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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
Y
er
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ABB
ABB
y
y
bu
bu
2.0
2.0
to
to
re
re
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k
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Steels and other metals are made up of organized patterns of molecules, known as
crystal structures. However, these patterns are not maintained throughout the steel
producing an ideal homogenous material, but are found in microscopic isolated
island-like areas called grains. Inside each grain the pattern of molecules is
preserved. From one grain boundary to the next the molecule pattern is the same,
but the orientation is differs. As a result, grain boundaries are high energy
borders.
Plastic deformation begins within a grain that is both subject high stress and
oriented such that the stress cause a slippage between adjacent layers in the same
pattern. The incremental slippages (called dislocations) cause local cold-working.
Page 1 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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ABB
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2.0
2.0
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
On the first application of the stress, dislocations will move through many of the
grains that are in the local area of high stress. As the stress is repeated, more
dislocations will move through their respective grains. Dislocation movement is
impeded by the grain boundaries, so after multiple stress applications, the
dislocations tend to accumulate at grain boundaries, and eventually becoming so
dense that the grains “lock up”, causing a loss of ductility and thus preventing
further dislocation movement.
Subsequent applications of the stress cause the grain to tear, forming cracks.
Repeated stress applications cause the crack to grow. Unless abated, the cracks
propagate with additional stress applications until sufficient cross sectional
strength is lost to cause catastrophic failure of the material. The figure below
illustrates this process.
This theory states that yielding in a piping component occurs when the magnitude
of any of the three mutually perpendicular principle stresses exceeds the yield
point strength of the material. This theory forms the basis for piping systems
governed by ASME B31.3. This theory is also called as Rankine Theory.
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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2.0
2.0
to
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
A piping system constitutes an irregular space frame into which strain and stress
may be introduced by due to various circumstances during operation, standby or
shutdown also exist the during initial fabrication and erection.
Live loads include weight of content, snow and ice loads. Dead loads consist of
weight of piping valves, flanges, insulation and other superimposed permanent
loads.
a) Impact forces
b) Wind
c) Earthquake / Seismic loads
d) Vibration
e) Discharge loads due to PSV
From piping stress analysis point of view the following are the main loads to be
considered for the design,
A primary loads occur from Sustained loads like dead weight, live weight,
internal pressure etc and are called non-self limiting loads.
Secondary loads occur from thermal expansion loads like temperature
change, anchors and restraints etc and are called self-limiting loads.
Occasional loads occur from static wind and seismic loads and are
considered to act occasionally.
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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ABB
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y
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2.0
2.0
to
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re
re
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k
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w om w om
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w. w.
A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
The three basic stresses in the analysis of static piping system are,
a) Primary
b) Secondary
c) Occasional
The stresses acting on the piping due to wind and seismic are
classified as Occasional Stresses.
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PD rm PD rm
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2.0
2.0
to
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w om w om
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Stresses due to internal pressure are considered safe when the pipe wall
thickness and reinforcement are adequate.
The sum of the longitudinal stresses resulting from pressure, weight, and
other sustained loadings shall not exceed the basic allowable stress for
material at maximum metal temperature Sh. The thickness of pipe used in
calculating SL shall be the nominal thickness, T, minus mechanical,
corrosion, and erosion allowance, c, for the location under consideration.
Where
Sc= basic allowable stress for the material at minimum (cold) metal
temperature, psi
Sh= basic allowable stress for the material at maximum (hot) metal
temperature, psi
F= stress reduction factor for cyclic conditions for the total number of
full temperature cycles over expected life.
SA = f (1.25(Sc + Sh) - S L)
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PD rm PD rm
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2.0
2.0
to
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
5.0 Flexibility:
= 144 L2 SA
3ED0
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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ABB
ABB
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2.0
2.0
to
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k
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w om w om
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w. w.
A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
d) No general proof can be offered that the equation 16 will yield accurate or
consistently conservative results. It is not applicable to systems used under
severe cyclic conditions. There is no assurance that terminal reactions will
be acceptable low, even if a piping system falls within the limitations of
equation-16.
e) To provide a simple criterion for the recognition of those systems required
detailed analysis, efforts have been made to establish a rule of thumb
capable of giving a rough idea of relative flexibility. This is the basis of
the formula in the 1955 edition of Piping Code (ASA B31.1), which
contains requirements for mandatory examination of the flexibility of
piping systems to avoid requiring complete analysis of all piping if the
equation-16 is not satisfied.
f) The equation-16 does not directly evaluate stresses; thus, the actual
maximum stress range SE contained in equation-16 can be found from
below equation-4.3
Page 7 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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2.0
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to
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
SE = 16,800 psi
Page 8 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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w om w om
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Any piping system which does not meet the criteria in paragraph 319.4.1
above shall be analyzed by a simplified, approximate, or comprehensive
method of analysis.
The formula to determine the actual displacement stress range SE, which
shall not exceed the allowable stress range SA in equation above.
Page 9 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
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ABB
ABB
y
y
bu
bu
2.0
2.0
to
to
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re
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k
k
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C
C
w om w om
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w
w. w.
A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Page 10 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
Y
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ABB
ABB
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y
bu
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2.0
2.0
to
to
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k
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w om w om
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
The ratio of the maximum stress in the curved pipe bend to that which would exist
in straight pipe subject to the same moment is termed as SIF.
In-plane bending refers to the case in which the pipe is subjected to bending by
forces or moments applied in the plane of the bend.
Out-of-plane bending designates the case in which the forces and moments act
perpendicularly to the plane of the bend. Obviously, these two cases can be
combined to give a solution for forces or moments acting in any arbitrary plane.
As per ASME B31.3, the figure for bending moments, in-plane and out-plane SIF
for bends and branch connections are show below,
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
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ABB
ABB
y
y
bu
bu
2.0
2.0
to
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re
re
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k
k
lic
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C
C
w om w om
w
w
w. w.
A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Page 12 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
Y
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er
ABB
ABB
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2.0
2.0
to
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w om w om
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Markl noticed that the fatigue failure occurred not in the middle of his test
spans, but primarily in the vicinity of the fittings, and in those cases, they
also occurred at lower stress/cycle combinations than for the straight pipe
alone.
It had been shown that elbows tend to ovalize during bending, bringing the
outer fiber closer to the neutral axis of the pipe, thus reducing the moment
of inertia (increasing flexibility) and the section modulus (increasing
developed stress).
SIFs are obtained from tests and equations written to extend the usefulness
of the tests. The Markl machine is the standard machine used to develop
SIFs.
Page 13 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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2.0
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to
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C
w om w om
w
w
w. w.
A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Page 14 of 19 4/22/2010
F T ra n sf o F T ra n sf o
PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
Y
er
er
ABB
ABB
y
y
bu
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2.0
2.0
to
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Cycle the specimen back and forth until water leaks from a crack as shown
in the figure below.
Page 15 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
Y
Y
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ABB
ABB
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to
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w om w om
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
The below figures are example of the fixtures for SIF testing. This testing
program first established an equation to represent the fatigue life of a butt
weld in a straight length of pipe when cycled at a constant displacement.
This equation, for ASTM A 106 Grade B piping material, is:
This testing program then tested tees at the same displacement as the butt
welded pipe samples and found that the tees failed after fewer
displacement cycles. The stress was calculated and compared to that of the
butt welded pipe.
Page 16 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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Y
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ABB
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y
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bu
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2.0
2.0
to
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k
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w om w om
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
The ratio of these stresses in the SIF of the tee, and the fatigue equation
was modified for the tee and all other piping component as:
Page 17 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
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to
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A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
Piping and vessels have been known to suffer from sudden failure following years
of successful service. A plot of the cyclic stress capacity of a material is called a
fatigue (or endurance) curve. These curves are generated through multiple cyclic
tests at different stress levels.
The number of cycles to failure usually increases as the applied cyclic stress
decreases, often until a threshold stress (known as endurance limit) is reached
below which no fatigue failure occurs, regardless of the number of applied cycles.
An endurance curve for carbon and low alloy steels, taken from the ASME
Section VIII Division 2 Pressure Vessel Code is shown in the following figure.
Page 18 of 19 4/22/2010
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PD rm PD rm
Y Y
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ABB
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bu
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2.0
2.0
to
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C
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w om w om
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w. w.
A B B Y Y.c A B B Y Y.c
8.0 References
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