THE UNIVERSE
A walk through the Universe
 Space is big. You just won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-
bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may think it’s a long way down the
road to the chemists, but that's just peanuts to space. (Douglas Adams)
Cosmology- the branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate
of the universe.
 in astronomy, the sum total of all things which can be directly
observed or whose physical effects on other things can be detected
 in simpler terms, space and all the matter and energy in it
 major components:
o galaxies
o solar systems
o planets
Supercluster- refers to a group of galaxies typically consisting of 3 to 10
clusters and extending up to 2,000,000,000 light years.
-The largest structures in the universe.
Local Supercluster (Virgo Supercluster)- contains the Local Group where the
Milky Way is located.
Filaments, Walls or sheets- larger structure of galaxies form by
superclusters.
- May extend between several hundred million light-years to one
billion light-years
Stages of the Formation of the Universe
Planck Epoch- all the space was extremely small and energy was distributed
within this matter.
Inflation Stage- the universe underwent a period of rapid expansion as it
grew by a factor at least 10 to the -32 of a second. This inflation caused the
visible universe to be extremely flat on scales that can be measured.
Baryogenesis- It continued to expand but in a much slower rate.
Nucleosynthesis- As it expands, it cools, allowing the protons and neutrons
to gain stability and eventually form atomic nuclei composed of the first four
elements. (Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium and Berylium)
Decoupling Stage- characterized by the stabilization of neutral a hydrogen
and helium atoms and the emission of cosmic microwave background
through space.
Galaxy Formation- occurred few hundred million years after denser regions
of gas collapsed due to gravity and created small galaxy systems from which
the first stars were born.
Three Main Concepts about the Expanding Universe
Open Universe- it would forever expand; the ratio is less than one
Close Universe- It would eventually stop its expansion and re-collapse on
itself, which might lead to another big bang in the future; if the ratio is higher
than one
Flat Universe- It would also expand forever, but the expansion rate would
come to zero after an infinite amount of time; if the ratio is exactly one
 As the universe continues to expand, its temperature continues to
decrease until such time that the universe runs out of any usable
heat and reaches the stage called the Big Freeze.
Theories of the Origin of the Universe
Steady State Theory
 The universe has always been as it is today
 New matter is always being produced
 The universe is continuously contracting and expanding.
 This theory has many versions, but the most popular is the one
propose in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Herman Bondi et al.
“Big Bang” Theory
 Billions of years ago the universe was packed in a small space-Primeval
Atom
 It releases energy and threw matter in all directions
 The released energy caused the formation of the galaxies.
 the primeval explosion of space, time, matter and energy that most
astronomers think gave rise to the universe as we see it today.
 occurred about 13.8 billion years ago
  thought to have expanded within a second from something the size of
a spec of dust to the size of our solar system
Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory
Hubble’s Law: the speed of the galaxies moving away from each other
causes a change in the light spectrum, ‘red shift’.
Background radiation: We can still detect radiation from an explosion of
this size – the radiation is the same everywhere on earth (TV static, etc).
Composition of Older Galaxies: Analysis of light from galaxies towards the
‘outside’ of the universe confirm theories about the early universe. They are
made up of approx 93% H, 7% He, and trace Li
 There is observable evidence to count for 90% of the explosion
(10.5bn years) – no light to be measured from other 10%
 The other 10% is only ‘known’ through hypothetical mathematical
simulations – they are only theoretical.
Pulsating Universe Theory
 Combines both the Big Bang and the Big Crunch as part of a cyclical
event.
 If this theory holds true, then the universe in which we live in exists
between a Big Bang and a Big Crunch.
 This theory says that the universe follows infinite self sustaining cycles
such as expanding and contracting.
 States that the universe is “living” and keeps pulsating in and out.
Creation Theory
 God created the Heavens and the Earth.
 Adam and Eve
 Religion
THE SOLAR SYTEM (Its Origin & Evolution)
Theories on the Origin of the Solar System
Theory of Vortices (Rene Descartes) Mid 1600’s
- Postulated that the space was entirely filled with matter in various
states, whirling about the sun like a vortex
Nebular Hypothesis (Immanuel Kant) 100 yrs after
-Suggested that contraction in the middle of the rotating cloud
appeared and the rest flattened out like a disk, using Newton’s idea of
gravity.
-He theorized that thin, dim clouds of dust and gas out in the cosmos
would collapse in on themselves under the force of gravity, causing them to
spin to form a disk.
Laplace’s Nebular Theory (Pierre Simon Laplace) 1700’s
-A slow rotating nebula collapsed under gravity forming an oblate
spheroid due to the increase in its spin rate.
-Contraction and cooling occurred and formed a lens-like structure
leaving detached rings behind, which in later process collapsed to form
planets condensing in each ring.
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon Mid-1700’s
-conceived the idea that a comet collided with the Sun sending
matter off to form the planets.
Harold Urey Mid-20th Century
- Initially studied the meteorites and their chemical analysis. He
concluded that meteorites contain matter that had changed very little in the
early history of the solar system.
Solar Nebular Disk Model (Victor Safronov) 1970’s
- According to this model; our star system was formed 4.6 billion
years ago when a small part of a giant molecular cloud experience a
gravitation collapse. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center
forming the Sun while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk, out of
which the planets , moons, asteroids, and other solar system bodies formed.
PLANETS
 derived from a Greek word that means “wanderer”
 a major object which orbits around a star
 in our solar system, there are eight such objects which are
traditionally called “planets”
Asteroids
 small, solid, rocky bodies that orbit close to the Sun
 most found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in the “Asteroid
Belt”
 thought to be leftover material from the formation of the solar system
  range in size
 from 1000 km or 621 miles (Ceres) to the size of pebbles
Meteoroid, Meteor, Meteorite
 Meteoroid – solid debris from space (asteroids) that are moving
towards Earth
 Meteor - a brief streak of light produced by a small particle entering
Earth’s atmosphere at high speed
-often referred to as “shooting stars” or “falling stars”
travel at speeds between 11-72 kilometers per second (6.8 – 44.7 miles per
second)
 Meteorite – a small object from outer space that passes through
Earth’s atmosphere and reaches the surface
Comet
 a small body of ice and dust (“dirty snowball”) that orbits the Sun
 contain a head (coma) followed by a tail(s) of gas and dust
 the tail always points away from the sun and can be millions of
kilometers long (but the amount of matter it contains can be very
small)
Satellite
 an object that orbits a more massive object (i.e. – moons)
 probes we launch into orbit around the Earth are called “artificial
satellites”
Sizes and Scales
The Relative Radii of the Sun and Planets
 The Sun and the gas giant planets like Jupiter are by far the largest
objects in the Solar System.
Masses and Densities of Planets
 The masses of the planets are also concentrated in the Gas Giant
planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
 The large mass of these planets comes from their absolute sizes, not
their densities.
 The inner planets are by far the most dense.
Revolution and Rotation of the Planets
 Prograde - counterclockwise when viewed from above the Earth's
North Pole.
 Retrograde - clockwise when viewed from above the Earth's North
Pole.
Angular Momentum
 Objects executing motion around a point possess a quantity
called angular momentum.
The inner terrestrial planets
-Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting
points such as silicates, iron , and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or
no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles - hydrogen,
helium, and noble gases.
The outer four planets
- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called "gas giants"
because of the dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate faster,
have thick atmosphere, lower densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen,
helium and ices (water, ammonia, methane).
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
What’s in Our Solar System?
 Our Solar System consists of a central star (the Sun), the nine planets
orbiting the sun, moons, asteroids, comets, meteors, interplanetary
gas, dust, and all the “space” in between them.
 The nine planets of the Solar System are named for Greek and Roman
Gods and Goddesses.
Inner Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Outer Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto
The Relative Size of the Planets in the Solar System
The Sun
 The sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion (where hydrogen is
converted to helium) within its core. This energy is released from the
sun in the form of heat and light.
  A star’s temperature determines its “color.” The coldest stars are red.
The hottest stars are blue.
The 9 Planets of the Solar System
 Planets are categorized according to composition and size. There are
two main categories of planets:
1. Small rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and Pluto)
2. Gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune)
Characteristics of Gas Giants
Characteristics of Small Rocky Planets
 They are made up mostly of rock and metal.
 They are very heavy.
 They move slowly in space.
 They have no rings and few moons (if any).
 They have a diameter of less than 13,000 km.
1. Mercury
 Mercury has a revolution period of 88 days. Mercury has extreme
-270F
(nighttime).
 Even though it is the closest planet to the sun, Scientists believe there
is ICE on Mercury! The ice is protected from the sun’s heat by crater
shadows.
2. Venus
 Venus is the brightest object in the sky after the sun and moon
because its atmosphere reflects sunlight so well. People often
mistake it for a star.
 Its maximum surface temperature may reach 900
 Venus has no moons and takes 225 days to complete an orbit.
3. Earth
 Earth is the only planet known to support living organisms.
 Earth’s surface is composed of 71% water.
 Water is necessary for life on Earth.
 The oceans help maintain Earth’s stable temperatures.
 Earth has one moon and an oxygen rich atmosphere.
Earth’s Moon
 It takes the moon approximately 29 days to complete one rotation.
The same side of the moon always faces us.
 The moon’s surface is covered in dust and rocky debris from meteor
impacts. It has no water or atmosphere.
 The moon reflects light from the sun onto the earth’s surface.
4. Mars
 Like Earth, Mars has ice caps at its poles.
 Mars has the largest volcano in our solar system: Olympus Mons.
Olympus Mons is approximately 15 miles high.
 Mars appears red because of iron oxide, or rust, in its soil.
 Mars has two moons and takes about two years to complete an orbit.
 They are made up mostly of gases (primarily hydrogen & helium).
 They are very light for their size
 They move quickly in space.
 They have rings and many moons.
 They have a diameter of less than 48,000 km
1. Jupiter
 Jupiter is the largest and most massive planet.
 It’s diameter is 11 times bigger than that of the Earth’s.
 It takes about 12 years for Jupiter to orbit the sun.
 Jupiter has 16 known moons.
2. Saturn
 Saturn is composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium.
 Saturn has many rings made of ice. Saturn’s rings are very wide. They
extend outward to about 260,000 miles from the surface but are less
than 1 mile thick.
 Saturn has 18 known moons, some of which orbit inside the rings!
 It takes Saturn about 30 years to orbit the sun.
3. Uranus
 Uranus is blue in color due to methane gas in its atmosphere.
 Uranus has 11 dark rings surrounding it.
 Uranus has 21 known moons and takes 84 years to complete one orbit.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Troposphere
 The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere that lies next
to the Earth’s surface.
 Most of the air that makes up the atmosphere is found in the
troposphere.
 It extends to about 14 kilometers (around 9 miles) above the Earth
 As you move up into the troposphere the temperature decreases.
 At the top of this layer the air temperature is about - 60°C (-76° F).
 The troposphere is the lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere,
where masses of air are very well mixed together and the
temperature decreases with altitude.
 Weather occurs in the Earth's troposphere. In fact, most clouds
form in this layer.
Stratosphere
 The stratosphere begins at the top of the troposphere (14 km/ 9 miles)
and extends to about 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the surface of
the Earth.
 As you move up into the stratosphere the air temperature actually
increases. This occurs because of ozone.
 Ozone is a gas that absorbs solar radiation and releases it as heat.
 The stratospheric or "good" ozone protects life on Earth from the
sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays.
 The increasing temperature in the stratosphere is caused by the
presence of a layer of ozone near an altitude of 25 kilometers.
The ozone molecules absorb high-­­energy UV rays from the sun,
which warm the atmosphere at that level.
 The terrestrial stratosphere is the region between the tropopause,
or the end of the troposphere, and the level at which the
maximum warming due to the presence of ozone takes place,
which is at an altitude of about 50 kilometers.
Ozone
 Is made of three oxygen atoms (O3). The oxygen in our
atmosphere that we breathe is made up of two oxygen atoms
(O2). Because of its chemical formulation, a single atom of
oxygen (O) is unstable. That is, it wants to combine with
something else. That is why oxygen is almost always found in
pairs, in its (diatomic) form, where it is more stable. (O3) is
less stable than (O2), because it wants to return to the diatomic
state by giving up an oxygen atom.
Mesosphere
 The mesosphere begins at about 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the
Earth’s surface and extends to 80 kilometers (50 miles).
 As you move up into the mesosphere, the air temperature decreases.
 Temperatures at the top of this layer can drop to -90°C (- 130°F ).
 Interestingly, this layer also protects the Earth.
 Meteoroids entering Earth’s atmosphere usually burn up in the
mesosphere.
 The mesosphere extends from the top of the stratosphere (the
stratopause, located at about 50 kilometers) to an altitude of
about 90 kilometers.
Thermosphere
 The thermosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.
 It begins at 80 km (50 miles) above the Earth and extends outward
into space.
 Sometimes the thermosphere and exosphere are listed as separate
layers.
 The higher you move in this layer, the higher the temperature.
 Temperatures in the thermosphere can reach 1,800°C (3,300°F)!
 The beautiful colors of the aurora borealis or northern lights occur
in this atmospheric layer.
 This is also where the space shuttle orbits the Earth
 The ionosphere is found at the bottom of the thermosphere (close
to the mesosphere).
 The exosphere is located at the top of the thermosphere.
 The thermosphere also includes the region of the Earth's
atmosphere called the ionosphere. The ionosphere is the region
of the atmosphere that is filled with charged particles. Elevated
temperatures can sometimes cause a molecule to become
ionized, therefore, the ionosphere and thermosphere can
overlap.
Exosphere
 At very high altitudes, the atmosphere becomes very thin. The
region where atoms and molecules escape into space is referred
to as the exosphere. This is the true upper limit of the Earth's
atmosphere. The exosphere extends from the thermosphere out
to space.
Ionosphere
 Scientists call the ionosphere an extension or a part of the
thermosphere. So technically, the ionosphere is not another
 atmospheric layer, but a region of the atmosphere. The
ionosphere represents less than 0.1% of the total mass of the
Earth's atmosphere. Even so, it is extremely important!
Regions of the Ionosphere
D Region - is the lowest in altitude, though it absorbs the most
energetic radiation, hard x-­­rays. The D region doesn't have a definite
starting and stopping point, but includes the ionization that occurs
below about 90km (or ionization that occurs below the E region).
E region - peaks at about 105km. It absorbs soft x-­­rays.
F region - starts around 105km and has a maximum around 600km.
It is the highest of all of the regions. Extreme ultra-­­violet radiation
(EUV) is absorbed there.
Characteristics of Sea Water and Fresh Water
Ocean Water/Sea Water
Hydrosphere
 includes all of the water on or near the Earth's surface
 includes water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, polar ice caps,
soil, rock layer beneath Earth's surface, and clouds.
Distribution of Water in the Hydrosphere
Properties of Water
 It plays an important part in the process that occur on the Earth's
surface and is essential to living beings.
 Is made up of molecules (1 oxygen and 2 Hydrogen)
 Molecules can move freely (flow) at room temperature
 Powerful Solvent
 Absorbs heat
 Cohesion - water is attracted to water
 Adhesion - water is attracted to other materials
 Anomalous dilation - when water freezes, it dilates
 World ocean - a single large interconnected body of water
 Pacific - largest and deepest ocean; single largest geographic
feature on Earth
 Atlantic - half size of the Pacific
 Indian - smaller than Atlantic but with same average depth
 Arctic - 7% the size of Pacific and 1/4 as deep as the others
 Ocean water contains more salt than fresh water.
 Salinity - a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in a given
amount of liquid
 Deep water has a higher salinity because it is colder
  El Niño - occurs every 3-7 years of ocean warming that replaces The Water Cycle
normally cold off shore waters with warm equatorial waters.  The movement of water around, over, and through the Earth.
 La Niña - surface conditions where the waters are colder than 1. Evaporation - liquid water to water vapor
average; increases hurricane activity. 2. Evapotranspiration/transpiration - water evaporates from plants
Fresh Water 3. Condensation - water vapor to liquid
 water that contains insignificant amounts of salts 4. Precipitation - water from clouds fall
 makes up 3% of the Earth's water supply 5. Surface runoff - surface water moves across the land forms
 most of them are locked up in ice caps and glaciers, the rest are 6. Infiltration or percolation - surface water filters into the ground
found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, soil and the atmosphere.
 River system - a network of streams that drain an area of land and Uses of Water
contains all of the land drained by a river including the main river  Agriculture
and all its smaller streams or rivers that flow into larger ones.  Industry
 Tributary - a stream that empties into another stream  Domestic Use
 Stream or torrents - water courses fed by rain
 Glaciers - formed from the accumulation of snow on mountain tops Human Impact on the Hydrosphere
 Rivers - permanent water courses 1. Water Pollution
 Groundwater - water located under the ground surface Causes of Water Pollution
 Lakes - bodies of water of different sizes contained on a body of  Waste water from industries and farmland
land  Sewage water
Running water  Oil Slicks
 Streams are most important agents of erosion  Agricultural Fertilizers and pesticides
 The ability of a stream to erode and transport depends on its
velocity
Factors that determine velocity:
1. Gradient - slope or steepness of a stream
2. Channel Characteristic - shape, roughness, friction
3. Discharge - volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given
period of time
 River Basin - a large area that drains to the ocean
 Water Shed - smaller area
that drain to a certain area
 Aquifer - underground
water source that we use.

Ocean Movement: Waves, Currents

 Wells - dug or drilled to tap into underground water.
and Tides
 Drilled wells - made into underground aquifers
 Tides - The regular rise and fall
Problem with Wells
of the sea caused by the
 Contamination
gravitational attraction of the
 Soil Salination
sun and moon.
  Aquifer Depletion Origin of Minerals
 Salt water intrusion - when salt water moves in where fresh water  Mineral crystals can form in two main ways:
should be located 1. From stuff dissolved in liquids(Evaporation & Hot Water)
 Subsidence - when the land level falls due to loss of groundwater 2. From Cooling molten material
Minerals & Crystals from Magma & Lava
Dams and Dam Removal  Minerals form from hot magma as it cools inside the crust, or as lava
 Dams - used to provide drinking water, etc cools on the surface.
Dam removal benefits:  When these liquids cool to a solid, they form crystals (minerals).
 Avoid catastrophic dam failure  Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to freeze into a solid.
 Benefit aquatic life and migratory fish 1. “Extrusive” Cooling: Lava cools Fast (Short Time = Small Crystals)
 Restore downstream habitats 2. “Intrusive” Cooling: Magma cools slowly (Long Time = Large
 Restore the natural flow of streams and rivers Crystals)
Minerals Crystal Size
Importance of Water Conservation  When the hot material cools fast, it has smaller crystal size. When it
 Sustainability - withdrawal of water should not exceed its natural cools slowly, it has large crystals.
replacement rate Minerals formed by Evaporation
 Energy conservation - pumping and treating water takes a lot of  Some minerals form when solutions/mixtures evaporate:
energy  When water evaporates, it leaves behind the stuff that’s dissolved in
 Habitat conservation it.
 Reduce water consumption per capita  The longer it takes to evaporate, the larger the crystal. (e.g. salt &
water – ocean, Halite, Gypsum, Calcite.)
GEOSPHERE: ROCKS
Mineral Formation How do we identify Minerals?
The Earth’s crust is made up of two things: Minerals and Rocks Properties
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks  Luster: Describes how light is reflected from a minerals surface.
There are five main criteria for something to be a mineral:  Streak: Is the color of the minerals powder when dragged across a
a) It must be solid surface.
a) It must occur naturally (not man-made)  Crystal shape: Different minerals make different crystal shapes
b) It is made of non-living material (never alive)  Hardness: Hardness is determined by a “scratch test”.
c) It has a definite chemical formula (NaCl=salt)  Color: Every mineral has some natural color…ex: Gold, Blue, Clear…
d) It has a crystal structure (Precious?)  Etc: There are many other types of properties we use but these are
Examples: the big ones
Amethyst Pyrite Gold Special Properties
 Some minerals display strange properties. These can include:
Magnetism, fluorescence, and reactivity.

Three Types of Rocks

1. Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from magma or lava. Igneous means fire-
formed.
Origin
Extrusive Rocks: igneous rocks which formed from lava which erupted on
the earth’s surface.
Ex. Basalt: forms most of the crust which includes the crust on the ocean
floor.
Intrusive Rocks: igneous rocks that formed when magma hardened beneath
the earth’s surface.
Ex. Granite: the most abundant intrusive rock in the part of the crust that
makes up the continents. Granite forms the core of many mountain ranges
Texture
 The texture of an igneous rock depends on the size and shape of its
mineral crystals.
 The texture may be fine grained, coarse-grained, glassy, or porphyritic.
 Rapid cooling lava forms fine-grained igneous rocks with small crystals.
 Slow cooling magma forms coarse-grained rock with large crystals.
 A rock with large crystals scattered on a background of much smaller
crystals has a porphyritic texture.
 Porphyritic rocks form when intrusive rocks cool in two stages. As the
magma begins to cool, large crystals form slowly. The remaining
magma, however, cools more quickly, forming small crystals.
 Extrusive rocks have a fine grained or glassy texture.
Mineral Composition
 Most of Earth's minerals contain silica, a material formed from oxygen
and silicon.
 The silica content of magma and lava affects the types of rock they
form.
 Lava that is low in silica usually forms dark-colored rocks such as basalt.
Magma that is high in silica usually forms light-colored rocks, such as
granite.
2. Sedimentary rocks
 From Sediment to Rock
 Sedimentary rocks form from particles deposited by water and wind.
These particles are called sediment.
 Sediments are small, solid pieces of material that come from rocks or
living things.
 Erosion occurs when running water or wind loosen and carry away
these fragments of rock.
 The moving water or wind slows and deposits the sediment.
 Sediment may include shells, bones, leaves, stems, and other remains
of living things.
 Over time, any remains of living things in the sediment may slowly
harden and change into fossils trapped in the rock.
 Compaction is the process that presses sediments together.
 Cementation is the process in which dissolved minerals crystallize and
glue particles of sediment together.
Types of sedimentary rocks
1. Clastic Rocks
-form when rock fragments are squeezed together.
- Usually occurs under water.
Ex. shale, sandstone, conglomerate and breccia
 Shale forms from tiny particles of clay.
 Sandstone forms from the sand on beaches, on the ocean floor, in
riverbeds, and in sand dunes. Sandstone is a clastic rock formed
from the compaction and cementation of small particles of sand.
 The fragments can range in size from sand and pebbles to boulders.
If the fragments have rounded edges, they form a clastic rock called
conglomerate. A rock made up of large fragments with sharp edges
is called breccia.
2. Organic Rocks
-Forms where the remains of plants and animals are deposited in thick
layers.
-The term “organic” refers to substances that once were part of living
things or were made by living things.
-Two important organic sedimentary rocks are coal and limestone.
3. Chemical Rocks
-Chemical rock forms when minerals that are dissolved in a solution
crystallize.
-Chemical rocks can also form from mineral deposits left when seas or
lakes evaporate. Rock salt is a chemical rock made of the mineral halite,
which forms by evaporation.
3. Metamorphic rocks
 The word metamorphic comes from the Greek words meta, meaning
“change,” and morphosis, meaning “form.”
 Heat and pressure deep beneath Earth's surface can change any rock
into metamorphic rock.
 When rock changes into metamorphic rock, its appearance, texture,
crystal structure, and mineral content change.
 While metamorphic rocks are forming, high temperatures change the
size and shape of the grains, or mineral crystals, in the rock.
 In addition, tremendous pressure squeezes rock so tightly that the
mineral grains may line up in flat, parallel layers.
 Geologists classify metamorphic rocks by the arrangement of the
grains that make up the rocks.

 Metamorphic rocks that have their grains arranged in parallel

layers or bands are said to be foliated. Ex. Slate, schist, gneiss
 Sometimes metamorphic rocks are nonfoliated. The mineral grains
in these rocks are arranged randomly. Metamorphic rocks that are
nonfoliated do not split into layers.