2012 Surface Mining Method

AKSUM UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING
COURSE: SURFACE MINING
2012 E.C
By Girmay kasaye
Surface Mining Methods
If a mineral deposit lies close to the surface, is of sufficiently big size, and its overburden is
not too thick, surface mining can be the most suitable method to extract the ore. Surface
mining is the exploitation method in which minerals are mined from the surface. It seems
to be the most commonly used mining method in the world. Two types of methods may be
used in surface mining: mechanical extraction and aqueous extraction. The former,
predominates, the latter cannot be employed unless there is sufficient water quantity
available.
Surface mining is considered more advantageous than underground mining in relation to
recovery, grade control, economy, flexibility of operation, safety, and the working
environment. However, there are many deposits that are too small, irregular, and/or deeply
buried to be extracted economically by surface mining methods. Moreover, even where
mineralization goes to a greater depth in open pit mines, the increasing amount of
overburden to be handled can make mining unprofitable. In such the situation, mining has
to be either abandoned or converted from surface to underground operations. Furthermore,
the selection of excavation methods and equipment is more complex for surface mining than
for underground mining. In surface mining, blasting patterns have to be properly planned to
get adequate fragmentation of overburden.
Mechanical Extraction Methods
The mechanical extraction involves mechanical processes to obtain minerals from the
earth. There are four mechanical extraction methods:
(1) Open pit mining,
(2) Quarrying (of dimension stone),
(3) Open cast mining, and
(4) Auger mining.
In open pit mining, a thick deposit is mined in benches or steps. However, a
comparatively thin deposit may be excavated from a single face as in the case of
quarrying, auguring and open cast mining. In the case of these methods, a large capital
investment is necessary, however, they can provide high productivity, low operating costs,
and satisfactory safety conditions. Prior to or during mining, it is necessary to remove any
overburden by a stripping operation.
In open cast (or strip) mining, overburden is removed by casting into mined-out areas, and
mineral is excavated in consecutive operations. Open pit or open cast mining is used to
mine a mineral deposit close to the earth’s surface that is of low stripping ratio, shows
large extension, and is fairly uniform. It should be noted here that a stripping ratio of 2 to1
means that there is twice as much waste rock mined as mineral (ore, coal, etc.)
Quarrying is a highly specialized small-scale method, slow and the most costly of all
mining methods. Only square set stoping method is as much expensive as quarrying.
However, quarrying is the only method able to provide both a sized and shaped product .
BY Girmay kasaye
Auguring is employed to recover coal from the high wall at the pit limit. This method is
also specialized but involves low costs. Open pit and open cast methods can be widely and
variably applied. They use a conventional mining cycle of operations to extract mineral:
rock breakage is achieved by drilling and blasting, which precedes the material handling
operations of excavation and haulage (Hartman, 1992).
4.1.2 Aqueous Extraction Methods
The aqueous extraction methods must be provided with the access to water or an aqueous
mixture during mining and processing. They recover the valuable mineral by jetting,
slurrying, melting or dissolving. There are of two types of these methods:
(1) Placer mining methods and
(2) Solution mining methods.
Placer mining is used to mine mineral deposits that are not consolidated, such as sand,
gravel or alluvium in which a valuable heavy mineral exists freely. Valuable heavy
minerals such as diamonds, native gold, native platinum, and titanium can be found in
placer form. There are possible two methods for placer mining:
A) hydraulicking
B) Dredging.
A) Hydraulicking (hydraulic mining) uses a high-pressure stream of water to undercut
and force an exposed bank to fall down. Dredging utilizes floating vessels from which the
ore minerals are extracted mechanically or hydraulically. Since the waste material is
usually lighter than the valuable heavy mineral to be extracted, this mineral can be
removed from water-base slurry by concentration in both methods Solution mining
employs in situ techniques and surface techniques. Salt wells, uranium dissolution, and the
Frasch process to melt Sulphur are examples of the in situ techniques. Surface techniques
utilize mainly solvent leaching of mineral values from heaps or dumps.
Hydraulicking, dredging, and the solution mining are the most economical exploitation
methods. They use unique and different cycles of operations entirely different from
mechanical extraction methods.
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
INTRODUCTION TO OPEN PIT MINING
The ore deposits being mined by open pit techniques today vary considerably in size,
shape, orientation and depth below surface. The initial surface topographies can vary from
mountain tops to valley floor. In spite of this there are a number of geometry based design
and planning considerations fundamental to them all.
The ore body is mined from top to the down in the series of horizontal layers of uniform
thickness called benches and after a sufficient floor area has been exposed, mining to the
next layer can begin. The process continues until the bottom bench elevation is reached and
the final pit outline achieved. To access different bench a road or ramp must be created.
BY Girmay kasaye
The width and steepness of this road or ramp depends upon the type of equipment to be
accommodated. Stable slopes must be created and maintained during the creation and
operation of the pit.
Slope angle is an important geometrical parameter which has a significant economic

impact. Open pit mining is very highly mechanized. Each piece of mining machinery has
an associated geometry both related to its own physical size, but also with the space it
requires to operate efficiently. There is a complementary set of drilling, loading and hauling
equipment which requires a certain amount of working space. This space requirement is
taken into account when dimensioning the so called working benches. From both operating
and economic viewpoints certain volumes must or should at least be removed before others.
These volumes have a certain minimum size and an optimum size.
value might be 65O. This should be used with care as the bench face angle can have a major
effect on the overall slope angle.
BENCH FLOOR: The exposed bench lower surface is called as the bench floor.
BENCH WIDTH: The bench width is the distance between the crest and toe measured
along the upper surface.
BANK WIDTH: It is the horizontal projection of the bench face.

There are several types of benches; a working bench is that one which is in process of being
mined. The width being extracted from the working bench is called the cut. The width of
working bench WB is defined as the distance from the crest of the bench floor to the new
toe position after the cut has been extracted as shown in figure 2. After the cut has been
removed, a safety bench or catch bench of width SB remains.
The purpose of leaving safety benches is to:
a) collect the material which slides down from the benches above; and to
b) stop the downward progress of the boulders.
During primary extraction, a safety bench is generally left on every level. The width of
safety bench SB varies with bench height “H”. Generally the width of the safety bench is
of the order 2 3 of the bench height. At the end of mine life, the safety benches are
sometimes reduced to a width of about 1/3 of the bench height.

In addition to leaving the safety benches berms (piles) of broken materials are often
constructed along the crest. These serve the function of forming a ditch between the berm
and the toe of the slope to catch falling rocks.
BY Girmay kasaye
A safety berm is also left along the outer edge of the bench to prevent trucks and other
machines from backing over. It serves much the same function as a guard rail on bridges
and elevated highways. Normally the pile has a height greater than or equal to the tire
radius. The berm slope is taken to be about 35O, i.e. also called the angle of repose.
The steps which are followed when considering bench geometry are:
i) Deposit characteristics (total tonnage, grade distribution, value etc) dictate a

certain geometrical approach and production strategy.
ii) The production strategy yields daily ore-waste production rates, selective
mining and blending requirements, numbers of working places.
iii) The production requirements leads to a certain equipment set (fleet type and
size). iv) Each equipment set has a certain optimum associated geometry.
v) Each piece of equipment in the set has an associated operating geometry.
vi) A range of suitable bench geometries results.
vii) Consequences regarding stripping ratios, operating v/s capital costs, slope
stability aspects etc are evaluated.
viii) The best of the various alternatives is selected.
In the past, when the rail bound equipments were being extensively used, great attention
was paid to bench geometry. Today highly mobile rubber tired/crawler mounted
equipments has reduced the detailed evaluation requirements some-what.
Fig. 2: Working Bench
BY Girmay kasaye
Fig. 2a: Functions of a catch bench
DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS ROAD: (ORE ACCESS;)
In mining literature, going the initial knowledge about the physical access to the Ore body
is of great importance. For this, the question arises that: “How does one actually begin the
process of Mining?” Obliviously the approach depends upon the topography of the
surrounding ground. To introduce the topic, it is assumed that the ground surface is flat.
The overlying vegetation has been removed as has the soil/sand/gravel overburden. In this
case it will be assumed that the ore body is 700 feet in diameter, 40feet thick, flat dipping
and is exposed by removing the soil overburden. The ore is hard so that drilling and blasting
is required. The bench mining situation is shown in figure: 3.
BY Girmay kasaye
Figure 3: Geometry of the ore body
A vertical digging face must be established in the ore body before major production can
begin. Further more a “ramp” must be created to allow truck and loader access. A drop cut
is used to create the vertical breaking face and the ramp access at the same time.
To access the Ore body, the “ramp” shown in figure: 4 will be driven it has an 8% grade
and a width of 65 feet.
Although not generally the case, the walls will be assumed vertical. To reach the 40ft
desired depth, the ramp in horizontal projection will be 500ft in length.
Figure 4: Ramp access for example ore body

The volume of access road or ramp volume is the volume of the waste rock mined in
excavating the ramp.
:. Ramp volume = Ramp width (Rw) × Area of ∆abc.
1
Rw 2 horizontal H
1 H
Ramp volume (V) = Rw 2 g 100 H
1 H 100 H
Rw 2 g
BY Girmay kasaye
:. Volume of Ramp = V= 50 H2/g × Rw; (ft3)
Example # 01:-
Determine the volume of Ore body by waste rock to develop access road at the slope of
8%. Depth of cylindrical Ore body is 30 feet and diameter 500 ft, width of ramp is 65 feet.
Data:
Slope = g = 8%
Depth = H = 30 feet
Diameter = d= 500 feet
Width of ramp = Rw = 65 feet
Solution:
as V = Volume of ramp
H2 and V
= 50 × × Rw g
V = 50 × =
V = 365625 ft3 Ans
.
Example # 02:-
Repeat example # 01 for Depth (H) = 40 ft and Ramp width (Rw) = 60 ft.
H2
Solution: - V = 50 ×
× Rw g
V = 50 ×
V = 600000 ft3 Ans
BY Girmay kasaye
DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS ROAD: (ramps)
i) In waste rock (Fig. 5a)
.
ii) Ramp in ore body (Fig. 5b)
.
iii) Ramp starting in waste and ending in ore (Fig. 5c)
BY Girmay kasaye
SURFACE MINE DESIGN AND PRACTICE
Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 10 -


penetrates to the point that the face. It then moves parallel to itself and takes another frontal
cut as shown in fig: 7.1;
With a long face and sufficient bench width, more than one shovel can work the same face,
as shown in fig. 7.2.
1. DRIVE BY CUTS :- (parallel cuts-drive by)
Another possibility when the mine geometry allows is the parallel cut with drive by. This
is diagrammatically shown in figure 8. The shovel moves across and parallel to the digging
face. For this case bench access for the haul units must be available from both the directions.
It is highly efficient for both the trucks and the loader. Although the average swing angle
is greater than for the frontal cut, the trucks do not have to back up to the shovel and the
spotting is simplified.
2. TURN AND BACK:- (Parallel cuts-turn and back)
The expansion of the pit at the upper levels is generally accomplished by using parallel
cuts. Due to space limitations there is only access to the ramp from one side of the shovel.
This means that the trucks approach the shovel from the rear. Then, they stop, turn, and
back into the load position.
Sometimes there is a room for double spotting of the trucks (fig: 9.1) but sometimes for
only single spotting as shown in figure 9.2.
DETERMINATION OF THE MINIMUM OPERATING ROOM

REQUIRED FOR PARALLEL CUTS
In determing the width of operating room required for the parallel cut operations; to
accommodate the large trucks and shovels involved in loading, the dimension being sought
is “the width of working bench WB”. The working bench is that bench mined. The width
of working bench “WB” is synonymous with the term “operating room” and is defined as
the distance from the crest of the bench providing the floor for the loading operations to the
bench toe being created as the parallel cut is being advanced. The minimum amount of
operating room varies depending upon whether single or double spotting of trucks is used
with the latter obviously requiring some what more. The minimum width of the working

bench (wb) is equal to the width of the minimum required safety bench plus the width of
the cut.
This is expressed as; “WB = SB + WC”
The easiest way of demonstrating the principles involved is by way of an example: For this,
the following assumptions will be made:
• Beach height = 40 feet

• A safety beam is required.
• The minimum clearance b/w the outer truck tire and safety berm = 5 feat.
• Single spotting is used.
• Bench face angle = 700
• Loading is done with a 9yd3 Shovel.
• Haulage is done by 85 ton capacity Trucks.
• Truck width = 16 feet
• Tire Rolling radius = 4 feat.
The general arrangement of working bench (in x-sectional view) is shown in figure 10.


Step # 01:- Highest of the berm should be at least same as the radius of the truck
tire, i.e.; = 4 feet.
Step # 02:- The distance b/w the crept and centre line of the truck = Tc = 21:
Width of Berm = 8 feet.
Clearance distance b/w safety berm and the wheels of truck = 5 feet
and; the total width of truck = 16 feet.
Step # 03:- The distance b/w the centre line of the Shovel and centre line of the
truck is also called as “Dumping radius” denoted by B; B = 45.5 feet.
Step # 03b:- The Maximum duping height (A) is more than sufficient to clear the
truck;
A = 28 feet.
Step # 03c:- Distance b/w the centre line of Shovel and toe = G ;
G= 35.5 feet
Step # 04:- The desired working bench dimensions become ;

Total minimum width of working bench = WB = TC +B+G;
:. WB = 21 feet + 45.5 feet + 35.5 feet. WB = 102 feet

Note: All the parameters and /or dimensions used above, depends upon the size of the
machinery which is used.
WIDTH OF CUT :- (Wc)

The corresponding width of cut is:-
WC = 0.90 × 2 × G = 0.90 × 2 × 35.5 feet
WC = 63.9 feet
Note: This is applied to the width of the pile of broken material. Therefore, to allow for
swell and throw of the material during blasting. The design cut width should be less than
this value. Thus a value of 60 feet has been assumed.
WIDTH OF SAFETY BENCH :- (SB)

Knowing the width of working bench, and width of cut, the resulting safety bench has a
width of; SB = WB – WC ; :. SB = 102-60 = 42 feet.
SB = 42 feet.
Note: This is of the order of the bench height (40ft) which is a rule of thumb, sometimes
employed.

CUT SEQUENCINGS:
Let us consider a pit consisting of four benches as shown in fig: 11
Fig. 11: Initial Geometry of the pit:
After the initial geometry of the bench is completed; the mining of first bench is started as
shown in figure: 12.
Fig. 12: Mining of bench # 01
The above figure shows that while performing the cut mini ng operation of bench # 01, the
overall slope angle was “θ01”.
After the mining of bench # 01, the next bench (i.e.: Bench # 02) is mined, as shown in
fig. 13:
Fig: 13:- Cut mining from bench # 02

PIT SLOPE GEOMETRY

There are a number of “slopes” which enter into “pit design”. Care is taken so that there is
no confusion as to how they are calculated and what they mean. One slope has already been
introduced. That is the ‘bench face angle” (shown in figure). It is defined as the angle made
with the horizontal of the line connecting the Toe to the crest “this def:” will be maintained
through this piece of literature.
Now consider the slope consisting of “5” such benches (shown in figure). The angle made
with the horizontal of the line connecting the lowest most toes to the upper most crests is
defined as the overall pit slope.
θoverall tan 1
4x535x50 tan755x(Y50)O 50.4O
• Height of each bench = y = 50 feet.

• Horizontal distance = x = 35 feet
• Distance under slope = x’ =?
• Bench face angle = 750 = θ

:.
tan
yx'
y 50 50
x '
13.4' tanθ tan75
3.732
Since we have 5 benches,
i.e.: - 5 slopes, X= (4*x) + (5*x’).
X = (4 x 35) + (5 x 13.4) = 140 + 67  X = 207’ Y
= 5 x 50  Y = 250’
:. Overall pit slope angle = θ overall
θoverall tan 1 y tan 1 250

x 207
θoverall 50.4O


INTER-RAMP SLOPE ANGLES AFTER RAMP INCLUDED

The ramp breaks the overall slope angles “θ overall” into 2 portions as shown in following
figure; each of these 2 portions can be described by slope angles. These angles are called
as “the Inter ramp (Between the ramps)” angles.
θIR1 θIR2 tan 1 yx
Y 50 50 24 Y 124feet
X 2x35 2 tan7550 O tan7525 O
X 70 26.8 6.7 103.5
θIR1 θIR2 tan 1

125 50.38O
103.5
θIR1 θIR2 50.4O
Figure 16: Inter ramp slope angles after ramp included

The inter-ramp wall height is 125 ft for each segment. Generally the inter ramp wall heights
and angles for different slope segments would not be the same. From a slope stability view
point each inter-ramp segment would be examined separately.


INTRODUCING WORKING BENCHES IN PIT SLOPE

GEOMETRY
While active mining is underway, some working benches are included in the overall slope.
The fig. ; shows a working bench 125ft in width included as bench 2.
The overall slope angle “θ overall” now becomes;
θoverall tan 1 yx As; Y 250', X
50
4x35 ' 5 tan75 O ' 125'
X 140' 67' 125' X 332 feet

1 250
θ overall tan 36.98O
332

Fig. 17: Overall slope angle with working bench included

INTER-RAMP SLOPE ANGLES AFTER WORKING BENCH

INCLUDED
The working bench is treated in the same way as a ramp in terms of interrupting the slope.
Therefore from following figure, two inter-ramp angles are shown:-
1 y
θIR 2 tan
x
; As; Y = 250 – 50 = 200 feet and
50
1 200 X 3 x 35 4
θIR 2 tan tan75O
158.6'
X 105 53.6 158.6'
θIR 2 51.58O or 51.6 O
As; for the above inter ramp angles, the inter ramp heights are ,
H1= 50’ and H2 = 2’
Fig. 18: Inter-ramp slope angles after working bench included


• R = resisting force;
• C = cohesion,
φ
• = friction angle.
• Wcosß= normal force
• Wsinß= driving force
• A= Area of the failure plane.
The factor of safety ‘F’ is defined by the following equation:

Total force available to resist sliding
F
Force tending to induce sliding
For the case shown in Fig:”20”
F cA Wcos β tanφ
Wsin β
If there is water present then;
F cA Wcos β-U tanφt
Wsin β V
where,
U= water pressure along potential failure
surface, φa = friction angle (affected by
water), V= force along potential sliding plane.



H 100 sin B
as, b b
100
b 130.54feet
or 0.766
Putting the above value in eqn (a).
2sin 200 sin500

130.54 0
sin110
17040.692
0.279
2375.62 ft 2
(V) Volume of (triangle ABC) sliding block = thickness of sliding block

2375.62 1ft
V 2375.62 1ft3
(W) Weight of sliding block is = volume × unit weight
W V γ 2375.62 160lb/ft 3
W 380099.2lbs
As
F Wcosβcosβ cA
Wsinβ
A= Area of the failure plane, and
A= length of failure plane × thickness
A= b × 1ft= 130.54ft × 1ft
A= 130.54ft2
Wcosβ 380099.2 cos500

244323.05lb Wsinβ 380099.2 sin50
291172.88lb c 1600lb/ft 2
Tanφ Tan300 0.577
1600
F 130.54 244323.05 0.577
291172.88
F
F 1.2
By using “graphical simplification” of the S.F;
X 2
i β β φ 2
70 50 50 30

2
X Slope angle function 400
or X 40
Y slope height function γγH/
Y 160 100 /1600
Y 10
Now by using slope design chart for plane

failure the safety factor for X= 40 and Y= 10
is;
S.F = 1.6

ii. iii.
Example 02:
Determine the limiting pit slope angle (i) using the following data:
β500
i. Inclination of failure plane
φ350
Angle of internal friction
Cohesion = C 7800kg m3 γ
2.5tons m3
Height of slope = 150m
Solution:
Y γH 2.5 150 375
c 7800 7.8
Y 48.07
From the slope design chart, at Y=48 and S.F = 1.0, X=18
:. We know that X 2 i
750
18 2 i 50 50 35 2 13i
Now, squaring both sides
2 2
18 2 15i 750
324 4 15i 750
324 60i 3000 60i
324 3000 3324
i 55.40
i 55.40
iv.
v.

Slope design chart for plane failure including various

safety factors (Hoek, 1970a)

Example 03:
Determine the height of slope using the following data.
i. Slope angle i 650
β500
Inclination of failure plane
350
Angle of internal friction
Cohesion c 7800kg m2
γ 2.5t m3
Unit wt: of rock ;
Safety factor = S.F = 1.4;
Sol:
X 2
i β β φ 2
65 50 50 35
2
15 15 2 255 2 15
X 300
By using the graph of “slope design chart for plane failure including various safety factors”
At X 300 and S.F 1.4
The value of Y=16
Y H,
:. As c
H c 16 7800 49.92m Y
γ 2.5 H
49.92m
ii. iii. iv.
v. vi.



length of Arc ‘AB’ in fig:22(b); Rθ

Area of Arc ‘AB’= length × thickness
[For simplicity, here we have considered the value of thickness of Arc as Unit]
1
Area of Arc ‘AB’ = Rθ
Mc = (Area of Arc) × (cohesion) × (R)
Rθ C R Mc
CR 2θ
as, Mw+Mc= 0
wd CR 2θ 0
wd CR 2θ
CR 2
θ
or S.F
wd
If the portion is in equilibrium state, it
is stable, and will not slip down.

Example:
A cutting in saturated clay inclined at a slope of 1 ver vertical height of 10.0 m. the bulk unit weight of soil
cohesion is 40 KN/m2. Determine the safety factor against immediate shear failure along the slip ticalcircle
and 1.5
as sh
Soln:
1 vertical Slope
1.5 horizontal S
18.5KN m3
C 40KN m2
From fig: 23, con
Figure 23
5m θ1 Tan 1
16.7m
θ1 16.70
According to Pythagoras theorem,
Hyp2 perp 2 Base 2
R2 5 2
16.7 2
25 278.9 303.0
R 303.9
R 17.43m
φ
1 ?; since given slope of cutting plane “ad” is 1 vertical and 1.5 horizontal;
φ1 Tan 1 1 1.5
Thus, φ1 33,7 0 from figure 23; it is clear that:
φ 900 φ 1 θ1
900 33.7 0
16.7 0
39.60 φ 39.60
Now we consider right angled “oec”
6.7 cosθ 2
17.43
θ2 cos 1
0.384 θ2
67.4 0 φ 3 180 0 90 0 67.4

φ3 22.6
From Δ obe we get 2 , as follows,
φ2 sin 1 6.7 φ2 22.60

17.43 φ 3 1800 φ1 φ2 1800

33.7 0 22.60 φ 3 1800 56.30 φ
3 123.710 as φ 900 φ1 θ1 900
33.7 0 16.7 0 φ 84.10
Ψ 1800 θ φ 1800 84.10 39.6

Ψ 1800 123.7 0
Ψ 56.30
θ φ
Δaod Δ1 1 R2 sin sin
Area of 2 sinΨ
12 17.43 2 sin 84.1sin0 56.3 sin0 39.60

Δ1
Δ1 115.85m 2
In order to find the area of bcd , we must know any one side of bcd . Let’s find “DB”
for sake of ease.

OD R
DB R OD and
sinφ sinΨ
OD RsinsinΨφ 17.43sin 56.3sin 39.60 0 13.36m
DB 17.43 13.36 DB 4.07m
Δ2 1 4.07 2 sinφ2 sinφ3

2 sinφ1 Δ2 4.77m2
Now area of polygon oabc=Ap
Ap 120.62m2
1 2
2 180
aoc R
0
(as) Area of sector
As 17.43 84.1

0 π
12 180 0
As 222.86m2
Now, Area of slip mass (A)= As-Ap A

222.86 120.62
A 102.24m 2
Volume of slip mass=V A t 102.24 1
V 102.24m3
Weight of slip mass= W V γ
W 102.24 18.5
W 1891.44KN CR
2
θ
S.F
Wd
40 17.43 2 80.10 π
S.F 1800
1891.44 6.54
S.F 1.44

STRIPPING RATIO
Figure 24 (a)
Vm = Vol. of mining
Vc = Vol. of cone
VT = Vol. of truncated portion
:. Vm = Vc- VT
Fig. 24 (b)

As we know that;
1 πr 2h
Vol: of cone= 3
And Vol: of cylinder = πr 2h
:. Volume of circular ore body; Vo
πr h
Vo= 2 ……… (1)
Volume of (small) truncated tip of cone; VT
1 2
3
VT πr Δh…… (2) (:.) Height of small cone is ∆h). and Δh γtanθ
as height of big cone, is Hc;
and Hc h Δh
or Hc h γtanθ
:. Vol: of bigger cone, Vc
2
Hc 1 πr 2 h Δh
Vc πR
3
or Vc πR 2 h γtanθ (3)
:. Mined Vol: Vm VC VT
1 2
Hc 1 πr 2Δh (4)
Vm πr
3 3
Vol: of waste: Vw Vm V0
Where, Vol: of Ore V0 πr 2h
:. Vol: of waste Vw Vm V0 (5)

:. Stripping Ratio SR VolVol: of: of waste ore. m m3 3
Ww
Vw
SR (6) SR
V0 W0
or
Example:
A cylindrical ore body with radius of 50m and Depth of 250m is to be excavated by
developing a cone. Slopes of the sides of the cone with the horizontal are 550. Unit weight
of the ore is 3.1 tons/m3 and that of the waste rock is 2.6 tons/m3.determine the stripping
ratio (SR).
Data: Δh γtanθ γ 50mΔh 50tan55 h 250mΔh

71.4m
γore 3.1tonsm3H C h Δh 250 71.4
γ wast 2.6tons/m3 HHC C 321.4 RTanmθ
Solution
R H C0 13 2 H c R 321.4Tan55Tan550
VC πR
VC 17044879.24m 3R 225.04m
VT 1 πγ 2 Δh
3
VT 186924.76m 3
Vm VC VT 17044879.24 186924.76
Vm 16857954.48m 3
Vore πγ 2 h π 50 2 250 VO 1963495.4m 3

VW Vm VO 16857954.48 1963495.4
VW 14894459.08m 3
S.R
W waste Vw γw 14894459.08 2.6
S.R 6.36
S.R
Vo γ o 1963495.4 3.1
W ore
DETERMINATION OF “SR” BY AREA METHOD
Ao =Area of sections (i), (ii) and (iii)

1 2
50 50 1250ft
Area of Sec: (i) = 2
Area of Sec: (ii) = 100 50 5000ft 2
Area of Sec: (iii) = 100 150 15000ft 2
AO 2 1250 2 5000 15000

AO 27500ft 2
2
1
Aw1 100 100 5000ft
2 since Aw1 Aw 2
Aw Aw1 Aw 2 5000 5000
Aw 10000ft 2

Aw 10000
S.R 0.36
Ao 275000
S.R 0.36
Now consider the bench of 25ft thickness.
Ao1 100 25 2500ft 2
Ao2 50 2 50 2 25 70.71 25
Ao2 1767.75ft 2
Ao Ao1 2Ao2 2500 2 1767.75

Ao 6035.5ft 2
Aw 2Aw1 2Aw 2
Aw1 100 2 100 2 25.10000 25 150000ft

2
1
Aw 2 25 25
312.5ft
2
Aw 2 250000 2 312.5
500000 625
Aw 500625ft 2
A = ½(b1 + b1) × h = b1h

PIT LIMITS
The minable material becomes that lying
within the pit boundaries. A vertical section
taken through such a pit is shown in figure A:
The size and shape of the pit depends upon

economic factors and design/production
constraints.
With an increase in price, the pit would expand in size assuming all other factors remained
constant.
The “pit” existing at the end of mining is called the “final pit” or the ultimate pit. In b/w
the birth and death of an open pit mine, there are a series of intermediate pits. This includes
a series of procedures based upon:
• Hand Methods,
• Computer Methods, and
• Computer assisted hand methods
The above mentioned methods are used for developing the pit limits. Within the pit
materials of differing values are found. Economics criteria are applied to assign destination
for these materials based on their value (i.e. mill, waste dump, loach dump, stock pile etc).
Once the pit limits have been determined and rules established for classifying the in pit
materials, then the ore reserves (tonnage and grade) can be calculated.
The Net Value Calculation:-

The term cut-off grade refers to the “grades” for which the destination of pit material
changes. It should be noted that “grades” were used rather than “grade” since there may be
several possible – destinations. The simplest case is that in which there are two destinations:
the mill or the waste dump. One cut of grade is needed for many operations today; there
are many possible destinations: the mill or leach dump and the waste dump.
Each of the decisions:-
Mill or leach?

Leach or waste? requires

a cut-off grade.
Cut-off Grade:-
The grade at which the mineral resources can’t longer be processed at a profit.
Break-even cut-off grade:-

The grade at which the net value is zero; is called Break-even cut-off grade.
Determination of pit limits, on the basis of net value:
Example:
Determine the pit limits of an open pit mine as shown in figure: setting price of 1m3 of Ore
is US$ 1.9 and mining cost of 1m3 of waste is US$ 1.0.
Sol:
For Strip # 01:-
Vo 1 5 1.25 1
Vo 6.25m3
Vol: of ore (Strip 1) 1
1
Vw 1 6.364 1.25 1 1.25 1.25
2
Vw 8.74m3
Vol: of waste (Strip 1) 1
Ins (S.R)

VwVo11 S.R Ins 1.4
Value of ore = Vo1* Selling price of 1/m3 of ore

6.25 1.9
dollars
= Value of ore 11.875US
Cost of mining of waste =
Vw 1 Mining cost of 1m3waste

8.74 1.0
Cost of mining of waste = 8.74 US dollars
Net value = value – cost
= 11.875 – 8.74
N.V = 3.14 US $. → for strip # 01 Calculate
for strip, 2, 3 and 4.
For Strip #02:-

Vol. of ore, Vo 2 5 1.25 1
Vo 2 6.25m3
Vol. of waste, Vw 2 6.614 1.25 1 12 1.252

Vw 2 10.3m3
Vol. of ore Vo 2 1.9 6.25 1.9 Vol.

of ore 11.875US $
Cost of mining waste 10.3 1 10.3US $
Vw 2 10.3 1.65
SR (ins)
Vo 2 6.25
N.V Value cost 11.875 10.3
N.V 1.58US dollars
For Strip# 03
Vo 3 6.25m3
2
Vw 3 8.864 1.25 1 12 1.25
Vw 3 11.86m3

S.R ins 11.866.25 S.R ins 1.9
Value of ore 6.25 1.9 11.875 US dollars

Cost of waste 11.86 1 11.86 US dollars
N.V 11.875 -11.86
N.V 0.015 US dollars
For Strip # 04:-
Vo 4 6.25
Vw 4 10.114 1.25 1 12 1.252

Vw 4 12.6425 0.78125
Vw 4 13.424m3
Vw 4 13.424 2.14
S.R Ins
Vo 4 6.25
Cost of mining waste 13.424 1 13.424 $
Price/value of ore 6.25 1.9 11.875 $
N.V 11.875 -13.424
N.V -1.55US dollars
As can be seen that the net value changes from (+) to (-) as the pit is expanded, sometimes the N. V
become zero, so that this pit position is termed as “Break-even”, which is the location of final pit wall.
Now for overall volume of waste we have;
Δw 9.9 9.9
49m 2 thickness 1
overall vol: of waste 49m 3

& overall vol: of ore 9.9 5 1 12
5 5 1
49.5 12.5 1m
overall vol: of ore 62m 3
overall strippig ratio Vw Vo 4962 0.79 0.8

overall value of ore 62 1.9 117.8 US dollars overall
mining cost of waste 49 1 49.00 US dollars
N - value (overall) 117.8 - 49.00
N.V 68.8 US dollars
Example
Copper ore is milled to produce a copper concentrate. This mill concentrate is slipped and
transported to a smatter and the resulting blister copper is eventually refined.
In this example, the following data will be assumed.
Mill recovery rate = 80%
Mill concentrate grade = 20%
Smelting loss = 10 lbs/st of concentrate
Refining loss = 5 lbs/st of blister copper.
The ore is containing 0.55%, All the costs and revenues will be calculated in terms of 1 ton
of ore. Note that ore short ton= 2000 lbs.
Solution:-
Step # 01:- Complete the amount of saleable copper (lb/s per st of ore)
a) Contained copper (cc) is :-

0.55
cc 2000lb/st * 11.00lbs
100
b) Copper recovered by mill (RM/st of ore)
RM 11lbs 8.8lbs
c) Concentration ratio (r):- the ratio of concentration is defined as lbs

of cu/st of concentrate
r

lbs of "cu" recovered/st of ore
2000 20 100 400

r 45.45
8.8 8.8
r 45.45
d) Copper recovered by smelter :- (R.S) As,

smelting loss = 10 lbs/st of concentrate.\
Economic Block Models:-

The block model representation of ore bodies rather than section representation and the
storage of the information on high speed computers have offered some new possibilities in
open pit mines.
ORE GRADE ESTIMATION

by the constant distance weighting techniques
a) Inverse Distance Techniques:-

The formula to calculate the ore grade by inverse distance technique is :
n
Σ
i 1 gi di
n
Σ i 1 idi
Where, gi= given grade of ore at a point.
g= estimated grade of ore. di= distance b/w
known point and point of estimation.
Example:
Calculate the estimated grade of ore at point “C”, using inverse distance technique.
Known grades of an ore at points C1-C6 ore shown in fig: [in brackets]

Sol:
First let’s estimate the value of distances d1, d2...d6 by using Pythogona’s theorem.
d1 200 2 200 2 8000 d1 282.84m d 2
300 2 100 2 100000 d2 316.23m d 3
100 2 200 2 50000 d3 223.6m d 4 200

2
200 2 80000 d4 282.84m d 5 200 2
100 2 50000 d5 223.6m d 6 100 2
300 2 100000 d6 316.23m
As we know that; g g1 g 2d 2
g 6d 6 d1
1 1 d2
6 d6 d1
0.409 0.165 0.258 1.365 0.023 0.644

g 282.84 316.23
223.6 282.84 223.6 316.23

1282.84 1316.23 1223.6 1282.84 1223.6
1316.23
1
0.0100
g g 4.484 10
0.0223
:. The estimated grade of ore =g g
= 0.45 %
b) Inverse Distance Squared weighting Technique:-
Using this technique, the grade of ore is found, by using following equations.
n
gi
Σ i 1
di 2 g n
Σ i 1 di 2
Using the data of previous example; calculate the grade of ore by squared weighting
technique.
d1 282.84m ---------- d12 79998.4656m 2 d 2
2 2
316.23m ---------- d 2 100001.4129m d3
223.6m ---------- d32 49996.96m 2 d 4
2 2
282.84m ---------- d 4 79998.4656m d5
223.6m ---------- d52 49996.96m 2
d6 316.23m ---------- d 6 2 100001.4129m 2
g5 g6
g1 g 22 d 52 d 62
g d12 d2

1d12 1d 2 2
1d 5 2 1d 6 2
3.5885 10 5 g
8.5003 10 5
g 0.422%

ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION

by Triangular Method
From above figure:
Area of rectangle abcd= x3 x1 y2 y3

1
ΔA1 x2 x1 y2 y1
Area of 2
1
ΔA2 x3 x2 y2 y3
Area of 2
1
ΔA3 x3 x1 y1 y3
Area of 2
Area of ΔA Area of abcd - ΔA1 ΔA2 ΔA3
x3 x1 y2 y1
12 x3 x2 y2 y3 1
x3 x1 y2 y3
x3 x1 y1 y3
Example:
Calculate the above of ΔA by using ore reserve estimation:
Easting (x)m Northing (y)m

1100 1200
1500 1200
1100 800
Solution:-
Let

x 1100m, y1 1200m x 2 1500m, y2 1200m x
1
2
OR
1
2
1
2

1100m, y3 800m From given table.
And we know that;
A x 3 x1 y 2 y3 12 xy 32 xy13 yx23 yx31

xy13 yx32
A 1100 1100 1200 800 12 11001200

1100800 1100 1200 11001200 1200 1100 8001500
0 16000 0
160000
A 80,000m2
ΔA b h
400 400
160000
ΔA 80,000m 2
Example:

Calculate the ore reserves in area, as shown in following figure. Density of the ore is
given as 2.5 tons/m3
Solution:-
As we know that:
ΔA Area of abcd - ΔA1 ΔA 2 ΔA3
500 700 12 700 200 12 400 300
12 500 300 350000 205000
ΔA 145000m 2
C1 C2 C3
Average thickness of ore = 3
t av: 3 5 4 12 4m
2 3
t av: 4m
Vol: of ore in Triangular area= ΔA t av:

Vol. of ore = 145000×4m Vol. of ore =
580000m3.

;. Ore reserves = 580000×2.5

Ore reserves = 1450000
Calculation Of Thickness Of Ore In A Drill Hole
Length of “t” Grade (%) Length × grade
ore body (m) “g” (t×g)
t1 0.6 g1 0.59 t1g1
t2 1.4 g2 0.48 t2g2
t3 1.4 g3 0.6 t 3g3
t4 1.4 g4 0.56 t4g4
t5 1.3 g5 0.32 t 5g5
Σtigi i 1n
- - - - - - - (1) Σti
:. Average thickness = (tav:) i 1
t av: 0.6 0.59 1.4 0.48 1.4 0.6 1.4 0.56 1.3 0.32
0.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3

3.066
t av:
6.1
t av: 0.503m
Calculation Of Reserves Using Weight Age Average

Thickness:

Calculate the reserves of ore shown in above fig: having a density of 1.35 tons/m3 by using
the weight age average thickness, when; t1=40m, t2=60m, t3=50m Solution: the weight
age average thickness is calculated as:
t1 θ1 t 2θ 2 t θ
3 3
3
t w 60 (1) from above
fig :
φ tan 1 800 300 tan 1 2.5

400 200
0
68.2
φ1 tan 1 500 300

tan 1 0.5 600 400 φ1
26.560
φ 2 tan 1 800 500

tan 1 1.5 600 400 φ 2
56.310
θ1 φ φ1 68.20 26.560 41.640 θ3 φ1
φ2 26.560 56.310 82.87 0 θ 2 1800 φ1
φ3 1800 41.640 82.87 0 θ1 55.490
Substitute the values of t1, t2, t3, θ1, θ2, θ3 in equation 1

(40 x 41.64) (60 x 55.49) (50 x 82.87)
tw 60 3
9138.5
60
tw 3
tw
tw = 50.77 m
∆ A = Area of abcd – [∆A1, ∆A2, ∆A3]

∆ A = (400 x 500) – [ (½ x 500 x 200) + (½ x 300 x 200) + (½ x 400 x 200) ]
∆ A = 200000 – 120000
∆ A = 80000 m2
Volume of A = A x tw = 80000 x 50.77
:. Volume of A = 4061600 m3
:. Ore reserves = Volume x density
= 4061600 m3 x 1.35 t/m3
= 5483160 tons
Example:
In a level terrain, determine the max height of high wall that dragline can strip without
rehandling, using the following data:
Dumping radius =(Rd)= 47m,
Outside diameter of tub = (Et) = 11m,
=370
Spoil angle of repose ( )
φ = 8740
High wall angle = ( )
Pit width =(w) = 15m
Sean thickness = (T) = 1.22 m
Swelling factor = (Ps) = 30 %
Solution:
As we know that
Rd = Re + So
.: Re = Rd – So -------> 1 and So = 0.75 Et.

Re = 47 – (0.75 Et)
Re = 47 – (0.75 ×11)
Re = 47 – 8.25
Re = 38.75 m
Re Hcotφ cotθ H 1 100Ps W4 tanθ T
38.75 Hcot740 cot370 H 1 10030 154 tan370 1.22
0.287H 1.327 1.3H 2.825 1.22

0.287H 1.7251H 3.748 1.619
38.75 2.0121H 2.13
2.012H 38.75 2.13
H
18.2
H

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AKSUM UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

COURSE: SURFACE MINING

Slope angle is an important geometrical parameter which has a significant economic

BANK WIDTH: It is the horizontal projection of the bench face.

sometimes reduced to a width of about 1/3 of the bench height.

i) Deposit characteristics (total tonnage, grade distribution, value etc) dictate a

Fig. 2: Working Bench

Figure 4: Ramp access for example ore body

Ramp volume (V) = Rw 2 g 100 H

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 10 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 11 -

1. DRIVE BY CUTS :- (parallel cuts-drive by)

2. TURN AND BACK:- (Parallel cuts-turn and back)

DETERMINATION OF THE MINIMUM OPERATING ROOM

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 12 -

This is expressed as; “WB = SB + WC”

• Beach height = 40 feet

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 13 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 14 -

Step # 04:- The desired working bench dimensions become ;

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 15 -

WIDTH OF CUT :- (Wc)

WIDTH OF SAFETY BENCH :- (SB)

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 16 -

Fig. 11: Initial Geometry of the pit:

Fig. 12: Mining of bench # 01

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 18 -

PIT SLOPE GEOMETRY

• Height of each bench = y = 50 feet.

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 19 -

θoverall tan 1 y tan 1 250

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 20 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 21 -

INTER-RAMP SLOPE ANGLES AFTER RAMP INCLUDED

θIR1 θIR2 tan 1 yx

X 2x35 2 tan7550 O tan7525 O

X 70 26.8 6.7 103.5

θIR1 θIR2 tan 1

Figure 16: Inter ramp slope angles after ramp included

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 22 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 23 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 24 -

INTRODUCING WORKING BENCHES IN PIT SLOPE

θoverall tan 1 yx As; Y 250', X

X 140' 67' 125' X 332 feet

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 25 -

Fig. 17: Overall slope angle with working bench included

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 26 -

INTER-RAMP SLOPE ANGLES AFTER WORKING BENCH

Fig. 18: Inter-ramp slope angles after working bench included

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 27 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 28 -

The factor of safety ‘F’ is defined by the following equation:

F cA Wcos β-U tanφt

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 29 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 30 -

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani - 31 -

Putting the above value in eqn (a).

2sin 200 sin500

(V) Volume of (triangle ABC) sliding block = thickness of sliding block

Wcosβ 380099.2 cos500

F 130.54 244323.05 0.577

By using “graphical simplification” of the S.F;