EgyE 101 Reviewer
Top Five Factors Affecting Solar Energy Potential
Renewable Energy Resource Assessment (Solar Energy)
(BLANCO)
Solar Energy: Some hard facts
• The sun’s energy output: 386 billion MW/s
• Energy transmitted to Earth by radiation
• Last 20% of the way by convection
• 30% reflected back to space; 20% absorbed by
clouds, dust and “greenhouse” gas such as water
vapor, carbon dioxide and ozone
• 1.5 x 1018 kWh: total Sun energy reaching the earth
• About 10,000 larger than annual energy
consumption of the world
• 345 W/m2: average energy on earth surface
Solar Energy Intensity
• Energy from our sun (~1372 W/m2) is filtered
through the atmosphere and is received at the
surface at ~1000 watts per square meter or less;
average is 345 W/m^2
• Air, clouds, rain, and haze reduce the received
surface energy
• Capture is from heat (thermal energy) and by
photovoltaic cells yielding direct electrical energy.
Irradiance
• Solar irradiance (SI) is the power per unit area
received from the Sun in the form of
electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range
of the measuring instrument.
• Irradiance may be measured in space or at the
Earth's surface after atmospheric absorption and
scattering.
• The average value of irradiance per year is called the
solar constant (Gsc) and is equivalent to 1353, 1367
or 1373 W/m2 depending on who you believe.
• 1353 (1.5%) from Thekaekara (1976) – derived from
measurements at very high atmosphere and used by
NASA
• 1367 (1%) Adopted by the World Radiation Centre
• 1373 (1-2%) from Frohlich (1978) - derived from
satellite data
Insolation
• Defined as the power density of solar radiation
• Insolation is a measurement of the cumulative
energy measured over some area for a defined
period of time (e.g., annual, monthly, daily, etc.).
• The solar irradiance integrated over time is called
solar irradiation, insolation, or solar exposure.
• However, insolation is often used
interchangeably with irradiance in practice.
• Insolation depends on:
• Orientation of the surface relative to the
sun
• Transparency of the atmosphere
• Latitude
• Cloud cover
• Aerosols
• Elevation
• Shading
Nature of the solar resource
Earth is tilted 23.45
• On the winter solstice (December 21)
– The north pole has its maximum angle of
inclination away from the sun
– Everywhere above 66.55 N (90-23.45) is in
darkness for 24 hours, Everywhere above
66.55 S is in sunlight for 24 hours
– the sun passes directly overhead over the
tropic of Capricorn (23.45 S)
• On the equinox (March 22 & September 22)
– Both poles are equidistant
– the day is exactly 12 hours long
– the sun passes directly overhead over the
equator
– The sun tracks a straight line across the sky
• On the summer solstice (June 22)
The reverse of the winter solstice
Latitude
• The solar rays have more intensity around the
equatorial regions.
• As we move further away from the equator, the
energy density decreases as the solar rays are
distributed around a larger geographical region.
• Annual mean solar irradiation (integral of solar
irradiance over a year) at the top of Earth's
atmosphere (TOA) and at the planet's surface
Declination – the angle between the earth’s axis of rotation
and the surface of a cylinder through the earth’s orbit
z = Zenith angle – the angle between the vertical
(zenith) and the line of the sun
as = Solar attitude angle – the angle between the
horizontal and the line to the sun
gs = Solar azimuth angle – the angle of the projection of
beam radiation on the horizontal plane (with zero due south,
east negative and west positive)
Solar Energy Assessment
• Global solar radiation: (Eg) the total quantity of
short wave radiant energy emitted by the Sun’s disc,
as well as that scattered diffusively by the
atmosphere and cloud
• The basic relationship between Eg and the solar
constant with a transmission factor, G is:
Eg = ESC G  G =  RD MD GA PA
Where:
 RD= Rayleigh diffusion • CI is a normalized parameter describing the
MD =the Mie diffusion cloudiness can be defined from the radiance
GA = absorption within gases measurements of the satellite radiometer.
PA = absorption within particles
 − g
Measurement of Solar energy n=
• Irradiance is measured by response to “beam” c −  g
radiation which varies with the cosine of the angle of
• ρ is the reflectance viewed by the satellite
incidence.
radiometer (denoted as the instantaneous planetary
• The main components are:
albedo),
– Thermopile
• ρc is the reflectance of the clouds (i.e., cloud albedo),
– Glass Dome
• ρg is the reflectance of the ground (i.e., ground
Measuring solar radiation
albedo).
• Pyrheliometer: measures direct solar radiation (i.e.
The HELIOSAT Model
the proportion of direct radiation)
• Estimates solar irradiance
• Pyranometer – temperature change as measure of
• Originally empirical
radiation
• Now includes atmospheric factors such as Linke
– Relative
turbidity, aerosol and other atmospheric absorber
– Used for measuring global radiation
parameters
Fundamentals of Solar Irradiance
• Proposed linear relationship between CI and
• Solar radiation interacts with the atmospheric
constituents before reaching the surface.
clearness (kt) as:
k = an + b
t
• Part of this radiation is
The Linke turbidity factor TL
– Backscattered toward the space,
– absorbed, and Criteria Factors
– the remainder reaches the ground. Environment Land use
• The ground absorbs a part of the radiation reaching
Visual impact
the earth’s surface, while the remainder is again
Orography Slopes
reflected toward the space.
• Radiation emerging from the atmosphere is Orientation
composed of the solar radiation backscattered by Location Highway access
the atmosphere and the radiation reflected by the Distance to substations (if grid-
ground connected)
Solar irradiance Distance to urban areas
• Solar radiation (Et) absorbed at the earth surface Climate Global irradiance
maybe expressed as function of surface albedo () Diffuse radiation
and incident solar irradiance (Ig)
Equivalent sun hours (ESH)
Et = I g (1 −  ) Average temperature
• Therefore:
1 • A very convenient approximation to model the
Ig = (I 0 − I s − Ea ) atmospheric absorption and scattering of the solar
1−  radiation under clear skies.
 L • Describes the optical thickness of the atmosphere
=
• Note that:
E due to both the absorption by the water vapor and
the absorption and scattering by the aerosol
Why use of Satellite Imagery for estimating Ig
particles relative to a dry and clean atmosphere.
• Satellites collect information for large extensions of
• Summarizes the turbidity of the atmosphere, and
ground at the same time,
hence the attenuation of the direct beam solar
• It is possible to study the time evolution of values in
radiation (WMO, 1981; Kasten, 1996).
an image pixel or in a certain geographic area.
• The larger TL, the larger the attenuation of the
• Satellites images allow the analysis of the solar
radiation by the clear sky atmosphere.
resource in a potential emplacement that has no
• Defined as the number of clear and dry atmospheres
previous ground measurements.
(TL=1) that would yield the radiation extinction
The concept of cloud index
observed
 • The downward (sun to ground, d) and upward, u,
transmittances of the clear atmosphere, are used to
correct the estimation of the ground and cloud
reflectance.
 − atm
g =
 d u
 − atm
c = eff
 d u
Data Requirements for solar radiation modeling
• Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
– Slope/inclination: the angle between the
plane of the surface in question and the
equator plane.
• Aspect/orientation: the surface azimuth angle, the
deviation
• Latitude
• Albedo
• Linke turbidity
• Ground-measured values of global horizontal
irradiation(GHI).
• Clear sky index Kc: ratio of the global horizontal
irradiance to the global horizontal irradiance under
clear sky conditions.
Potential solar energy site location
• Solar Insolation = 450 to 500 W/m2
• Average Sunshine Duration = 5.3 hrs (Luzon), 6.0 hrs
(Visayas), and 5 hrs (Mindanao)
• Average of 270 sunny days per year.
Source: PAGASA and NREL Study
Solar Energy: PV Location Criteria
Proper PV Site Selection: Advantages
1. Enhanced performance of the installation, if the site
has suitable climate conditions;
2. Optimization of the installations when they are built
on flat ground, oriented towards the south, and
without shadow-producing obstacles;
3. Lower transport losses if a distributed generation
system is used, and electrical production plants near
urban areas, which are the main consumption
points;
4. Lower maintenance costs throughout the
installation’s useful life if the site is well-connected
to nearby urban areas;
5. Minimal impact on the environment, society, and
infrastructures
PV Cell Siting considerations
• The energy of quasi-global radiation is influenced by
– incidence angle of the Sun’s position,
– geomorphology of the Earth surface, and
– climate (weather)
Validating PV suitability maps
• Validation pixel by pixel: Pixels are selected in each
of the categories of the resulting areas to
subsequently confirm their conditions in the map of
each factor.
• Visual analysis and comparison of the layers with
the highest values in the model with the optimal site
locations in the study area.
• On-site validation: field studies to confirm in situ
that the characteristics of the study area such as
highway accesses, rivers, distance to substations,
etc. actually exist in real life as they appear
described in the map.
Solar Resource Screening Analysis
Factors affecting solar radiation on rooftops
• Seasonal variations in radiation intensity
• Shading from adjacent topography and surface
features
• Individual building characteristics, such as, roof size,
slope, and orientation
• Weather and other atmospheric considerations
Objectives of the Solar Component
• To develop workflows for solar energy resource
assessment using LiDAR and other geospatial
technologies
• To assess the solar energy resource potential of each
of the Philippine provinces and some selected urban
areas
• To perform site suitability analysis for the
development of solar farms
• To determine the areas in the country with potential
for solar energy development by considering both
the available resource and site suitability.
Solar Scope and Limitations
- Maps for national and urban scales will be produced
with 10-meter and one-meter spatial resolutions
respectively.
- Nationwide solar energy resource maps were
produced only for areas with available SAR-derived
DEM
 - Urban scale solar energy resource maps, on the
other hand, cover only selected areas with available
LiDAR-derived DSM
- GADM administrative boundaries were used
- Cloud effects were estimated based on available
solar radiation data from the BSWM and the DOST-
ASTI
- Validation is limited to data from sensors installed in
selected sites all over the country and with at least
one-year worth of data
Solar Energy Resource Assessment
r.sun model
– implemented in open-source GRASS GIS
– Mode 1: calculates raster maps of selected components of
solar irradiance (W/m2) and solar incident angle (degrees) for
the instant time (seconds)
– Mode 2: calculates the raster maps of daily sum of solar
irradiation (Wh/m2) and duration of the beam irradiation
(minutes) from the integration of irradiance values that are
calculated for a selected time step from sunrise to sunset
Renewable Energy Resource Assessment (Hydropower)
Introduction
• Of the total solar energy incident on earth
approximately
– 21% or 1.2 x10 6 EJ/a are used for
maintaining the global water cycle of
–
evaporation and precipitation.
only scarcely 0.02 % or 200 EJ/a out of this
amount of energy are finally available as
kinetic and potential energy stored in the
rivers and lakes of the earth
Precipitation
• “Rain” - Liquid precipitation
– Drizzle (0.05 to 0.25mm)
– Rain (0.25 to 2.5mm)
• Solid precipitation occurs when air temperature in
layers below the cloud is also below the freezing
point
– E.g. snow, hail, soft hail
• Dew - caused by condensation or deposition of
gaseous water, if the temperature of a surface very
close to the ground is below the dew point.
Precipitation and runoff
• Precipitation and runoff are only indirectly linked
• During high precipitations, runoff is delayed due to
formation of reserves
• Parts of precipitation are lost due to:
– Immediate evaporation
– Indirect evaporation (e.g. through plant
growth or interception)
– Increased evaporation through irrigation
Preliminaries: Watershed (1)
• Reach — a length of channel considered as a single
hydrologic entity.
• Example: a length of river between two tributaries
• Represented as a polyline in a "shapefile" or vector
"coverage"
• Waterbody — a volume of water having a horizontal
water surface, which is defined within a specific
area.
• Width is significant when compared to the length.
• Examples: lake, pond, reservoir, swamp, marsh, bay.
• Flow Network — a set of connected flowlines
through channel reaches and water bodies
• Watershed — the area enclosed within a drainage
boundary
• Drainage divide — a line defined
topographically which separates distinct
areas of land drainage.
• Drainage boundary — a closed line drawn
along drainage divides
• also called Catchment or Basin.
• A watershed generally has no inflows and
only one outflow point.
• Discharge (Q) measured/determined to
assess power potential
Hydropower
• Provides 19% of planet’s electricity = 2,261,000 MW
• The power available is proportional to the water
discharge:
P = 1000gHQ
Where:
g: acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h: hydraulic efficiency of turbine expressed as fraction
H: effective head of water (m)
Q: flow rate passing through turbine (m3/s)
Hydropower: Types
Hydropower facilities
• Impoundment
– uses a dam to store water in a reservoir
• Diversion
– channels a portion of a river through a canal
or penstock
• Run-of-river
– uses water within the natural flow range of
the river, requiring little or no
impoundment
• Pumped storage
Hydropower characteristics
• Precipitation - expressed in terms of the
precipitation level (i.e. as the ratio of precipitation
volume and surface (PS/S) in mm)
• Flow coefficient - defined as the ratio of flow and
precipitation, describes which proportion of the
precipitation is finally drained.
 • Flow regime - timely behaviour and the discharge
volume of a creek or river throughout the course of
one year within a certain area.
Hydropower classes (2)
• Large Hydropower
– more than 30 MW
• Small Hydropower
– 100 kilowatts to 30 MW
• Micro Hydropower
– up to 100 kW
• Small or micro-hydroelectric power system
– can produce enough electricity for a home,
farm, ranch, or village
DOE Classification
• Hydro plants are classified based on their capacities,
as follows:
– (i) micro-hydro - 1 to 100 kW;
– (ii) mini-hydro - 101 kW to 10 MW; and
– (iii) large hydro - more than 10 MW.
• The total untapped hydropower resource potential
of the country is estimated at 13,097 MW, of which
85 percent are considered large and small hydros
(11,223 MW), 14 percent (1,847 MW) are classified
as mini-hydros while less than 1 percent (27 MW)
are considered micro-hydros.
Hydropower: What to measure?
• Precipitation
– Pluviometer
– Pluviograph
• Runoff
– Stream velocity
– Water level
– Tracer concentration
• Through-flow in pipelines
– Pressure difference before and after cross
section
Hydropower Assessment:
• Assessment objectives include:
1. Identification of potential hydropower sites
2. Assessment of spatial and temporal
availability of water resources
3. Estimation of theoretical hydropower
potential in the study watershed integrating
results of spatial analysis and model
simulation
Hydropower site selection
Criteria for identification of sites
1. Order of stream: Only fifth and higher order streams
are considered for selection of sites to ensure
sufficient amount of water flow.
2. Bottom gradient: Selected site should be such that
average gradient along the bottom of the stream
should be 1:50 (i.e. 2%) or more to ensure sufficient
potential head.
3. Minimum hydropower site interval: Distances
between two consecutive hydropower sites should
not be less than 500 m.
Fine-scale elevation data can be used to estimate
potential water storage in impoundment areas
Hydrological model: Data requirements
1. Digital Elevation Model (DEM),
2. Stream network data,
3. Land use and landcover map, and;
4. Soil map
• The input data corresponding to discrete location
includes:
– Climatic data and;
– Discharge data
SHP focus areas (1)
1. Remote and hilly areas where extension of grid is
comparatively uneconomical and difficult to erect
transmission lines due to rugged terrain and wind
load.
2. Where population is too small and too widely
dispersed to justify construction of the grid
3. High cost of fossil-fuel plants in remote areas
4. Areas covered by overloaded power stations under
peak loads using induction generation
5. Along existing irrigation canal systems having
sufficient drops
6. Areas with adequate river runoff
7. Stand-alone systems for off-grid applications
8. Geographically dispersed islands
9. Hybrid schemes with other renewable sources as
conventional sources of power
Total Streamflow
Runoff Coefficient
• Determine empirically a “runoff coefficient”, c, for
each watershed where both rainfall and runoff data
are available
Assessment Procedure
• Data Collation
• Derivation of a runoff coefficient using stations with
recorded annual streamflow data
• Computation of streamflow for each stream cell in
the Philippines using the interpolated rainfall grid
and average runoff coefficient
• Computation of the micro-hydro resource potential
Data Sources (in 1999)
• USGS DEM – global 30 arc-second, nominal
resolution of 1 Km2
• Digital Chart of the World (DCW) dataset
– Perennial streams and lakes were extracted.
• Monthly measured rainfall data from approximately
200 stations around the country (of this total, 177
were actually used to interpolate the rainfall grid).
Rainfall Data Screening
• Accurate determination of runoff coefficients
requires a period of quality, concurrent rainfall and
runoff data.
– “Quality” was defined as missing no more
than one month of data in a year, and the
same month could not be missing in
multiple years.
• As a result of this screening method, the period of
1971-1973 provided the only reliable concurrent
rainfall and runoff data sets.
Determination of Runoff Coefficient (1)
• Inverse Distance Weighting, 4 neighbors, and a
power of 2 applied to the rainfall data stations
• A total of 44 runoff stations on Luzon Island had
reliable, ‘quality’ streamflow data for the same
period.
• For each of these stations, the watershed was
determined that would have the runoff station as its
outlet.
Streamflow Data Screening
• If the drainage area using this technique did not
match the reported drainage area for that station
within 10%, the drainage area was moved as much
as 2 cells from the original point.
• If no point within 2 cells of the original cell location
yielded a drainage area within 10% of the reported
area, that station was not used in the runoff
coefficient calculation.
• If the station was useable based on this drainage
area determination technique, then the average
rainfall over the watershed was determined.
• A total of 23 stations passed.
Determination of Runoff Coefficient (2)
• A runoff coefficient for each of the 23 stations was
calculated by dividing the measured station runoff
by the product of watershed area and average
rainfall falling into the watershed.
• c > 1 (indicating that more runoff occurred than
could be accounted for by the rainfall) were
excluded from further calculations.
• Final sample size of 14 runoff coefficients,
determined entirely from data gathered throughout
the island of Luzon.
Determination of Micro-hydro Potential
• Each stream cell was evaluated as the lower
diversion point (i.e., the point where water would re-
enter the stream).
• For each stream cell with data, the surrounding
stream cells within 1.5-km (i.e., no more than one
cell center from the cell being analyzed) were
examined.
• If the surrounding stream cell is at a higher elevation
than the evaluated cell, head height was calculated
by taking the difference in their respective
elevations.
• The calculated head and incoming average daily
streamflow from the upstream cell were used to
calculate the total potential energy per second for
that cell, based on equation:
• Varying levels of system efficiency, ε, were mapped
(100%, 90%, 80% and 70%).
Limitations
• Sparse distribution of rainfall and stream monitoring
stations
• Resolution (horizontal and vertical) of terrain data
– Impacts on stream cell identification,
watershed delineation, and head
computation
• Model assumes that all of the streamflow is diverted
for energy production.
• Use of average c
• No seasonal variability
Opportunities
• More data from more meteorological stations and
river/stream gauges
• Use of satellite images for evapotranspiration
studies
• Better terrain data
• Increasing number of hydrological models setup for
watersheds
Objectives of the Hydro Component
• To develop workflows and algorithms for
hydropower resource assessment using geospatial
technologies
• To assess the potential of the Philippines for
hydropower––providing the areas for hydropower
development––specifically the virtual intake and
powerhouse, the possible head or elevation
difference between the two components and the
hydropower potential through the simulated flow
derived from the hydrologic model.
• To perform site suitability assessment for the
development of hydropower systems––considering
the physical factors, environmental factors and
accessibility factors.
Hydro Scope and Limitations
- Extent of this study includes all the river basins of of flow at 80% of the time/generation of
the Philippines, including the sub-watersheds as flow duration curve for a river reach
delineated by the hydrologic model used • FDC for DPWH-observed discharge (VB) -
- Administrative boundary used is from GADM and the Data formatting and computation of flow at
watershed delineation is from the Disaster Risk and 80% of the time/generation of flow
Exposure Assessment for Mitigation (DREAM) duration curve for a river reach
Program
- Discharge and the head are the primary variables
modelled in the study
- SWAT model implement in ArcGIS was used for the Renewable Energy Resource Assessment
run-of-river hydropower resource assessment (Biomass)
- Simulations are run for year 2000 to 2015
- The flow validation is limited to the sites with actual
Biomass energy
discharge data gathered from the DPWH gauging
• Result of solar energy converted by green plants
stations
• Photosynthesis produces 220B dry tonnes of
- Field data gathering for flow measurements and site
biomass per year globally with 8% conversion
validation is limited to selected provinces only and
efficiency
the resulting flow measurements are instantaneous.
• Organic matter, matter from any living organism
- The head determination algorithm is developed
1. Animal/human waste
using Python
2. Food crops
- Generated output shown in the maps are based on
3. Grassy and woody plants
the head of the potential areas with dependable
4. Residues from agriculture or forestry
flow of 80% exceedance, and a conservative
5. Aquatic crops
efficiency of 80%.
6. Organic component of municipal and
Hydro Energy Resource Assessment
industrial wastes
The amount of hydropower resource that can be
Biomass as Source of Energy
extracted at any given river reach is governed by:
• As a renewable fuel
𝑃 = 𝜂𝜌𝑄𝑔ℎ
Where: • No net carbon emissions
𝑃 = extractable hydropower (W) – Carbon dioxide released when biomass is
𝜂 = efficiency of the turbine used as fuel is balanced by the carbon
𝜌 = density of water (kg/m3) dioxide captured when the biomass is
𝑄 = river flow / discharge (m3/s) grown
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) • can reduce dependence on foreign oil because
ℎ = height difference between the inlet and the biofuels are the only renewable liquid transportation
outlet (head, m) fuels available
Hydro Resource Assessment Tools Biomass applications
• Head determination algorithm (Python, • Biofuels — Converting biomass into liquid fuels for
executable program, ArcPy) - Algorithm transportation
developed to determine the virtual intake • Biopower — Burning biomass directly, or converting
and powerhouse for run-of-river it into gaseous or liquid fuels that burn more
hydropower development efficiently, to generate electricity
• Hydropower Resource Assessment tool - • Bioproducts — Converting biomass into chemicals
GIS-based tools for hydropower resource for making plastics and other products that typically
assessment including reading the SWAT are made from petroleum
output database, running the Flow Duration Agricultural residues
Curve script, obtaining the GIS vector file for Those found in the Philippines are:
river reaches, applying the head • Rice husk
determination algorithm and computing for • Rice straw
the hydropower resource potential • Coconut shells
• Daily weather data format for SWAT (VB) - • Coconut husks
Data preparation for SWAT weather input • Coconut fronds
• FDC for SWAT-simulated discharge (VB and • Bagasse (from sugarcane)
ArcPy) - Data formatting and computation – 10.3Mt in 2010
Biomass Energy Assessment
 • Methodology
– Resource assessment (supply and demand)
– Technology identification
– Evaluate economic and financial feasibility
of technologies given the resource
availability
Biomass Resource Assessment
Key Tasks:
• Estimate land availability for biomass production,
• Identify and evaluate the biomass production
options in terms of yield per hectare and financial
viability,
• Estimate sustainable biomass production for energy,
• Estimate the energy potential of biomass production
Maximum residue availability (1)
Agriculture - the maximum supply of agricultural residues is
thus a function of crop-specific attributes:
– crop production
– harvested area
Forestry - two residue streams are considered:
– timber harvesting residue (tree tops, slash,
and branches), and
– mill residue (wood scraps, sawdust, and
recovered pulping liquors).
Site Suitability Analysis
1. Species selection: agronomic needs must be defined
for each considered crop (phytologic database)
2. Land suitability: data are necessary to describe soil
characteristics and, thus, to understand where each
kind of crop can be grown according to its agronomic
needs (cartography)
3. Land availability: since not all the suitable land can
be converted to energy crops, available land must be
identified with the help of current land use data
(statistical database) and taking into account political
and social constraints
4. Land assignment/plant location: a decision process
must be defined in order to determine which crop to
grow in each parcel of suitable land available and
where to exploit its energy.
Land Suitability Analysis
The specific soil requirements of each species are defined in
terms of:
1. geo-morphological variables: slope, altitude;
2. pedological variables: geotechnical (soil texture and
depth, presence of gravels, stability, drainage) and
soil (pH, presence of limestone) characteristics;
3. climatic variables: temperature and precipitation
regimes;
4. physical–chemical variables: presence of elements
such as organic carbon, nitrogen, carbon to nitrogen
ratio, phosphorus and calcium.
Land Availability
• Determine what lands can be grown or replaced with
energy crops without negatively affecting the food
market.
• Ex. It can be decided to convert a given portion of
the land currently dedicated to cash crops.
– In some countries, farmers income relies
largely on subsidies, due to the import of
cheaper goods and to the overproduction of
traditional food crops.
Vegetative Indices (VIs)
• VIs have been developed to understand canopy
variables and to serve as the basis for many
applications of remote sensing for crop management
because they are correlated with several important
biophysical properties, such as LAI.
• At the canopy level, a change of canopy reflectance
occurs more in the near-infrared wavelengths
throughout the growing season. Changing of
reflectance occurs due to the increase of biomass.
Chlorophyll Content
• RS spectral data for chlorophyll content provides
information about the nutrient requirements of
crops.
– With increased chlorophyll content, visible
wavelength absorption increases more than
90% in the blue (400e500 nm) region.
– Chlorophylls a and b, as well as carotenoids,
absorb in the red (w670 nm) region.
– For the green (w550 nm) and red edge
(w700 nm) regions, the absorption
coefficient of chlorophyll extracts is very
low, and seldom exceeds 6% of the values
for blue and red
LAI and PAR
• N content may promote changes in the VIs as a
function of fIPAR instead of LAI.
• To assess the biomass of Miscanthus,
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR 400e700
nm) is recorded.
• Light interception is determined by the fraction of
light measured below the canopy compared with
that measured above the canopy.
• The yield of biomass is related to PAR and the peak
annual above-ground biomass. The intercepted
radiation is converted to the above-ground biomass,
and the energy per unit biomass is assumed to be 18
MJ kg1 [51,52].
• The relations between LAI, fIPAR and dry matter can
be used to predict the energy content from biomass.
Soil Nutrients
• Early and rapid detection of crop stress is crucial for
taking appropriate remedial measures before any
damage becomes irreversible.
 • Information on crop development that is useful in
developing management strategies to improve
nutrient use efficiency
• Vegetation indices can be used.
Water Stress
• Annual rainfall and water retention strongly
influence the yields of feedstock.
– Limited soil water availability during the
growing season results in a reduction of
biomass feedstock yield.
• The thermal infrared region is more sensitive to
acute water stress than is reflectance in the visible,
NIR or SWIR wavelengths.
• the reflective portion of the spectrum and VIs also
respond to plant water stress producing a change in
canopy architecture, such as wilting or leaf rolling
• whenever there is chronic water stress that slows
growth, there is a reduction of green leaf index
Salinity Stress
• Salts in soil represent an important factor that limits
productivity in many crop lands
• The change in reducing biomass or changes in the
spectral properties of plants can reveal salt
accumulation in affected areas
Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Energy Crop
• Biophysical properties of crops can be estimated
using space-borne, airborne or ground-based remote
sensing methods.
• Multispectral and hyperspectral
• Spatial, temporal and spectral resolutions represent
the major criteria for selection of the most
appropriate remote sensing method for site-specific
management.
• NOAA images have been used to derive a standard
vegetation
• index NDVI for sugarcane in three regions of South
Africa
• Ten-day NDVI values were accumulated over periods
representing
• the growth cycle of each harvest year crop. The
• resulting index of accumulated NDVI was compared
with the
• observed mill and farm yields to detect correlations
LiDAR Remote Sensing
• LiDAR has been used to estimate forest biomass,
temperate mixed deciduous forest biomass, tropical
forest biomass, tree height, stand volume and
canopy structure.
• Estimation of Biomass and Canopy fuel attributes
using LiDAR
Land Surface Phenology
• Phenological metrics describe the phenology of
vegetation growth as observed by satellite imagery.
• Standard metrics derived are:
– Onset of greening
– Onset of senescence
– Timing of Maximum of the Growing Season
– Growing season length
• many more metrics available.
Phenological Metric → Phenological Interpretation
• Time of SOS (EOS):
beginning (end) of measurable photosynthesis.
• Length of the growing season:
duration of photosynthetic activity.
• Time of Maximum NDVI:
time of maximum photosynthesis.
• NDVI at SOS (EOS):
level of photosynthetic activity at SOS (EOS).
• Seasonal integrated NDVI:
photosynthetic activity during the growing season.
• Rate of greenup (senescence):
speed of increase (decrease) of photosynthesis.
Objectives of the Biomass Component
• To evaluate biomass resource available in the
Philippines particularly agricultural residues from
coconut, corn, rice and sugarcane with the use of
LIDAR data and other remotely sensed data.
• To develop algorithms and workflows for biomass
energy resource assessment, site suitability analysis
and optimality analysis.
• To generate biomass resource and potential sites
maps.
• To generate optimal sites map for biomass resource
extraction.
Biomass Scope and Limitations
- The study focused on biomass resource assessment
of corn, coconut, rice and sugarcane residues
specifically corn cob, coconut husk and shell, rice
husk and bagasse.
- Only the theoretical and available potentials of
biomass energy in the Philippines were assessed.
The economic and technical biomass potentials of
the country were not evaluated.
- LiDAR-based biomass resource potential maps
produced in the project show areas with available
LiDAR data only
- Due to unavailability of LiDAR-based agricultural land
cover map for the whole country, Landsat data was
classified and used to generate agricultural land
cover maps with an accuracy of at least 70%.
- Field data gathering for the value of efficiency of
biomass collection and availability of biomass for
energy production are only conducted in top
producing provinces for the four crops assessed.
- Administrative boundary from the National Statistics
Office (NSO) was used in generating the LiDAR-based
agricultural land cover maps and biomass resource
 maps while Global Administrative Areas (GADM) was
used for the LandSAT-based processing.
- The generated agricultural maps have limited
accuracy on the crop areas due to the seasonal
availability of the crops. Temporal analysis was not
extensive in this study due to limitation in the
datasets
Landsat Land Cover Classification
• Landsat 8 images with minimum cloud over (not
greater than 20%) were selected and downloaded
• These were classified using supervised classification
specifically, Support Vector Machine (SVM).
• Resulting agricultural maps that have at least 70%
accuracy were accepted and used in the biomass
resource assessment process
• Processing done by UP Diliman, Mariano Marcos
State University, Visayas State University and
Central Mindanao State University
Accuracy Assessment
• Absolute accuracy of the generated biomass
resource maps was not determined since there are
no existing true value for the biomass potentials
where statistical comparison can be made
• Errors in the energy potential values can be
attributed to the parameters used in the
computation
• Classification of agricultural land cover maps using
Landsat images have at least 70% accuracy and the
images used have at most 20% cloud cover. For the
classified LiDAR-based agricultural land cover maps,
an 85% accuracy was achieved when LiDAR datasets
were used while 90% accuracy was achieved when
both LiDAR data and orthophotos were used
• Efficiency of biomass collection and availability of
biomass for energy production were either field
validated or statistically computed
• Overall, the accuracy of the generated maps is
dependent on the source of data and limitations of
the software used and methods applied.
Conventional Energy Conversion(Danao)
Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the science of
energy focusing on energy storage and energy
conversion processes.
First Law of Thermodynamics
• If a substance in a control volume undergoes several
processes but returns to its original state, there is no
change in the total energy of the system.
• Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
• For a finite change in state,
• Applies to energy and power.
• Work comes in several forms (electrical, kinetic,
boundary movement, potential, . . .)
Concept of Heat
• What is Heat (Q)?
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred across the boundary of a system
at a given temperature to another system
(or the surroundings) at a lower
temperature by virtue of the temperature
difference between the two systems.
• Heat cannot be a property of a system.
Similarly, a body cannot contain heat.
• Unit of heat: Joule (S.I. system), ft-lbs (Imperial
system), BTU, calorie
• Heat transferred into a system is positive (Q > 0), out
of a system is negative (Q < 0).
• When no heat transfer is observed (Q = 0), the
process is called an adiabatic process.
• Heat Transfer Mode: Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer of energy
between molecules of matter.
• Fourier’s Law of Conduction
where k is conductivity, A is total area.
• Units of k are watts per meter – Kelvin
(W/m·K).
• Typical values of k are in the order of 100
W/m·K for metals, 1 – 10 for non metallic
solids, 0.1 – 10 for liquids, 0.1 for insulation
material, less than 0.01 for gases.
• Heat Transfer Mode: Convection
• In this mode the bulk motion of a substance
moves matter with a certain energy level
over or near a surface with a different
temperature.
• Newton’s Law of Cooling
where h is the heat transfer coefficient
• Units of h are watts per meter squared –
Kelvin (W/m2·K)
• Typical values of h are 5 – 25 for gas and 50
– 1,000 for liquid (natural convection), and
25 – 250 for gas and 50 – 20,000 for liquid
(forced convection)
• Heat Transfer Mode: Radiation
• The transmission of energy as
electromagnetic waves in space with no
required medium.

where ε is emissivity, σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant (5.67×10-8 watts per
meter squared – Kelvin to the fourth,
W/m2·K4 ), and Ts is surface temperature.
• No units for ε.
• Typical values of ε are 0.92 for nonmetallic
surfaces, 0.6 to 0.9 for non-polished
metallic surfaces, less than 0.1 for highly
polished metallic surfaces.
Concept of Work
• What is Work (W)?
• The classical definition of work is
mechanical work done by a force F acting
through a displacement x.
• effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler
• Work is a transfer of energy and thus
crosses the boundary of a control volume. It
can be a rotating shaft, electrical work from
a battery or power outlet, or chemical work.
• If force is the weight of an object, F = ma =
mg,
then δW = – F dZ = – mg dZ.
• Integrating, we get W = mg (Z1 – Z2) = PE1 –
PE2.
• If an object has a velocity V, a change in
velocity (magnitude and/or direction) is due
to a force F.
• F = ma = m dV/dt = m dx·dV/dx·dt
• F = mV dV/dx, F dx = mV dV
• δW = –F dx = –mV dV
• Integrating, we get W =½ m (V12 – V22)
or W = KE1 – KE2.
• If work is associated with a rotating shaft,
δW = F dx = Fr dθ = T dθ.
• Units of Work
• 1 Joule = 1 Newton·meter
• Power is the time rate of doing work with
units watt where 1 watt = 1 Joule/second
• In the Imperial System, 1 horsepower (hp) is
550 ft-lbs/s equivalent to 745.7 W.
Converting Heat & Work
• Work can easily be converted to heat with high
efficiency:
• Electrical resistance heaters, friction,
exothermic reactions (e.g. combustion,
nuclear reactions)
• Impossible to convert Heat to Work with high
efficiency:
• Coal plants (~35%), nuclear plants (~35%),
natural gas plants (~50%), automobiles
(~20%)
Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The Kelvin–Planck statement: It is impossible to
construct a device that will operate in a cycle and
produce no effect other than the raising of a weight
and the exchange of heat with a single reservoir.
• The Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct
a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
body to a warmer body.
• Three observations of the second law:
• Both statements are negative. Every
relevant experiment that has been
conducted, either directly or indirectly,
verifies the second law, and no experiment
has ever been conducted that contradicts
the second law.
• The two statements are equivalent. A
violation of the Kelvin Plank statement
means a violation of the Clausius statement.
• It is impossible to construct a perpetual
motion machine that extracts energy from a
source and converts this heat completely
into work without friction and heat loss.
• Reversible process - defined as a process that, once
having taken place, can be reversed and in so doing
leave no change in either system or surroundings.
• Factors that render processes irreversible
• Friction
• Unrestrained expansion
• Heat transfer
• Mixing
• Entropy – a measure of disorder within a
macroscopic system. The entropy of a system will
never decrease spontaneously.
 Ẇ Q̇ H – Q̇ C
ηmax = =
QḢ QḢ
• Closed cycle, reversible T
Q̇ H – C QḢ TC
TH
ηmax = =1 – Carnot efficiency!
QḢ TH

• Finite change, reversible • Carnot efficiency

• Finite change, irreversible • Sets upper limit on work produced from a
process that has a hot and cold reservoir.
Examples: coal power plant, gas power
plant, nuclear power plant, internal
combustion engine, geothermal power
plant, solar thermal power plant.
• Note: All temperatures must be expressed
in absolute temperatures (Kelvin or
Rankine)!
• TC usually cannot be below environmental
• Simple heat engine T. TH usually limited by materials (melting,
• Energy balance softening, oxidizing) or by need to avoid
E2 – E1 = Q̇ H – Ẇ burning N2 in air into pollutant NO.
Rankine Engine - a model for a simple steam power plant.
0 = Q̇ H – Ẇ • Depends on the temperature difference
between a heat source and a cold source.
Q̇ H = Ẇ • Heat sources used can be nuclear fission or
• Entropy balance the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal,
natural gas, and oil.
QḢ • The cold source used are usually cooling
ṁ (s2 -s1 )= +ΔSirrev
TH towers or a large water body (river or sea).
• Temperature range is small: steam turbine
QḢ
0= +ΔSirrev entry temperatures are typically around
TH 270°C and steam condenser temperatures
QḢ are around 30°C.
ΔSirrev =- Not possible! • Theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency of
TH
turbine is about 44.2%.
• Possible heat engine • To improve efficiency,
• Energy balance o Reheat steam exiting first turbine and feed
into a second turbine
E2 – E1 = Q̇ H – Ẇ
o Reheat temperatures are close to turbine
inlet temperatures but pressures are about
0 = Q̇ H – Q̇ C – Ẇ
¼ of the original boiler pressure
Ẇ = Q̇ H – Q̇ C o Prevents fluid from condensing while
• Entropy balance expanding in the turbine
o Preheat fluid from condenser using some
QḢ QĊ hot fluid from turbine
ṁ (s2 -s1 ) = − +ΔSirrev o Reduces required heat input in boiler even
TH TC
at low feedwater temperatures
QḢ QĊ o This is called Regenerative Rankine Cycle
0= − +ΔS
TH TC o The operating pressure of the boiler is
irrev
greater than the critical pressure of the
QĊ QḢ working fluid
ΔSirrev = − Possible!
TC TH
o A steam generator, not a boiler, produces a
superheated vapor.
o Efficiency of the cycle increases because QH
• Maximum efficiency for heat engine
QĊ QḢ
increases greatly while QC increases very
• ΔSirrev = − =0 little.
TC TH
TC o This is called a Supercritical Rankine Cycle.
QĊ = Q̇
TH H • Efficiencies of Modern Rankine Cycle Power Plants
 o 600 MW Unit 2 at J-POWER’s Isogo Thermal
Power Station in Japan at 41.6% efficiency
using ultra supercritical cycle
o 1,000 MW Guodian Taizhou II Unit 3 in
China at 47.82% efficiency using ultra
supercritical cycle
o 1,100 MW Maasvlakte Power Plant 3 in the
Netherlands at 47% efficiency using ultra
supercritical cycle
o 665 MW John Turk Jr. plant in Arkansas,
USA at 42% efficiency using ultra
supercritical cycle
o 1,200 MW Atimonan One Energy of
Meralco to be completed in 2021 using ultra
supercritical cycle (no efficiency yet!)
Note: all power plants above are coal fired power plants!
Brayton Engine – the ideal cycle for a gas turbine
• Open cycle uses combustion to add heat,
closed cycle uses heat exchangers
• Jet engines use the open Brayton cycle
• Modern nuclear powerplants use the closed
Brayton cycle
• Efficiency depends on pressure ratio, higher
P2/P1 means higher efficiency
• Typical pressure ratios are 11 – 16
• Compressor work may be from 40 – 80% of
turbine work
• To improve efficiency,
• Introduce a regenerator to heat the air
before it enters the combustion chamber
• A bigger regenerator increases heat transfer
efficiency but also increases pressure drop
(loss)
• To improve efficiency, reheat and
intercooling can also be incorporated.
Otto Engine – the ideal cycle for a spark ignition internal
combustion engine
• Efficiency is influenced by compression ratio
• Compression ratio is limited by
spontaneous detonation of fuel, typical
values of 10 – 12 with max at 16
• Most common fuel is gasoline, uses spark
plug
• Advantages of Gasoline Engines
• Less expensive
• Less noise and vibrations
• Cheaper fuel (in most countries, except
Phils.)
• Better emissions
• Disadvantages of Gasoline Engines
• Typically less torque
• Less reliable, maintenance-wise
• Less flexibility in fuel
Diesel Engine – the ideal cycle for a compression ignition
internal combustion engine
• Efficiency is influenced by compression ratio
• Typical compression ratio range is 18 – 23
• Typical efficiencies are 45% for Diesel
engines and 30% for Gasoline engines
• Advantages of Diesel Engines
• Engine longevity
• Greater fuel economy
• Can use alternative fuels
• Mechanical simplicity
• Disadvantages of Diesel Engines
• Operating noise
• Initial expense
• Emissions and maintenance
• More expensive fuel (in most countries!)
• Diesel Power Plants in the Philippines
• Bauang Diesel, La Union, 235 MW
• Subic Diesel, Subic Bay Freeport, 116 MW
• Western Mindanao Power Corp,
Zamboanga City, 100 MW
• Panay Diesel, Iloilo City, 106.6 MW
• Mapalad Power Corp, Iligan City, 114 MW
• Therma Marine Inc., Agusan del Norte, 100
MW
• Therma Marine Inc., Davao del Norte, 100
MW
Renewable Energy Conversion(DANAO)
Hydropower
• The longest established source for the generation of
electricity (1880)
• Constitutes about 21% of the worlds generation
capacity
• Considered as base load power plant
• Uses the energy in flowing water with power
P = ρgQH where
ρ: density of water
g: acceleration due to gravity
Q: water flow rate
H: head
Pelton Wheel
• High head applications: 100 – 1770 m
• Max power of 500 MW
• Optimum efficiency of 90%
• Low volume flow rates: up to 70 m3/s
Francis Turbine
• Medium head applications: 20 – 900 m
• Max power of 800 MW
• Optimum efficiency of 95%
• High volume flow rates: up to 1000 m3/s
Kaplan Turbine
 • Low head applications: Wind Turbines
6 – 70 m • Wind flows through a turbine as the blades rotate
• Max power of 300 MW
• Aerodynamic lift (and drag) is generated on the
• Optimum efficiency of 95%
blades
• High volume flow rates: up to 1000 m3/s
• If lift component along rotation is greater than drag
Largest Hydropower component, positive power is produced
• Three Gorges Dam in China, 22,500 MW, 32 units of
1
700 MW Francis turbines • P = ρAV3 Cp where
2
• Itaipu Dam between Paraguay and Brazil, 14,000 ρ: air density
MW, 20 units of 700 MW Francis turbines A: rotor swept area
• Xiloudu Dam in China, 13,860 MW, 18 units of 770 V: wind speed
MW Francis turbines Cp: turbine power coefficient
• Guri Dam in Venezuela, 10,235 MW, 10 units of 730
MW, 4 units of 180 MW, 3 units of 400 MW, 3 units Wind Farms
of 225 MW, 1 unit of 340 MW Francis turbines • Global installations
• Tucurui Dam in Brazil, 8,730 MW, 12 units of 350
MW, 11 units of 375 MW, 2 units of 22.5 MW Francis • China, 188.232 GW
turbines
• USA, 89.077 GW
Hydro Power in the Phils • Germany, 56.132 GW
• Kalayaan Pump Storage, Laguna, 736 MW
• San Roque Dam, Pangasinan, 435 MW • Brazil, 12.763 GW
• Magat Dam, Isabela, 380 MW
• Australia, 4.557 GW
• Angat Dam, Bulacan, 200 MW
• Ambuklao Dam, Benguet, 105 MW • South Africa, 2.094 GW
• Pulangi 4, Bukidnon, 255 MW
• Agus 6, Iligan City, 219 MW • Philippines, 0.427 GW
• Agus 2, Iligan City, 180 MW • Philippine installations
• Agus 4, Iligan City, 158.1 MW
• Burgos Wind, Ilocos Norte, 150 MW
Pros and Cons of Hydropower
• Bangui Wind, Ilocos Norte, 52 MW
Pros
• Renewable • Caparispisan Wind, Ilocos Norte, 81 MW
• Green
• Reliable • Pililla Wind, Rizal, 54 MW
• Flexible • Tarec Guimaras, 54 MW
• Safe
• Energy storage • Nabas Wind, Aklan, 36 MW
• Irrigation
Geothermal
Cons
• Environmental consequences • Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal
• Expensive resources that have both water (hydro) and heat
• Droughts (thermal).
• Limited reservoirs
Wind • Geothermal power plants require high-temperature
• Wind turbines convert wind power into electrical (300°F to 700°F) hydrothermal resources that come
power from either dry steam wells or from hot water wells.
• Initial use of wind power was in windmills for • People use these resources by drilling wells into the
mechanical work such as pumping water, grinding earth and then piping steam or hot water to the
grains surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine
• Contribution of wind generated electricity in total that generates electricity (Rankine cycle!).
global electricity production by the end of 2017 is
539.5 GW, a measly 3% • Considered as base load power plants.
Types of Geothermal Plants • Prices of PV systems have rapidly declined in the
• Dry steam plants use steam directly from a past years (at a rate of 9% per year) that nowadays,
geothermal reservoir to turn generator turbines. a return on investment of 2 years is realistic.
• Flash steam plants take high-pressure hot water • Stand alone, grid connected and hybrid systems are
from deep inside the earth and convert it to steam readily available in the market.
to drive generator turbines. When the steam cools, it • Stand-alone systems for AC loads must include an
condenses to water and is injected back into the inverter, which draws DC power from the battery
ground to be used again. bank and changes it to AC power for distribution
• Binary cycle power plants transfer the heat from • A Grid-Tied System is controlled by the inverter,
geothermal hot water to another liquid. The heat which adds AC power converted from DC power to
causes the second liquid to turn to steam, which is the utility grid power at the main AC power
used to drive a generator turbine. distribution panel.
Geothermal Production • Hybrid systems include power sources other than
Global the PV array and do not interact with the utility grid.
• USA at 3.45 GW Pros
• Philippines at 1.87 GW • Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent.
• Indonesia at 1.34 GW • Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually
• Mexico at 1.017 GW unobtrusive.
• New Zealand at 1.005 GW • Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of
Philippines unused space on rooftops of existing buildings.
• Makban, Laguna, 448.8 MW • PV powers nearly every satellite circling the earth
• Tiwi, Albay, 234 MW because it operates reliably for long periods of time
• Bacman, Albay, 140 MW with virtually no maintenance.
• Unified Leyte, Leyte, 610 MW • Solar energy is a locally available renewable
• Palinpinon, Negros Oriental, 192.5 MW resource.
• Leyte GPP, Leyte, 112.5 MW • A PV system can be constructed to any size based on
• Nasulo, Negros Occidental, 49.4 MW energy requirements.
• Mt. Apo, North Cotabato, 108.5 MW Cons
• All power plants are flash steam • Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are
Pros used in the PV production process.
• No emissions due to burning of fuel • Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to
• Renewable produce than conventional sources of energy due in
• High efficiency part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and in
• Little maintenance part to the conversion efficiencies of the equipment.
• Small land requirements • Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy
• Low noise production dependent on the sun.
Cons Ocean Energy
• Geographic limitations • Ocean energy is a renewable energy source, in which
• Release of greenhouse gases during extraction electricity can be generated from tidal streams,
• Depletion of geothermal energy waves or differences in salinity or temperature.
• Expensive • Over 70 per cent of the Earth is covered by water.
• Seismic instability The ocean is subject to the impact of wind, tides and
Solar PV ocean currents and thus carries with it large
• A solar PV system converts the sun's radiation into quantities of energy.
usable electricity. It comprises the solar array and • Very little mature technology is available as research
the balance of system components. is still on-going.
• The photovoltaic effect produces free electrons that • Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) produces
travel through conductors and recombine with electricity from the natural thermal gradient of the
electron voids, or “holes.” ocean, using the heat stored in warm surface water
• Silent and without moving parts or emissions, solar to create steam to drive a turbine, while pumping
PV systems have become mainstream in electricity cold, deep water to the surface to recondense the
generation globally but only at 3% penetration. steam.
 • A closed cycle system uses ammonia as working fluid
and the temperature gradient of warm, surface
water and cold, deep seawater.
• An open cycle system uses seawater as working
fluid, flashes it in a vacuum chamber and expands it
in a turbine.
• Currently operating systems
• 100 kW plant in Okinawa Prefecture Deep
Sea Water Research Center, 2013
• 105 kW plant in Hawaii built by Makai
Ocean Engineering in 2015
• Tidal Current/In-Stream Energy is energy from
moving masses of water, in particular tides. It is
similar in concept to wind energy so much so that
tidal turbines look very much like their wind
counterparts.
• Types include axial flow, cross flow, shrouded
turbines, flapping wing, tidal kite.
• Almost all are still in the research and development
stage with very little commercial machines available
in the market and no commercial installations yet.
• Wave power is capturing the energy of wind waves.
Waves are generated by wind passing over the
surface of the sea.
• As long as waves move slower than the wind, there
is energy transfer from the wind to the waves.
• Wave height is determined by wind speed. In
general, the larger the waves, the more powerful
they are. However, wave power is fully defined by
wave height, wave period and water density.
Wave Energy
• 1. Point absorber, 2. Attenuator, 3. Oscillating wave
surge converter, 4. Oscillating water column, 5.
Overtopping device, 6. Submerged pressure
differential
Biomass
• Biomass is organic material that comes from plants
and animals, and it is a renewable source of energy.
• Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants
absorb the sun's energy in a process called
photosynthesis.
• When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in
biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be burned
directly or converted to liquid biofuels or biogas that
can be burned as fuels.
• Examples
• wood and wood processing wastes—burned
to heat buildings, to produce process heat
in industry, and to generate electricity
• agricultural crops and waste materials—
burned as a fuel or converted to liquid
biofuels
• food, yard, and wood waste in garbage—
burned to generate electricity in power
plants or converted to biogas in landfills
• animal manure and human sewage—
converted to biogas, which can be burned
as a fuel
• How to use biomass
• Direct combustion
• Charcoal production and combustion
• Production of liquid fuel
• Production of gaseous fuel
Things to remember
1. You cannot produce energy in your machine out of
nothing (perpetual motion machine of the first
kind)!
2. You cannot convert all heat energy from a source
into work (perpetual motion machine of the second
kind)!
3. You cannot have a continuously running machine
with zero friction (perpetual motion machine of the
third kind)!
Overview of Electric Power Systems (Pedrasa)
The Electric Power Industry
The First Electric Power System
Pearl Street Station built by Thomas Edison in
New York City in 1882.
• Steam engine coupled to a 110-volt Direct
• Current (DC) generator
• Underground cable system
• All loads were incandescent bulbs
• 59 customers within an area 1.5 km in radius
Alternating Current EPS
The first AC system was built by William
Stanley, an associate of George Westinghouse,
at Great Barrington, Massachusetts in 1886.
• First commercial application of transformers
• Loads consisted of 150 lamps
The Electric Power System
The Electric Power System is an interconnected
network of electrical devices that:
• converts energy from one of its natural forms (e.g.,
mechanical, solar, chemical) into the electrical form
[generation],
• transports the electric energy from the generating
plants to power centers [transmission], and
• delivers the electric energy to end-users
[distribution] who convert the energy to a usable
form (e.g., mechanical, light,heat).
Components of EPS
• Generation
• Power Plants
• Transmission
• Transmission Substations
 • Transmission Lines ➢ Voltage Transformation
• Sub-transmission Lines ➢ Voltage regulation
• Distribution ➢ Protection
o Power Substation ➢ Metering
o Primary Distribution Feeders Feeder components:
o Distribution Transformers ➢ 3-pahse primary “main” feeder
o Secondary Distribution Feeders and Services ➢ 3-phase, phase and single phase laterals
➢ Step type voltage regulators
➢ In-line transformers
Generation System
➢ Shunt capacitor banks
The generation system consists of power plants that are
➢ Distribution transformers
responsible for the production of electric energy.
➢ Secondaries
• Generating plants are geographically dispersed.
➢ Service drops
• Generating plants are site-specific.
Voltages in the Philippines
• Generating plants are connected to transmission
➢ Generation voltage is at 4.16kV, 6.6kV, 13.2kV,
system through substations.
13.8kV, others;
• Generating plants are centrally dispatched.
➢ Transmission voltage is at 230kV or 500kV;
Types of Generating Plants ➢ Subtransmission voltage is at 115kV or 69kV
• Hydroelectric Power Plant ➢ Primary distribution voltage is at 13.2kV, 13.8kV,
• Thermal Power Plant 23kV, or 34.5kV
• Power Plants utilizing New and Renewable ➢ Secondary distribution voltage is at 240V
• Energy Sources
Transmission System Transmission and Distribution Utility
A network of overhead lines, underground and submarine ➢ Refers to any electric cooperative, private
cables, power substations, and associated devices that corporation, government-or local government
transports electric energy in bulk from generating unit (LGU)- owned utility that has been granted
plants to distribution utilities. an exclusive franchise to operate a transmission
• May also interconnect one EPS with others or distribution system.
• Interconnections may be AC or DC o 1 transmission utility (NGCP)
• Operate at very high voltages o 119 Electric Cooperatives
• Uses a loop configuration o 19 Private/Gov’t-Owned Distribution
Philippine Transmission System Utilities
➢ Three Transmission Grids Substation
• Luzon 230-kV and 500-Kv Power transformation at different voltage levels takes
• Visayas 69-kV, 138-kV, and 230 kV place in the substation where a power transformer and
• Mindanao 69-kV and 138-kV other equipment are located.
➢ Luzon and Visayas Grids are interconnected via a
➢ Plant Substation- steps up power from
350-kV HVDC submarine cable.
generation voltage to transmission voltage
High Voltage DC Transmission
➢ Transmission Substation- steps down power
Advantages over AC
from transmission voltage to subtransmission
• Lower capital costs
• No skin effect, lower losses
voltage
• Interconnect separate AC networks ➢ Distribution Substation- steps down power
• Power flow control from transmission voltage to primary
Electricity Distribution distribution voltage
The system of wires and associated facilities, usually Basic Substation Equipment
owned by a Distribution Utility, that delivers energy ➢ Power Transformers
from the transmission system to end-users in a ➢ Circuit Breakers
franchise area. ➢ Switches and Disconnects
Distribution voltages in the Philippines: ➢ Protective Relays
➢ Primary Distribution: ➢ Instrument Transformers
o 13.2-kV, 13.8-kV, 23-kV, or 34.5-kV ➢ Lightning Arresters
➢ Secondary Distribution: ➢ Communication Equipment
o 220V, 230V, or 240V
Measuring Energy Consumption
The Distribution System ➢ Power meter
Components of distribution substations:
➢ Electricity meter
➢ High-side and low-side switching
➢ Watt-hour meter ➢ The smart grid is the transformation of the
➢ Kilowatt-hour meter existing electricity grid so that it can
1. Generation Charge -paid to power suppliers o Cope with increasing demand for
such as the National Power Corporation (NPC), energy services
as well as Independent Power Producers (IPPs), o Enable demand-side generation using
for the electricity they generate, which DU DG and energy storage
distributes. o Accommodate demand-side
2. Transmission Charge-paid to Transmission participation through demand response
Network Operator (NGCP), this fee is for o Accommodate intermittent generation
delivery of electricity from generators, normally resources
in remote areas or provinces to DU’s o Provide the reliability requires by the
distribution system. digital society
3. System Loss Charge- set at a maximum of 9.5% o Allow power exchanges among regional
(for PUDs) in accordance with Republic Act grids
7832, this is allowed for the recovery of o Optimize utilization of existing assets
technical and non-technical losses. Transmission systems
4. Distribution Charge- This pays the cost of ➢ Energy Management systems
building, operating and maintaining the o Advanced grid operator visualization
distribution system of DUs, which brings power systems
from high-voltage transmission grids, to o Decision support systems
commercial and industrial establishments, to o Control system cyber security
residential end-users. ➢ Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS)
5. Metering Charge- This includes the cost of devices
reading and operating and maintaining power ➢ High voltage DC transmission (HVDC)
metering facilities.
6. Supply Charge – This includes the cost of Source: Egye 101 Lecture slides, 2nd sem AY 18-19
rendering service to customers, such as billing,
collection, customers assistance and associated
services.
7. Lifeline Discount- The EPIRA (section 73)
provides that poor residential customers must
enjoy a Lifeline Discount on generation,
transmission, distribution, supply, metering and
system loss charges
8. Lifeline Subsidy- This is paid by all customers
and used to fund the Lifeline Discount.
9. Senior Citizen Discount/ Subsidy
10. Local Franchise Tax- Levied by provinces and
cities for businesses enjoying a franchise
11. Value Added Tax
12. Universal Charge- This is remitted to the Power
Sector Assets and Liabilities Management
Corporation (PSALM), a company owned and
controlled by government, created by Republic
Act 9136. Part of this is in your bill as missionary
electrification and environmental charges.
13. Currency Exchange Rate Adjustment-This
covers adjustments for unavoidable fluctuations
in the Philippine Peso-U.S. Dollar exchange rate.
The Smart Grid
➢ The grid is already smart
➢ There is no universal definition for the ‘smart’
grid