Development Planning Situationer and the Historical Origins of Planning

The evolution of man through time and the development of his civilizations have been
exemplified by a myriad of forms. In all of the shapes civilization has taken there have been
similarities as well as notable differences. The social structure, architectural design, physical
and infrastructure development, sources of economic growth and government structures are but
a few of these factors. It is also interesting to take note how the interrelationship of these factors
contributed to man’s development and furthermore, urbanization.
In 25,000 BC, the social unit was the family. Man was a nomadic entity gathering
naturally occurring foodstuff such as berries, fruits, roots and nuts. Hunting and gathering
societies were limited to only 25-50 persons. Their numbers limited due to the availability of
food. Needless to say, that mortality rates were high. Parents could not pass anything to their
offspring except their knowledge.
All this changed during the ending of the ice age in 7000 BC when wild grasses started
to grow and cultivation of these became man’s wheats and barleys1. Stock breeding and the
cultivation of plants were the first revolutionary step in man’s emancipation from dependence on
the external environment.2 It is known that the agricultural revolution began in the “Fertile
Crescent”3 located in the south and east of the Mediterranean. As early as 5500 BC, established
farming communities existed and inched towards the valleys of Tigris and Euphrates. Other
similar communities existed in different parts of the world: the Nile, the Indus and Hwang Ho in
China. It was in these places that a population surplus came about and this in turn produced the
first cities. This growth in population was the outcome of a stable source of food.
Egypt was among the first cities that came into existence. As early as the middle of 4000
BC, they had already decided to plant Date Palms in addition to their Wheat and Barley. This
they used for its wood, for matting, roofing and fiber for rope 4. They had also shifted from a
combination of faming and food gathering to a major reliance on agriculture. During 300 BC they
were producing three times the food from agriculture. This progress did not come about without
its consequences. Because of this, social stratification came to be. Those who had land to
cultivate were born rich and those who did not were born into poverty.
There was little evidence of planning and zoning in Egypt in the early years. The blocks
or insulae were not defined and the sizes of the estates varied. The wealthiest inhabitants chose
to build their houses along the main avenues. Those who had less built their houses beside the
more affluent ones and the poor squeezed in their homes in whatever space was left5.The
Pharoahs who ruled the land chose different sites to where they will erect their pyramids. This is
the reason why the temples and pyramids in Egypt are scattered.
In 332 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Greeks and therefore ended the late period in
Egyptian History. The Greeks were known for their fine harbors hence chose this to transport
their produce. A Greek ship could carry 7000 pounds of grain 65 nautical miles a day and do
this at one-tenth the cost of land transportation.6 Their greatest invention was their social
organization. The “polis” or “city-state” allows families, groups of clans and tribes to organize for

1
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
2
Lewis Mumford, The City in History
3
James Breasted, Ancient Times
4
J. John Palen, The Urban World
5
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
6
J.John Palen, The Urban World

1
mutual aid and protection as citizens of a common state. Citizenship in Greece meant the right
to worship at civic shrines which denotes their community as religious.
Unlike the earlier civilizations mentioned, the Greeks already had their planning
methods. This was embodied by Hippodamus of Miletus, also known as the “father of city urban
planning”. The gridiron plan, which is still in use to this day, was first recorded in Greece. The
same principle applies to their location of the Acropolis and the Agora. The former was known
for its military purpose while the latter was known for their use as a market place. Due to their
placement, these structures “no longer spatially isolated but are anchored in some system of
mutual reference, as are the stoas and porticos”.7 This result was unintentional and may be
accidental since of the architects of that era were more concerned with the volume or physical
mass of buildings and sculptures rather than aesthetics. Their approach to planning was of a
practical nature. Although not all of Greece was planned. There were two contrasting styles of
urban development at play. One was the planned Urban form and the other was organic growth.
Athens is an example of the latter since the city had no urban design nor municipal
management.
At its peak, Greece has 120,000-180,000 inhabitants. Since the Greeks had imposed a
strict number on population, colonizing other cities became a necessity as this would help in the
decentralization. These colonies had the same social and economic lines of the parent state but
were usually developed along planned lines8. This meant that they also had slave labor since
this is the basis of Greek economy. This allowed the citizens ample leisure time to preoccupy
themselves with intellectual conversation or other collective activities.
The Greek civilization had numerous contributions to the world. Among these are the
theatre, gymnasium and stadium. These are still usual structures that may be seen in today’s
cities. Aristotle statement still holds true in our current day and age. He said that a town should
be built so as to give its inhabitants security and happiness9. A notion that should be exemplified
in the work of every urban planner.
After the Greeks, one of the most technologically advanced civilizations that came to
pass was the Roman empire. Their reign was from 27BC to 324 AD. Their method in
conquering half of the world in that age was urban imperialism. This was how they spread their
laws and their concepts of government. They may be called exporters of ideas varying from
engineering, law and government.
Very similar to the Greeks, the city of Rome did not lose its organic growth structure but
also contained a number of methodically organized building groups. What existed in Rome that
were never before witnessed were aqueducts with a total length of 509 km supplying 1 million
cubic meters per day to different parts of the empire 10. Their road network was also
commendable since this totaled to an astounding 52,000 km. These were used for trade and
colonization. Paris, Vienna, Cologne, Mainz and London had civic planning for these were
military camps and had the grid iron layout. These camps were used more for offensive rather
than defensive purposes.
At the height of the empire, Rome was made up of 120 million people. Sadly, disparity
between the rich and the poor was great. The wealthy Romans lived on Palantine Hall. Imperial
palaces overlooked the forum with temples and public buildings and the colosseum. The poor

7
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
8
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
9
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
10
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form

2
on the other hand were crowded and had to bear with the unsatisfactory municipal planning.
Untreated sewage was dumped into the Tiber river. The public baths and squares although
called “public” were meant for the affluent and not the masses. It was only during the latter part
of the 300 AD that 11 great thermae, 926 public baths, 1212 public fountains and 247 reservoirs
were constructed in Rome. It was recorded that the street system was overcrowded and that
during the day, it had to be free of wheeled traffic.11 Such was the dissatisfaction of the masses
that the rulers had to distract them with chariot races and gladiatorial combats to avoid an
uprising.
The inevitable fall of Rome occurred when the empire was spread too thin and the rulers
were engulfed in greed for power. This was when the vandals, barbarians, Gauls and England
disrupted their transportation routes cutting off trade within the empire.
The fall of Western Rome gave birth to the Medieval Period. During this era, it was the
Church that played a major role in taking back a sense of order. The Church took imperial
administrative districts as the basis of its ecclesiastical organization, each diocese
corresponding to a civitas or episcopal city12. Because of the Church’s presence, with the
bishops’ walled cities and largely defended monasteries, the resurgence of trade was made
possible. The same goes for areas where established burgs that took the form of heavily
fortified military and administrative centers.
The local government, justice, legislation, all executive power and even the army were
anchored on Feudalism. This meant that the land lords, usually kings, were at the top of the
social stratification and serfs were at the bottom. In between were the tenants in chief, some of
whom were bishops and ecclesiastical dignitaries, counts, barons, dukes and knights. All of
them doing favors to the king for their lands. Once a semblance of order was restored and
political stability was present, the burgs transformed into commercially oriented towns.
Medieval towns were basically trading centers where the inhabitants spent their time
doing other non-agricultural pursuits. The trade and production happened in all parts of the city:
open and closed spaces; public and private spaces alike13. Movement was usually on foot and it
was only late in the period that wheeled transport reach notable numbers. Goods were more
often than not transported on pack animals. The refuse disposal at some of these towns were
rudimentary and water supply was a problem.
Most of these towns across European countries shared the same social, economic and
political contexts. The same goes for their visual details: the same kind of local vernacular
building make up both the formal gridirons of planned new towns and the informal uncontrolled
layouts of their unplanned contemporaries14. The parts of the town include the wall, towers and
gates; streets and related circulation spaces; the market place with a market hall and other
commercial buildings; the church; a collection of general town buildings and related private
garden spaces. In unplanned towns on the other hand, both the market square and the market
street defy precise description. The urban status of these towns was described by Paul Hofer as
“the inter-relationship of the following: the economic structure (market handicrafts, trade); social
structure (craftsmen, merchants, clergy, aristocracy); physical structure (town plan, public

11
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
12
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form p. 64
13
Howard Saalman, Medieval Cities
14
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form p. 68

3
buildings, fortifications); legal personality (constitution, legal organs, districts); situation (land
and waterways, bridge, halting places, reloading places) and political vitality” 15.
It was in Florence, Italy where the Renaissance Period began. The term renaissance
translates to rebirth, more specifically, a renewed interest in Greek and Roman influence: the
arts including painting and sculpture; architecture and urbanism. The trend was promulgated by
Florence’s aristocracy to whom religious Medieval articles did not appeal. The style took 75
years to reach the French and another decade to be witnessed in England. A major factor in the
spread of renaissance was the invention of printing. This was how the writings of Vitruvius
influenced architecture and urbanism. Renaissance urban planning focused on the following
features: fortification systems; restructuring of existing cities by the construction of new main-
street networks that extended as regional routes generating further growth; the addition of new
districts, mostly for residential; and the layout of a number of new towns.16
The effect of this period on Italian states was the development and beautification of
cities. The evident design expressions during the period was the classical style, symmetry,
perspective and proportion for both public and private spaces. The architectural influence of the
era could be seen on the civic and religious structures; market and commercial buildings; and
even residential buildings. Landscape elements on the other hand included colonnades, screen
and terraces and various forms of tree and shrub planting.
The three main design components of the era were the primary straight street; enclosed
spaces (squares, piazzas and places); and the grid iron. The grid iron was integrated in various
ways to the planning of cities since it corresponds to the visual uniformity of the renaissance. It
was used as the basis of residential districts that were added to existing urban areas during the
time; the entire layout of a limited number of new towns and in combination with a primary street
system for the layout of other new urban areas.
Living conditions also underwent a major improvement. There was an increase supply in
pure water; household refuse was not thrown out into the street but were collected by dust carts;
and public wash houses were constructed during this time. There was a noticeable increase in
population in European cities during the renaissance. This occurred during the closing decades
of the period. The industries that were growing included trade, banking and manufacturing.
The Baroque Period, which lasted from the 17th to the 18th centuries immediately
followed the Renaissance. It was a period when the three super powers were England, France
and Spain. Monarchy was still the form of government used. An emerging middle class was
present in this period and advances in agriculture provided food for more people.
One of the most notable aspects of the Baroque period was its use of planning to
emphasize secular, spiritual and cultural authority 17. Important structures such as churches and
palaces dominated the circus which connected two straight roads. The plans of towns were
governed with rules of proportion, three-dimensional massing and detailed elevational design of
buildings that extended outwards for the organization of urban space. The yearning for
discipline and order was expressed in identical ideas on architectural design, aesthetic theory
and principles of city planning.

15
Paul hofer, The Zähringer New Towns, Exhibition Catalogue, Department of Architecture. Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology
16
AEJ Morris, History of Urban Form
17
Fries 1977

4
 Architecture during the Baroque reflected the wealth and splendor of the kingdoms in
Europe. An aspect of the architectural design that was implemented was the concept of
“arrested development” where structures suggested movement. The designs during that era
also gave viewers a visual surprise which was unlike the renaissance that was calm and quiet.
The work of Andre le Notre, a landscape architect, on Vaux-le-vicomte best exemplifies the
baroque garden design.
The end of the Baroque period welcomed the massive technological improvements
brought about by the Industrial Revolution. This period began in the 18 h century and lasted until
the early part of the 20th century. This era can be broken down into two, the first and second
industrial revolutions. The former began in England while the latter in the United States although
there were several similarities to how this time affected both countries.
There were several technological developments that ultimately contributed to the
urbanization of cities: the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, the steam engine, steel frame
buildings, the lightbulb, electric power lines, electric street cars, elevators, the telephone,
subways and the internal combustion engine. While in the earlier civilizations there was a
bondage to the soil and the population relied on agriculture, the Industrial revolution introduced
urban bondage. This can be attributed to the demand for an urban work force for the production
of various materials: cotton, iron and steel. Factories were present in the cities that required the
manpower. As a result, people started flocking to where the industries were situated.
These industries that usually operated in factories needed to be near the railroad
network or harbors for ease of transport. The people or “factors” as they were called, in turn,
had to locate themselves near their place of work 18. The cost of transportation was still high
during that time and only the rich could afford to live some distance away from the city centers.
Since these industrial centers were not prepared for the sudden influx of the population,
several negative effects resulted. Living conditions were appalling due to overcrowding. Filth
was ever present and diseases like cholera could be contracted. Because of this, engineering
improvements had to be implemented in sewerage and water supply. The many bad effects of
industrial cities led to the urban decentralization. As mentioned earlier, the invention of the
internal combustion engine and the development of infrastructure helped facilitate the balancing
of the population to the rural areas. Zoning regulations also came about as a result of the
encroachment of industries onto residential areas. This was when urban planners such as
Ebenezer Howard and Daniel Burnham came up with the Garden City and City Beautiful
Movement, respectively, to address the unintended effects of the Industrial Revolution.
The constant adaptability and development in terms of technological advancements,
social structure and planning of each civilization are what allowed each of the discussed
civilizations to flourish. So enduring were their solutions that their influence can still be seen in
our present world. The grid iron plan that was the result of Hippodamus’ work can still be
witnessed in our villages and towns. It is still, by far, the most practical layout for users in a
locale. Such was the engineering of the Romans that the structures and methods they built and
applied can still be observed to this day. Architecturally speaking, our campus is not without the
influences of the Greco-Roman civilization. The neoclassical design of the Quezon Hall, Palma
Hall, Gonzalez Hall and Melchor Hall reflect the symmetry in shape and the considerable scale
that began with Roman and Greek structures. The famous gardens and structures of Europe
still echo the glory of the Renaissance and the Baroque periods. Daniel Burnham’s work for
Chicago, as part of his City Beautiful movement, was replicated in the plan of Manila and
Baguio. Decentralization, a concept that originated in the colonies of Greeks and Romans and

18
Greed, Introducing Town Planning

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carried on to the Industrial Revolution is still a method used to address the congestion of Metro
Manila. Unfortunately, most of the plans and methods that have been suggested in addressing
our problems are still not in play. I believe that we as a society are not lacking in planners but
the communication and the political will necessary in carrying out the solutions to present day
challenges are still lacking.
It is astonishing to know how the inter-relationship of the different factors such as social
structure, government structure, technology and economic growth can influence the urban
development of civilizations. What is equally astounding is how an individual can easily overlook
necessary factors in the equation while developing a plan for an urban development. This
applies especially to this day and age when technological advancements are happening at a
rapid rate. Coupled with the continuous growth in population, urban planners are faced with a
daunting task of addressing all the possible situations that may arise.
Although it is rather reassuring to have the basic guidelines in predicting development
since we have a rich history on which to base our decisions. The most important point for me is
related to what Aristotle said about towns, as mentioned in the earlier paragraphs. This is that a
town should be built so as to give its inhabitants security and happiness. In this regard, all social
classes should be taken into consideration lest what happened to Rome repeat itself. Although
social stratification will undoubtedly persist, it is essential to remember those in society who
have been most neglected. Programs and their implementation should follow the goal or vision
set by the planner. Those in power should be enlightened with possible solutions to our current
predicament. In conclusion and in agreement to what Contantino A. Doxiades wrote in his book,
planners should always be updated with present circumstances and it is imperative to develop
rational theories in dealing with the future of urban development19.

19
Doxiades, Konstantinos A. Ekistics: An Introduction to the Science of Human Settlements.