligence.
5. All expenses for the preservation of the thing after the mora shall be chargeable
to the creditor.
c. Compensatio morae – Delay of both parties
i. Effect of compensatio morae
1. The delays of both parties are compensated or offsetted.

23. Grounds for damages in the performance of obligation under Article 1170 or Grounds for breach
of contract

a. Fraud – Dolo refers to the deliberate and intentional evasion of the normal fulfilment of
obligations.
b. Negligence - Fault – Culpa is the failure to observe for the protection of the interests of
another person, that degree of care, precaution and vigilance which the circumstances justly
demand, whereby such person suffers injury.
c. Delay – Default – Mora refers to the non-fulfilment of the obligation with respect to time.
d. Contravention of the tenor of obligation refers to illicit act which impairs the strict and faithful
fulfilment of the obligation or every kind of defective performance.

24. Types of civil damages that may be awarded by Court (MENTAL)

I. Mutually exclusive damages
a. Liquidated damages are damages agreed upon by the parties to a contract, to be paid
in case of breach thereof. It refers to the type of damages that is not assessed by the
court but merely applied based on the contractual stipulation of the parties. It refers to
the penalty in an obligation with a penal clause.
b. Actual damages or compensatory damages are those pecuniary losses suffered and
duly proved by the plaintiff. (Legal interest of 6% per annum starting July 1, 2013 and
12% before July 1, 2013)
c. Temperate damages or moderate damages are more than nominal but less than
compensatory damages. They may be recovered when the court finds that some
pecuniary loss has been suffered but its amount cannot, from the nature of the case, be
provided with certainty
d. Nominal damages are damages adjudicated in order that a right of the plaintiff, which
has been violated or invaded by the defendant, may be vindicated or recognized, and
not for the purpose of indemnifying the plaintiff for any loss suffered by him.

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 II. Additional damages to any of the mutually exclusive damages
a. Moral damages are damages awarded by reason of physical suffering, mental anguish,
fright, serious anxiety, besmirched reputation, wounded feelings, moral shock, social
humiliation, and similar injury
b. Exemplary damages or corrective damages are damages imposed, by way of
example or correction for the public good, in addition to the moral, temperate, liquidated
or compensatory damages.

25. Waiver of fraud

a. Future Fraud (Waiver of an action for future fraud is void.)
b. Past fraud (Waiver of an action for past fraud may be considered valid.)

26. Degree of Diligence to be observed by Contracting Parties in the Performance of Obligation

a. Diligence Required by Law
i. Contract of common carrier – Extraordinary diligence
ii. Contract of bank deposits – Extraordinary diligence
b. Diligence Stipulated by the Contracting parties
i. The stipulation must be valid. Waiver of future fraud or future gross negligence is null
and void.
c. Ordinary diligence or diligence of a good father of a family or diligence of a reasonably
prudent person

27. Principles on issuance of receipt

a. The receipt of the principal by the creditor, without reservation with respect to the interest, shall
give rise to rebuttable presumption that said interest has been paid.
b. The receipt of a later installment of a debt without reservation as to prior installments, shall raise
rebuttable presumption that such prior installments have been paid.

28. In order to satisfy their claims against the debtor, the unpaid creditor has the following
successive rights in order of priority after prevailing in the civil action for exact fulfillment
a. To levy by attachment and execution upon all the property of the debtor including garnishment
of bank deposits, except such as exempt by law from execution.
b. To exercise all rights and actions of the debtor, except such as are inherently personal to him.
(Accion subrogatoria)
c. To ask for the rescission of the contracts made by the debtor in fraud of his rights. (Accion
pauliana)
d. To file an action for damages against the third person who acquired the property of debtor in
bad faith.

29. Principle on transmissibility of rights acquired from an obligation

a. Subject to the provisions of laws, they are transmissible unless there is stipulation to the
contrary.

30. Types of Obligations as to Demandability

a. Pure obligation refers to an obligation which contains no term or condition whatever upon
which depends the fulfillment of the obligation contracted by the debtor.
b. Conditional obligation refers to an obligation subject to a condition.
c. Obligation with a period refers to an obligation subject to a space of time which is certain to
happen.

31. Obligations demandable at once

a. Pure obligation
b. Obligation in diem or obligation with a resolutory period
c. Obligation with a resolution condition

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32. Obligations not demandable at once
a. Obligation ex die or obligation with a suspensive period
b. Obligation when the debtor's means permit him to do so
c. Obligation with a suspensive condition

33. Distinctions between suspensive condition and resolutory condition

a. If the suspensive condition happens, the obligation arises while if the resolutory condition
happens, the rights and obligations already existing are extinguished.
b. In suspensive condition, the rights and obligations do not exist before the happening of the
condition while in resolutory condition, the rights and obligation already exist even before the
happening of the condition.
c. Obligation subject to a suspensive condition is not demandable at once while obligation
subject to resolutory condition is demandable at once.
d. Suspensive condition is known as condition precedent while resolutory condition is
condition subsequent.

34. Types of conditions

a. Potestative Condition is one which depends upon the will of one of the contracting parties. If
the suspensive condition is potestative upon debtor, the obligation that depends upon it is
void while if the suspensive condition is potestative upon creditor, the obligation that
depends upon it is valid.
b. Casual Condition is one which depends exclusively upon chance or other factors, and not
upon will of the contracting parties.
c. Mixed Condition is one which depends upon the will of the contracting parties and other
circumstances, including the will of a third person.

35. Conditions that annul the obligation which depends upon them for their existence
a. Impossible conditions
b. Suspensive conditions which depend upon sole will of debtor
c. Conditions contrary to good customs or public policy
d. Conditions prohibited by law

36. Effect if the obligor voluntarily prevented the fulfillment of the condition of an obligation subject
to a suspensive condition
a. The suspensive condition shall be deemed fulfilled and the obligation becomes demandable.

37. Retroactive effect of fulfillment of suspensive condition in conditional obligation to give subject
a suspensive condition
a. It shall retroact to the day of the constitution of the obligation once the condition has been
fulfilled.

38. Effects of fulfillment of condition on the determinate thing's fruits occurring during the
pendency of the condition
a. In conditional reciprocal obligation, the fruits and interests during the pendency of the condition
shall be deemed to have been mutually compensated.
b. In conditional unilateral obligation to give or unilateral obligation to give subject to a period, the
fruits shall inure to the sole benefit of the debtor whether the condition is suspensive or
resolutory in the absence of stipulation to the contrary.
c. In conditional obligation to do or not to do, the courts shall determine, in each case, the
retroactive effect to the fruits of the condition that has been complied with taking into account
the agreement of the parties.
d. Before the fulfillment or pendency of the suspensive condition, the creditor may bring
appropriate actions for the preservation of his right regarding the fruits.

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39. Effects of payment or delivery by mistake in a condition subject to a suspensive condition or
suspensive period
a. If during the pendency of the suspensive condition, the debtor has paid by mistake a sum of
money, the debtor can recover the sum of money but with interests only if the creditor acted in
bad faith.
b. If during the pendency of the period in an obligation with a period, the debtor has paid by
mistake a sum of money, the debtor can recover the sum of money and with interests whether
the creditor acted in good faith or bad faith.
c. If during the pendency of the suspensive condition, the debtor has delivered a determinate or
specific thing by mistake, the debtor may file (1) an accion reinvidicatoria if the thing is still with
the creditor or (2) an action for indemnification for damages if the thing is no longer with the
creditor.

40. Rules to be observed in case of the improvement, loss or deterioration of the determinate thing
during the pendency of the suspensive condition in an obligation to give a determinate thing or
pendency of the suspensive period in obligation to give a determinate thing
a. If the thing is lost without the fault of the debtor, the obligation shall be extinguished.
b. If the thing is lost through the fault of the debtor, he shall be obliged to pay damages.
c. When the thing deteriorates without the fault of the debtor, the impairment is to be borne by the
creditor.
d. If the thing is improved by its nature, or by time, the improvement shall inure to the benefit of the
creditor.
e. If it is improved at the expense of the debtor, he shall have no other right than that granted to
the usufructuary which means that he shall only have the right to use the improved thing for a
reasonable period.

41. Alternative remedies of creditor when the determinate thing deteriorates through the fault of the
debtor during the pendency of the suspensive condition in an obligation to give a determinate
thing or suspensive period in an obligation to give a determinate thing
a. He may ask for the rescission of the obligation with indemnity for damages.
b. He may ask for the performance of the obligation with indemnity for damages.

42. Instances when the thing is considered lost

a. When it perishes.
b. When it goes out of commerce.
c. When it disappears in such a way that its existence is unknown or it cannot be recovered.
d. When it is a destroyed specific thing.

43. Effects of fulfillment of resolutory condition to the obligation of the parties

a. There will be mutual restitution.
b. The fruits shall be returned by the person who will make the restitution with deduction for the
expenses for the production, gathering and preservation of the fruits.

44. Reciprocal obligation refers to a type of obligation which arises from the same cause and in which
each party is a debtor and creditor of the other, such than the obligation of one is dependent upon the
obligation of the other.

45. Right to ask for Rescission of Reciprocal Obligation by the Injured Party
a. The injured party can ask for judicial rescission of the obligations in case one of the obligors
should not comply with what is incumbent upon him because the power to rescind obligations is
implied in reciprocal ones.

46. Alternative remedies of Injured Party in case of breach of reciprocal obligation

a. As a general rule, the injured party may ask for the fulfillment of obligation with damages and
can no longer ask for rescission of obligation after selection of this remedy. However, if the
exact fulfillment becomes legally impossible after its selection, the injured party may
exceptionally ask for the rescission of the obligation.
b. If the injured party asks for the rescission of the obligation, he is absolutely prohibited from
asking exact fulfillment of the obligation.

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47. Principles concerning reciprocal obligations
a. The court shall decree the rescission claimed, unless there be just cause authorizing the fixing
of a period.
b. In case both parties have committed a breach of the obligation, the liability of the first infractor
shall be equitably tempered by the courts.
c. If it cannot be determined which of the parties first violated the contract, the same shall be
deemed extinguished, and each shall bear his own damages.

48. Obligation with a period is an obligation which is subject to a space of time which, exerting an
influence on obligations as a consequence of a juridical act, suspends their demandability or
determines their extinguishment.

49. Distinctions between a condition and a period

a. A condition is an uncertain event while a period is an event that must necessarily come.
b. While a condition gives rise to an obligation or extinguishes one already existing, a period has
no effect upon the existence of obligation, but only its demandability or performance and thus, a
period does not carry with it any retroactive effect.
c. A condition may refer to a past event and unknown to parties while a period always refers to
the future.
d. A suspensive condition purely potestative upon the debtor’s will annuls the obligation that
depends upon it while a suspensive period which depends exclusively on the will of the debtor
does not annul the obligation that depends upon it but merely authorizes the court to fix the
suspensive period of the obligation.

50. Types of Obligation with a period

a. Obligation Ex die or Obligation with a suspensive period is an obligation already existing
but not yet demandable until the arrival of the suspensive period.
b. Obligation In diem or Obligation with a resolutory period is an obligation already
immediately demandable but will be extinguished upon the arrival of the resolutory period.

51. Benefit of the obligation with a period

a. It is presumed to be for the benefit of both creditor and debtor in the absence of contrary
agreement.

52. As a general rule, the court is not allowed to fix a period in an obligation. However, the following
are the exceptional instances wherein the court may fix the period of an obligation with a
period
a. If the obligation does not fix a period, but from its nature and the circumstances it can be
inferred that a period was intended.
b. If the period depends upon the sole will of the debtor.
c. In case of pure obligation, to prevent unreasonable interpretations of its immediate
demandability.

53. Instances wherein the debtor shall lose every right to make use of the period and therefore the
obligation with a period becomes due and demandable which allows the creditor to demand its
performance from the debtor
a. When after the obligation has been contracted, the debtor becomes insolvent and he does not
give a guaranty or security for the debt.
b. When the debtor does not furnish to the creditor the guaranties or securities which he has
promised.
c. When by debtor’s own acts he has impaired or destroyed said guaranties or securities after their
establishment, unless he immediately gives new one equally satisfactory.
d. When through a fortuitous event the guaranties or securities after their establishment
disappeared, unless the debtor immediately gives new one equally satisfactory.
e. When the debtor violates any undertaking, in consideration of which the creditor agreed to the
period.
f. When the debtor attempts to abscond.

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54. Alternative Obligation vs. Facultative Obligation vs. Conjunctive Obligation
a. Alternative Obligation is an obligation where the debtor is alternatively bound by different
prestations and it is extinguished by the complete performance of any of them.
b. Facultative Obligation is an obligation wherein only one prestation has been agreed upon but
the obligor may render another in substitution.
c. Conjunctive Obligation is an obligation where the debtor has to perform several prestations
and it is extinguished only by the performance of all of them.

55. Distinctions between alternative obligation and facultative obligation

a. In alternative obligation, several objects being due, the fulfillment of one is sufficient,
determined by the choice of the debtor who generally has the right of election while in
facultative obligation, only one thing is due, but the debtor has reserved the right to substitute
in with another.
b. In alternative obligation, the loss of one of the things due through the fault of debtor may affect
the obligation if the right of choice is given to creditor while in facultative obligation, the loss of
that which may be given as substitute does not affect the obligation if the loss occurs before the
substitution.
c. In alternative obligation, the right of choice may be granted to the creditor while in facultative
obligation, the right of choice can never be granted to creditor.
d. In alternative obligation, the loss of one of the things due through fortuitous event does not
extinguish the obligation while in facultative obligation, the loss through fortuitous event of that
which is due as the object of the obligation will extinguishes such obligation.

56. Joint Obligation vs. Solidary Obligation

a. Solidary obligation is one in which each debtor is liable for the entire obligation and each
creditor is entitled to demand the whole obligation.
b. Joint obligation is one in which each of the debtors is liable only for a proportionate part of the
debt and each creditor is entitled only to a proportionate share of the credit.

57. Instances when the obligation is considered solidary

a. When the obligation expressly so states that the obligation is solidary.
b. When the law requires the obligation to be solidary.
c. When the nature of the obligation requires it to be solidary.

58. Principal consequences of the joint character of the obligation

a. The demand by one creditor upon one debtor produces the effects of default only with respect
to the creditor who demanded and the debtor on whom the demand was made, but not with
respect to the others.
b. The interruption of prescription by the judicial demand of one creditor upon a debtor, does not
benefit the other creditors nor interrupt the prescription as to other debtors.
c. The vices of each obligation arising from the personal effect of a particular debtor or creditor do
not affect the obligation or rights of the others.
d. The insolvency of a debtor does not increase the responsibility of his co-debtors and it does not
authorize a creditor to demand anything from his co-creditors.

59. Principles concerning solidary obligations

a. The indivisibility of an obligation does not imply solidarity.
b. The solidarity of an obligation does not imply indivisibility.
c. Solidary may exist although the creditors and the debtors may not be bound in the same
manner and by the same period and conditions.
d. Each one of the solidary creditors may do whatever may be useful to the others, but not
anything which may be prejudicial to the latter.
e. A solidary creditor cannot assign his rights without the consent of the others.
f. The debtor may pay any one of the solidary creditors but if any demand, judicial or extrajudicial,
has been made by any one of the solidary creditors, payment should be made to him by the
debtor to whom demand for payment is made.

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60. Acts if made by any of the solidary creditors with any of the solidary debtors extinguish the
solidary obligation but may be subject to possible reimbursement among the solidary creditors
and solidary debtors themselves except in case of remission wherein reimbursement is not
allowed

a. Novation
b. Compensation
c. Confusion
d. Remission

61. Principles concerning the payment of solidary obligation

a. Payment made by one of the solidary debtors extinguishes the obligation and if two or more
solidary debtors offer to pay, the creditor may choose which offer to accept.
b. He who made the payment may claim from his co-debtors only the share which corresponds to
each with the interest for the payment already made.
c. If payment is made before the debt is due, no interest for the intervening period may be
demanded.
d. When one of the solidary debtors cannot, because of his insolvency, reimburse his share to the
debtor paying the obligation, such shall be borne by the paying debtor and the other co-debtors
pro-rata.
e. Payment by a solidary debtor shall not entitle him to reimbursement from his co-debtors if such
payment is made after the obligation has prescribed or become illegal.
f. The remission made by the creditor of the share which affects one of the solidary debtors does
not release the latter from his responsibility towards the co-debtors, in case the debt had been
totally paid by anyone of them before the remission was effected.
g. The remission of the whole obligation, obtained by one the solidary debtors, does not entitle him
to reimbursement from his co-debtors.
h. If the thing has been lost or if the prestation has become impossible without the fault of the
solidary debtors, the obligation shall be extinguished.

62. Defenses that may be availed of by the solidary debtor in actions filed by the creditor

a. Defenses which are inherent from the nature of the solidary obligation
b. Defenses personal to defendant-debtor for the whole amount of the obligation
c. Defenses personal to other debtors as regards that part of the debt for which the latter are
responsible

63. Divisible Obligation vs. Indivisible Obligation

a. Divisible Obligation is one which is susceptible of partial performance; that is, the debtor can
legally perform the obligation by parts and the creditor cannot demand a single performance of
the entire obligation.

b. Indivisible Obligation is one which is not susceptible of partial performance or the law provides
that the performance of the obligation is indivisible or the contract provides that the performance
of the obligation is indivisible.

i. Instances when the obligation is considered indivisible

1. When the obligation is not susceptible of partial performance
2. When the law provides that the performance of obligation is indivisible
3. When the contract provides that the performance of the obligation is indivisible

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64. Principles pertaining to divisible obligations and indivisible obligations
a. Divisibility or indivisibility of the obligation refers not to the object or thing but to the performance
of the obligation.
b. A divisible obligation, whatever may be the nature of the thing which is the object thereof, refers
to one which can be validly performed in parts.
c. The thing or object may be divisible, yet the obligation may be indivisible.
d. Obligations to give definite things and those which are not susceptible of partial performance
shall be deemed indivisible.
e. When the obligation has for its object the execution of a certain number of days of work, the
accomplishment of work by metrical units, or analogous things which by their nature are
susceptible of partial performance, it shall be divisible.
f. Even though the object or service may be physically divisible, an obligation is indivisible if so
provided by law or intended by the parties.
g. In obligations to do, divisibility or indivisibility shall be determined by the character of the
prestation in each particular case.

65. Principles of Joint Indivisible Obligation

a. To enforce a joint indivisible obligation, there is necessity of collective fulfillment and the action
must be against all the debtors which means that all joint indivisible debtors are indispensable
party in the action to enforce joint indivisible obligation.
b. In case of non-performance by all debtors in a joint indivisible obligation, the action for exact
fulfillment must be against all the joint indivisible debtors because they are all indispensable
party in the suit.
c. In case of non-performance by any of the debtors in a joint indivisible obligation, the obligation is
converted into a liability for losses and damages, which is divisible.
d. A joint indivisible obligation cannot be compelled by specific performance if anyone of the
debtors does not or cannot comply with this undertaking.
e. The joint indivisible debtors who may have been ready to fulfill their promises shall not
contribute to the indemnity beyond the corresponding portion of the price of the thing or of the
value of the service in which the obligation consists.

66. Obligation with a penal clause is an obligation which has an accessory undertaking to assume
greater liability in case of breach. The penalty is also known as liquidated damages which are stipulated
or predetermined by the contracting parties.
67. Principles pertaining to obligations with a penal clause
a. The debtor does not have absolute right to just pay the penalty for non-performance of the
obligation instead of fulfilling the obligation.
b. The penalty stipulated must not be contrary to law, morals, or public order to be enforceable.
c. Obligations with a penal clause must be construed strictly against the awarding of penalty.
d. In case of breach of obligations with a penal clause, the debtor cannot have both enforcement
of penalty for non-compliance of obligation and specific performance of obligation because they
are inconsistent remedies.
e. Proof of actual damages suffered by the creditor is not necessary in order that the penalty may
be demanded because they are liquidated or predetermined damages by the contracting
parties.
f. The judge shall equitably reduce the penalty when the principal obligation has been partly or
irregularly complied with by the debtor and even if there has been no performance, the penalty
may also be reduced by the courts if it is iniquitous or unconscionable.
g. The nullity of the principal obligation carries with it that of the penal clause.
h. The nullity of the penal clause does not carry with it that of the principal obligation.

68. As a general rule, penalty or liquidated damages for breach of obligation with a penal clause are
awarded in lieu of damages and interest. However, the following are the exceptional instances
when the creditor may demand payment of damages and interest aside from penalty in
obligation with a penal clause
a. If there is stipulation that damages and interests may be demanded in addition to penalty in
case of breach of obligation with a penal clause.
b. When the debtor is guilty of bad faith or fraud in the breach of the obligation with a penal clause.
c. When the debtor fails to pay the penalty in case of breach of the obligation with a penal clause.

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69. Modes of extinguishment of obligations: (No-Co-Me-Re-Pa-Lo-Pre-Re-Ful-An)
a. No – Novation
b. Co – Compensation or Offset
c. Me – Merger or Confusion
d. Re – Remission or Donation or Condonation or Renunciation
e. Pa – Payment or Performance
f. Lo – Loss of the thing due
g. Pre – Prescription of Right to File Action converting the civil obligation to natural obligation
h. Re – Rescission of Rescissible Obligation or Rescissible Contract
i. Full – Fulfillment of Resolutory Condition or Resolutory Period
j. An – Annulment of Voidable Obligation or Voidable Contract

70. Prescription refers to the mode of extinguishment of right to file an action or obligation by the mere
lapse of time fixed by law.
a. 6 years for quasi contract
b. 6 years for oral contract
c. 10 years for written contract
d. 10 years for court judgment
e. 4 years for quasi-delict

71. Types of Estoppel

a. Estoppel in pais means a person is considered in estoppel if by his conduct, representations or
admissions or silence when he ought to speak out, whether intentionally or through culpable
negligence, causes another to believe certain facts to exist and such other rightfully relies and
acts on such belief, as a consequence of which he would be prejudiced if the former is permitted
to deny the existence of such facts.
b. Estoppel by deeds occurs when a party to a deed and his privies are precluded from denying
any material fact stated in the said deed as against the other party and his privies.
c. Estoppel by laches is considered an equitable estoppel wherein a person who failed or
neglected to assert a right for an unreasonable and unexplained length of time is presumed to
have abandoned or otherwise declined to assert such right and cannot later on seek to enforce
the same, to the prejudice of the other party, who has no notice or knowledge that the former
would assert such rights and whose condition has so changed that the latter cannot, without
injury or prejudice, be restored to his former state.

72. Payment or Performance is a mode of extinguishing obligation which refers to the fulfillment of the
prestation due.

73. Requisites of a valid payment

a. The payment must be in accordance with the obligation.
b. The person paying as well as the one receiving payment should have the requisite capacity.
c. It should be made by the debtor to the creditor.
d. It should be made at the right time and place.

74. Principles applicable to payment

a. Payment means not only delivery of money but also performance, in any other manner, of an
obligation.
b. A debt shall not be understood to have been paid unless the thing or service in which the
obligation consists has been completely delivered or rendered, as the case may be.
c. If the obligation has been substantially performed in good faith, the obligor may recover as
though there had been a strict and complete fulfillment, less damages suffered by the obligee.
d. When the obligee accepts the performance, knowing its incompleteness or irregularity, and
without expressing any protest or objection, the obligation is deemed fully complied with.

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75. Payment concepts
a. In obligations to give, payment made by one who does not have the free disposal of the thing
due and capacity to alienate it shall not be valid.
b. Payment to a person who is incapacitated to administer his property shall be valid if he has kept
the thing delivered or insofar as the payment has been beneficial to him.
c. Payment made to the creditor by the debtor after the latter has been judicially ordered to retain
the debt shall not be valid.
d. The debtor of a thing cannot compel the creditor to receive a different one, although the latter
may be of the same value as, or more valuable than that which is due.
e. In obligations to do or not to do, an act or forbearance cannot be substituted by another act or
forbearance against the obligee’s will.
f. When the obligation consists in the delivery of an indeterminate or generic thing, whose quality
and circumstances have not been stated, the creditor cannot demand a thing of superior quality
and the debtor cannot deliver a thing of inferior quality.

76. Rules concerning the payment of debts in money

a. The payment of debts in money can be made in other currency.
b. The payment of debts in money shall be made in the currency stipulated.
c. In case the delivery of the currency stipulated is not possible, the payment of debts in money
shall be made in the currency which is legal tender in the Philippines.
i. Legal Tender in Philippine Jurisdiction – refers to the currency which a debtor can
compel a creditor to accept in an obligation to pay a sum of money.
1. 1 centavo, 5 centavos, 10 centavos, 25 centavos – Up to P100 only.
2. P1, P5, P10 – Up to P1,000 only.
3. P20, P50, P100, P200, P500, P1,000 – Unlimited legal tender power.
d. The delivery of promissory notes payable to order or bills of exchange or other mercantile
documents shall produce the effect of payment only: (1) when they have been cashed or (2)
when through the fault of the creditor they have been impaired or (3) when the amount has been
credited to the bank account of creditor. Negotiable instruments like promissory note, bill of
exchange and checks are not legal tender and not as good as cash.
e. In case an extraordinary inflation or deflation of the currency stipulated should supervene, the
value of the currency at the time of the establishment of the obligation shall be the basis of
payment, unless there is an agreement to the contrary.

77. Place of payment of obligation

a. Place designated in the obligation.
b. In the absence of agreement, delivery shall be made wherever the thing might be at the moment
the obligation was constituted or perfected in case of obligation to deliver a determinate thing.
c. In the absence of agreement, delivery shall be made at the domicile of debtor in case of
obligation to deliver a generic thing.

78. Right of a third person who pays for the debtor without the knowledge or against the will of the
debtor
a. The third person may recover only insofar as the payment has been beneficial to the debtor but
there is no legal subrogation.

79. As a general rule, payment to a third person is not valid. However, the following are the
exceptional instances wherein payment by a debtor to a third person is valid
a. When in good faith, the debtor pays to one in possession of the credit.
b. When, without notice of the assignment of the credit, the debtor pays to the original creditor.
c. When the payment to a third person redounded to the benefit of the creditor.

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80. Generally, it is the obligation of the debtor to prove that the payment to a third person
redounded to the benefit of the creditor in order for the payment to be valid. The following are
exceptional instances when benefit to creditor need not be proved by a debtor who pays a third
person for such payment to be valid:
a. If after the payment, the third person acquires the creditor’s rights.
b. If the third person is authorized by the creditor.
c. If the creditor ratifies the payment to the third person.
d. If by the creditor’s conduct, the debtor has led to believe that the third person had authority to
receive payment.

81. Special Forms of Payment

a. Application of payment (Not really a special form of payment)
b. Payment by cession
c. Dation in payment
d. Tender of payment and consignation

82. Dation in payment or Dacion en Pago refers to a special form of payment whereby a property is
alienated to the creditor in satisfaction of a debt in money when the loan in money is already due at the
time of change. This special mode of payment shall be governed by Law on Sales. If the change occurs
before the maturity day of the obligation to pay a sum of money, the mode of extinguishment of
obligation is not dation en pago but it will be novation.

83. Cession refers to a special type of payment which involves the voluntary abandonment of the
universality of the property of the debtor for the benefit of his creditors, in order that such property may
be applied to the payment of the credits.

84. Distinctions between dation in payment and payment by cession

a. Whereas dation in payment transfers the ownership over the thing alienated to the creditor,
while in payment by cession, only the possession and administration (not ownership) are
transferred to the creditors, with an authorization to convert the property into cash with which
the debts shall be paid.
b. While dation in payment may totally extinguish the obligation and release the debtor, the
payment by cession only extinguishes the credits to the extent of the amount realized from the
properties assigned, unless otherwise agreed upon.
c. While dation in payment involves only some specific thing, payment by cession involves all
the property of the debtor.
d. While in dation in payment, the transfer is only in favor of one creditor to satisfy a debt, in
payment by cession, there are various creditors.
e. While dation in payment is governed by Law on Sales, payment by cession is governed by
FRIA of 2010.

85. Application of payment refers to the designation of the debt which is being paid by a debtor who has
several obligations of the same kind in favor of the creditor to whom payment is made. The right of
application of payment belongs to the debtor.

86. Principles on Application of Payment

a. Unless the parties so stipulate, or when the application of payment is made by the party for
whose benefit the term has been constituted, application shall not be made as to debts which
are not yet due.
b. If the debtor accepts from the creditor a receipt in which an application of the payment is made,
the former cannot complain of the same, unless there is a cause for invalidating the contract.

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87. Limitations to the preferential right of the debtor to choose the debt to which his payment is to
be made
a. If the debtor owes two debts, one for P50 and another for P200, and he makes a payment of
P50, he cannot choose to apply it to the P200 debt because the creditor cannot be compelled to
accept partial payment.
b. If there is only one obligation bearing stipulated interest, the debtor can apply the payment to
the interest before the capital.
c. The debtor cannot apply the payment to a debt that is not yet liquidated.
d. He cannot choose a debt with a period for the benefit of the creditor, when the period has not
yet arrived.
e. When there is an agreement as to the debts which are to be paid first, the debtor cannot vary
the agreement.

88. Rules for application of payments

a. If the debt produces interest, payment of the interest shall not imply that the principal is already
paid.
b. When the payment cannot be applied in accordance with the preceding rules, or if application
cannot be inferred from other circumstances, the debt which is most onerous to the debtor,
among those due, shall be deemed to have been satisfied.
c. If the debts due are of the same nature and burden, the payment shall be applied to all of them
proportionately.
d. If at the time of payment the debtor does not exercise his right to apply it to any of his debts, the
application made by the creditor shall be followed even if the debtor does not consent to such
application.

89. Tender of Payment and Consignation

a. Tender of payment is the manifestation made by the debtor to the creditor of his desire to
comply with his obligation with the offer of immediate performance.
b. Consignation is the deposit of the object of the obligation in a competent court in accordance
with rules prescribed by law. It refers to the remedy available to the debtor if the creditor is guilty
of delay also known as mora accipiendi.

90. As a general rule, consignation shall be preceded by valid tender of payment for consignation
to be valid. However, the following are the exceptional instances of valid consignation releasing
the debtor from liability even without valid tender of payment:
a. When the creditor is absent or unknown, or does not appear at the place of payment
b. When the creditor is incapacitated to receive the payment at the time it is due
c. When, without just cause, the creditor refuses to give a receipt
d. When two or more persons claim the same right to collect
e. When the title of the obligation has been lost

91. Essential requisites of valid consignation as a special mode of payment:

a. There debt must be due.
b. The consignation was made because of some legal cause provided by law.
c. Previous notice of the consignation has been given to the persons interested in the performance
of the obligation. (1st notice of the intent to consign)
d. The amount or thing was placed at the disposal of the court.
e. After the consignation, the persons interested were notified thereof. (2nd notice of actual
consignation)

92. Principles of tender of payment and consignation

a. Once the consignation has been duly made, the debtor may ask the judge to order the
cancellation of the obligation.
b. Before the creditor has accepted the consignation, or before a judicial declaration that the
consignation has been properly made, the debtor may withdraw the thing or the sum deposited,
allowing the obligation to remain in force.

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93. Effects once the consignation has been accepted by the creditor or the court has declared that
it has been validly made
a. The debtor is released in the same manner as if he had performed the obligation at the time of
the consignation, because this produces the same effect as a valid payment.
b. The accrual of interest on the obligation is suspended from the moment of consignation.
c. The deterioration or loss of the thing or amount consigned occurring without fault of the debtor
must be borne by the creditor, because the risks of the thing are transferred to the creditor from
the moment of deposit.
d. Any increment or increase in value of the thing after the consignation inures to the benefit of the
creditor.

94. Effects if, after the consignation has been made, the creditor should authorize the debtor to
withdraw the same
a. The creditor shall lose every preference which he may have over the thing.
b. The co-debtors shall be released of its solidary obligation but not of their respective shares in
the obligation. It means that the obligation of the other co-debtors is converted into joint
obligation. However, it will remain to be solidary obligation of the part of the consigning debtor.
c. The guarantors and sureties shall be released.

95. Loss of generic thing vs. Loss of specific thing

a. An obligation which consists in the delivery of a determinate thing shall be extinguished if it
should be lost or destroyed due to fortuitous event.
b. In an obligation to deliver a generic thing, the loss or destruction of anything of the same kind
does not extinguish the obligation because generic thing never perishes.

96. Requisites of fortuitous events to exempt the obligor/debtor from liability

a. The cause of the unforeseen and unexpected occurrence or the failure of the debtor to comply
with his obligation must be independent of the debtor’s will.
b. It must be impossible to foresee the event which constitutes the case fortuito or if it can be
foreseen, it must be impossible to avoid.
c. The occurrence must be such as to render it impossible for the debtor to fulfill his obligation in a
normal manner.
d. The obligor must not participate in the aggravation of the injury resulting to the creditor.

97. Exceptional instances when the debtor is liable even there is fortuitous event at the time of loss
a. When the law expressly provides that the debtor shall be liable even if the loss is due to
fortuitous event.
b. When by express stipulation, the obligor is made liable even if loss occurs through fortuitous
events.
c. When the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk.
d. When the fault or negligence of the debtor concurs with the fortuitous event in causing the loss.
e. When the loss occurs after the debtor has incurred in delay.
f. When the debtor has promised to deliver the same thing to two or more different parties.
g. When the obligation to deliver a determinate object arises from a criminal act.

98. Effects of loss of the object of the obligation

a. The courts shall determine whether, under the circumstances, the partial loss of the object of
the obligation is so important as to extinguish the obligation.
b. The debtor in obligations to do shall also be released when the prestation becomes legally or
physically impossible without the fault of the obligor.
c. When the service has become so difficult as to be manifestly beyond the contemplation of the
parties, the obligation may also be released therefrom, in whole or in part.
d. When the debt of a thing certain and determinate proceeds from a criminal offense, the debtor
shall not be exempted from the payment of its price, whatever may be the cause for the loss,
unless the thing having been offered by him to the person who should receive it, the latter
refused without justification to accept it.
e. The obligation having been extinguished by the loss of the thing, the creditor shall have all the
rights of action which the debtor may have against third persons by reason of the loss meaning
there will be legal subrogation.

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99. Remission or Donation or Condonation or Renunciation is a mode of extinguishing obligation which
is an act of liberality, by virtue of which, without receiving any equivalent, the creditor renounces the
enforcement of the obligation, which is extinguished in its entirety or in that part or aspect of the same.
It is essentially gratuitous and requires acceptance by the debtor.

100. Essential requisites for validity of donation

a. If the donation of movable involves P5,000 or less, there must be simultaneous delivery and
acceptance.
b. If the donation of movable exceeds P5,000, the donation and acceptance must be both in
writing.
c. If the donation involves immovable property, the donation and acceptance must be both in
public instrument.

101. Requisites of remission or condonation

a. The debt must be existing and demandable at the time the remission is made.
b. The renunciation of the debt must be gratuitous.
c. The debtor must accept the remission.
d. The remission or condonation may be expressed or implied.

102. Principles of condonation or remission

a. Whenever the private document in which the debt appears is found in the possession of the
debtor, it shall be presumed that the creditor delivered it voluntarily, unless the contrary is
proved.
b. The renunciation of the principal debt shall extinguish the accessory obligations.
c. The renunciation of the accessory obligation shall not extinguish the principal debt.
d. It is presumed that the accessory obligation of pledge has been remitted when the thing is
pledged, after its delivery to the creditor, is found in the possession of the debtor, or of a third
person who owns the thing.

103. Confusion or merger is a mode of extinguishing obligation that occurs where there is meeting
in one person of the qualities of creditor and debtor with respect to the same obligation.

104. Requisites of merger or confusion

a. It must take place between the creditor and the principal debtor.
b. The very same obligation must be involved, for if the debtor acquires rights from the creditor, but
not the particular obligation in question, there will be no merger.
c. The confusion or merger must be total or as regards the entire obligation.

105. Principles concerning merger or confusion

a. The effect of merger is to extinguish the obligation.
b. Merger which takes place in the person of the principal debtor or creditor benefits the guarantor.
c. Merger which takes place in the person of the guarantor does not extinguish the principal
obligation.
d. Confusion does not extinguish a joint obligation except as regards the share corresponding to
the creditor or debtor in whom the two characters concur.

106. Compensation or Offset is a mode of extinguishing to the concurrent amount, the obligations
of those persons who in their own right are reciprocally debtors and creditors of each other.

107. Types of Compensation

a. Legal compensation is a compensation which takes place by operation of law because the
requisites provided by law are present.
b. Facultative compensation is a compensation which can be claimed by one of the parties who,
however, has the right to object to it, such as when one of the obligations has a period for the
benefit of one party alone and who renounces that period so as to make the obligations due.
c. Conventional compensation is a compensation wherein the parties agree to compensate their
mutual obligations even if some requisite is lacking.
d. Judicial compensation is a compensation decreed by the court in a case where there is a
counterclaim.

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108. Requisites of legal compensation or compensation by operation of law
a. Each one of the obligors be bound principally, and that he be at the same time a principal
creditor of the other.
b. Both debts consist in a sum of money, or if the things due are consumable, they be of the same
kind, and also of the same quality if the latter has been stated.
c. Both debts must be due.
d. Both debts must be liquidated and demandable.
e. That over neither of them there be any retention or controversy, commenced by third persons
and communicated in due time to the debtor.

109. Debts that can be the subject of legal compensation

a. Valid
b. Rescissible
c. Voidable

110. Principles concerning compensation

a. The guarantor may set up compensation as regards what the creditor may owe the principal
debtor.
b. Compensation may be total or partial and when the two debts are of the same amount, there is
a total compensation.
c. The parties can agree upon compensation of debts which are not yet due.
d. If one of the parties to a suit over an obligation has a claim for damages against the other, the
former may set it off by proving his right to said damages and the amount thereof.
e. When one or both debts are rescissible or voidable, they may be compensated against each
other before they are judicially rescinded or avoided.

111. Instances wherein the debtor may still set up compensation against the assignee of
creditor in case of assignment of credit
a. When the creditor communicated the assignment of his right to the third persons to the debtor
and the latter did not consent thereto.
b. When the debtor has consented to the assignment of rights made by a creditor in favor of a third
person and the assignor reserved his right to the compensation at the time he gave his consent.
c. When the assignment is made without the knowledge of the debtor.
d. When the debtor has consented to the assignment of rights made by a creditor with reservation
as to his right to compensation.

112. Instances when legal compensation is prohibited by law but facultative compensation is
allowed
a. When there is a renunciation of the effect of compensation by a party.
b. When one of the debts arises from obligation of depositary in depositum
c. When one of the debts arises from or of a bailee in commodatum.
d. When the one of the creditor has a claim for future support due by gratuitous title.
e. When one of the debts consists in civil liability arising from a crime.
f. When one of the debts pertains to taxes.

113. Principles pertaining to legal compensation

a. When all the requisites for legal compensation are present, compensation takes effect by
operation of law even without the consent or awareness of the parties to the obligation.
b. Legal compensation takes place by operation of law even though the debts may be payable at
difference places, but there shall be an indemnity for expenses of exchange or transportation to
the place of payment.
c. If a person should have against him several debts which are susceptible of compensation, the
rules on the application of payments shall apply to the order of the legal compensation.

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114. Novation is the extinguishment of an obligation by the substitution or change of the obligation
by a subsequent one which extinguishes or modifies the first.

115. Requisites of Novation of Obligation

a. There must be a previous valid obligation.
b. There must be agreement of all parties to the new contract.
c. There must be extinguishment of the old contract.
d. The new obligation must be valid.

116. Types of Novation of Obligation

a. Changing their object or principal conditions
b. Substituting the persons of the debtor (Delegacion or Expromission)
c. Subrogating a third person in the rights of the creditor (Legal Subrogation or Conventional
Subrogation)
d. Shortening the term of the obligation

117. Types of novation

a. Subjective or personal novation is the modification of the obligation by the change of the
subject; it is passive if there is substitution of the debtor, and it is active when a third person is
subrogated in the rights of the creditor.
b. Objective or real novation is the change of the obligation by substituting the object with
another or changing the principal conditions.
c. There is partial novation when there is only a modification or change in some principal
conditions of the obligation.
d. There is implied novation when there is such an incompatibility between the old and the new
obligations that they cannot stand together.

118. Concepts of novation

a. In order that an obligation may be extinguished by another which substitutes the same, it is
imperative that it be so declared in unequivocal terms.
b. Novation is never presumed.
c. Novation may be expressed or implied.
d. There is implied novation if the old and new obligations are on every point incompatible with
each other.
e. When the principal obligation is extinguished in consequence of a novation, accessory
obligations may subsist only insofar as they may benefit third person who did not give their
consent.
f. If the new obligation is void, the original obligation was not extinguished, unless the parties
intended that the former should not subsist in any event.
g. The novation is void if the original obligation was void, except when annulment may be claimed
only by the debtor, or when ratification validates acts which are voidable.
h. If the original obligation was subject to a suspensive condition or resolutory condition, the new
obligation shall be under the same condition, unless it is otherwise stipulated.

119. Types of Novation by substitution of person of Debtor

a. In Expromission, the initiative for the change does not emanate from the original debtor and
may be made even without his knowledge, since it consists in a third person assuming the
obligation and it logically requires the consent of the third person (new debtor) and the creditor.
b. In Delegacion, the original debtor (delegante) offers and the creditor (delegatario) accepts a
third person (delegado) (new debtor) who consents to the substitution, so that the consent of the
three parties is necessary.

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120. Effects of Insolvency of New Debtor to liability of Old Debtor
a. In Expromission the insolvency of new debtor or non-fulfillment of the obligation shall not
generally give rise to any liability on the part of the original debtor because the original debtor
did not have the initiative in making the change, which might have been made even without his
knowledge. However, if the original debtor gives consent to the substitution, he may become
liable to the insolvency of the new debtor especially of the original debtor acted in bad faith.
b. In delegacion the insolvency of new debtor does not generally revive the obligation of old
debtor unless (1) when said insolvency of new debtor was already existing and of public
knowledge when he delegated his debt, or (2) when said insolvency of new debtor is known to
the debtor, when he delegated his debt.

121. Subrogation refers to the transfer of all the rights of the creditor to a third person, who
substitute him in all his rights.

122. Types of Subrogation or Substitution of Creditor

a. Conventional subrogation refers to substitution of creditor by agreement of original parties

and the new creditor.
i. Conventional subrogation must be clearly established in order that it may take effect.
ii. Conventional subrogation of a third person requires the consent of the original parties
and of third person.

b. Legal subrogation is the substitution of new creditor in exceptional cases provided by law.
Legal subrogation is never presumed and available only in cases provided by law.
i. Instances wherein legal subrogation is presumed or instances of legal
subrogation
1. When a creditor pays another creditor who is preferred, even without the debtor’s
knowledge.
2. When, even without the knowledge of the debtor, a person interested in the
fulfillment of the obligation pays, without prejudice to the effects of confusion as
to the latter’s share.
3. The obligation having been extinguished by the loss of the thing, the creditor
shall have all the rights of action which the debtor may have against third
persons by reason of the loss.
4. In contract of property insurance, when the insurance company pays the insured.
5. Under Negotiable Instruments Law, when there is a valid payment for honor
supra protest.

123. Principles concerning subrogation

a. Subrogation transfers to the person subrogated the credit with all the rights thereto
appertaining, either against the debtor or against third persons, be they guarantors or
possessors of mortgages, subject to stipulation in a conventional subrogation.

b. Effect of Partial Subrogation of a third Person

i. A creditor, to whom partial payment has been made, may exercise his right for the
remainder, and he shall be preferred against the person who has been subrogated in his
place in virtue of the partial payment of the same credit.

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