Disintegration of concrete: Concrete disintegration can be a result of freeze/thaw cycles on the surface.

Moisture enters through concrete pores and expands. When tiny pieces of the surface came off, it is called
disintegration.
Plastic cracks: Plastic cracks occur before the concrete has hardened. They are caused by rapid loss of water
during curing or settlement in the concrete itself. Hot, dry air and excessive water in the mix may cause
cracking.
Overloading cracks: Overloading a concrete member may cause several types of cracks, Depending on the
direction and location of the cracks (vertical, diagonal, top, bottom etc.,) the type of loading stress can be
identified.
Spalling: Spalling is primarily a result from the corrosion of the reinforcement/embedded objects such as
anchors. Concrete is unable to handle the tension forces and the pieces between the corroded steel will break
is called spalling.
Pressure Grouting: Pressure grouting involves injecting a grout material into generally isolated pore or void
space of which neither the configuration nor volume are known, and is often referred to simply as grouting.
The greatest use of pressure grouting is to improve the geological materials (soil & rock). The purpose of
grouting can be either to strengthen or reduce water flow through a formation. It is also used to correct faults
in concrete and masonry structures. Grouting has been performed on the foundation of virtually everyone of
the world’s largest dams, in order to reduce the amount of leakage through the rock, and some times to
strengthen the foundation to support the weight of the overlying structure, be it of concrete, earth or rock fill.
It is also used to correct faults in concrete and masonry structures.

Assignment: IV
Q1. Discuss the common types of failures in high-Rise R.C.C. structures and suggest methods and
techniques for repairing the same?
Q2. Draw and explain how to repair a sagging balcony.
Q3. Explain concrete failures and write the repairing techniques.
References:
Engineering Construction & Specifications by Joseph Goldbloom.
Structural Aspects of Building Conservation by Paul Beckmann.
Conservation of Historic Buildings by Bernard.M.Feilden.
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION V
UNIT –V- METHODICAL APPROACH TO REPAIRS
Cracks over openings, sinking and sagging balconies, repairs to decayed floors and floor joints,
Example: Jack arch, madras roof terrace, foundation sinking, repairs to walls. Propping, strutting
and under pinning.

Introduction: Repairs to buildings need be undertaken in a methodical way. The first step in this direction
would be inspection of the building to ascertain the extent of damage and also the items of damage and once
the causes are established, the next step would be to suggest the remedial measures and prepare a report on
the findings. On approval of the report by the authority or the client, a detailed quantity survey of the items
of works to be done as remedial measures shall be undertaken and an estimate prepared indicating the cost
involved. On approval of the estimate, the work shall be taken up after observing other formalities like
tendering, etc. The next step would be to analyze on the basis of the inspection report, the damage and
decay and diagnose the root cause of the damage or decay.
After completion of the planning part of the job and on receipt of approval of the estimate and allocation of
fund, a work programme need be framed for speedy and systematic implementation of the scheme. A bar-
chart or a critical path network may be drawn for monitoring the progress of the work. It is a general
impression that programming is required for execution of construction of projects of original works only.
But actually more pre-thinking and framing of rigid programme with due consideration of priority of the
execution of the items need be made in case of repairs and rehabilitation works. If the execution is not
systematic and methodical, haphazard execution of the items may result in disaster.
Each and every item need be judged carefully and priority allotted in consideration of the effect of
execution of the item. As a convention, repair works should be undertaken from the lower portion of the
building, i.e., by strengthening and stabilizing the structure from the bottom.
Architect and/or Engineer’s role in age and life-span of buildings: An architect and/or an engineer is
responsible for design of a building taking into consideration several basic factors like form, function,
economics, aesthetics, etc. Apart from these a building needs necessary life-span for its efficient
functioning. A detailed study reveals that maintenance of a building is necessary not only for its smooth
functioning but also to cure various defects (building diseases) arising frequently due to negligence which,
if taken note of early could be reduced.

There are various types of building defects which increase the maintenance liability and deteriorate living
conditions in it. It is also observed that the maintenance cost of any building gradually increases with the
age of the building. A systematic study of the defects is necessary to overcome the deficiencies arising out
of design, specifications, construction and other considerations.

The different items of repair works of a building may be grouped into the parts: A building consists of
different components which together make it complete and usable.

i. Structural,

ii. Non-structural with allied services required for efficient and proper functioning of the
building, e.g., sanitary, water supply and electrical installations, drainage system, gas
supply, etc., and

iii. Day-to-day maintenance and servicing of the building which comprises of cleaning and
maintaining the services. Although all the parts are important for proper functioning of the
 building, the second and the third parts generally do not pose any immediate hazard,
whereas if there be any defect in the main structural system of the building, the same need
be immediately detected and corrected to avoid any serious situation.

Cracks over openings: Diagonal cracks above window openings and door openings are common structural
defects that show signs of movement which will need to be rectified. Diagonal stepped cracking often
indicates that the lintel that supports the masonry above the opening has failed. In many instances the threat
of collapse is over looked and simply ignored, in some cases cracks are raked out and re-pointed but if
further movement occurs, the already compromised lintel could in theory collapse bringing the masonry
above it crashing down as well. Lintel Failure often occurs upon the removal of hardwood windows that
were originally designed to bear a substantial load without distorting and are replaced with standard UPVC
windows which are non-load bearing allowing the lintel to drop or bow causing sagging of the lintel which
is shown by the diagonal stepped cracking. Traditional methods are to remove the lintel and rebuild it, this
is an intrusive method of repair and a slow process typically taking around a day to properly remove and
replace a lintel.

Lintels can now be repaired using the Twist fix Helical System by using their Bed Joint
Reinforcement which effectively creates a new lintel within the existing masonry by removing the mortar
within two bed joints above the lintel and inserting helical rods encompassed in grout to create a load
bearing lintel which spreads the structural loads across the length of the bars preventing further sagging of
the lintel. With the patented Twist fix 9mm CD helical tie we are able to install 450mm long ties vertically
through the masonry in the lintel and pin it into the masonry above. This method is a vast improvement on
previous pinning methods which often required 16mm holes drilled through the lintel. We can now install
these ties through just 6 or 7mm pilot holes. This type of repair is a fast and effective method of repair.

Sinking and sagging of balconies:

It is a common phenomenon, especially in repetitive mass construction, the balconies projected

outside are found sagging. The balconies are constructed as cantilever overhung from the masonry
walls 1.2 to 2.0 M. The cantilever slab might have been designed properly; but in most cases
during construction top tensile steel at the support are displaced reducing the lever arm and,
thereby, reducing the moment of resistance. Cracks occur on the top at the support and the slab
gradually sags and ultimately it simply hangs. In such cases, the balcony shall have to be
demolished with a part of the slab beyond the masonry support and the whole redone after
redesigning and constructing carefully.

Alternatively, the balcony may be repaired in a mixed way by inserting brackets, either of m.s. sections or
of R.C.C. If the length of the balcony is more and cannot be supported on two brackets, more brackets may
be introduced and, if required, M.S. or R.C.C. small size beams may be introduced below the balcony slab
and over the brackets.

The work is to be started from the ground floor. The level of the balcony slab shall have to be corrected by
using jack at the tip. When the balcony slab is in horizontal position, the brackets with the beams as
necessary shall have to be placed in position. After positioning the members and fixing them with the
existing masonry wall, the brackets with the fixings shall have to be cured as usual. After repairing of the
balcony as detailed, the same shall be supported by props from the ground floor so that it can take the load
that would be coming during repairing of the balcony above. In the same procedure, the balcony of next
floor above shall be done and so on. When balconies of all the floors have been corrected, the props shall be
released from the top floor and the finishing works shall be completed.
Repairs to the decayed floors and floor joints:

Repairs to floors and floor joists:

Jack Arch Roof: Jack arch roof can be constructed with brick or concrete. The arch of the jack arch roof is
either made of brick or concrete. The arch is supported on the lower flange of mild steel joists (RSJ). The
rolled steel joists are supported at their ends on the walls or longitudinal girders. They are spaced at a
distance of 1 M to 1.5 M centre to centre.
The rise of the arch is kept equal to 1/12th of the span. Layer of concrete is then poured over the roof to
straighten the roof. The concrete layer thickness over the crown of arch is not less than 15cm. due to the
superimposed loads on the arch tension develops at the end of the arch. Steel tie rods are placed at the ends
of an arch with a suitable spacing of 1.8M to 2.4M.
Causes for leakage in a Jack arch roof and remedy to solve the problem of leakage:
Important causes of jack arch roof leakage are-
1. Poor quality of cement used for construction of arch.
2. Inappropriate grade of sand.
3. Faulty installation of roof or poor workmanship and inferior quality of materials used in
construction of roof.
4. Improper holes, broken or missing shingles, damaged gutter, vent or chimney surroundings.
5. Heap of waste on roof or in the gutter prevents smooth flow of rain water which causes
leakage.
6. Weather effects such as high wind pressure, storm and heavy rain affect roof structure and cause
leakage.
7. Improper slope.
8. Obstacles in rain water pipes.
9. Unfinished junction of roof and walls.
10. Damaged water proofing layer.
11. Depression on the top of the roof.
12. Defective joints of rain water pipes.

Repair of the roof: The Jack Arch roof leakage problem has to be fixed and should be so done so as to
avoid future recurring water leakage problem. This can be achieved by waterproofing the roof.
Here are the four simple steps to repairing and waterproofing the Jack Arch Roof:
Step one:
The old cement mortar and tiles are to be removed so that the new cement mortar settles and becomes firm
over the rough roof surface.
Step two:

After scraping of the cement mortar, fresh cement mortar is laid and left to dry.

Step three:

After the drying of cement mortar, waterproofing is done to avoid any kind of further leakage.
Waterproofing material is mixed in a drum of water and splashed over the cement mortar layer. We must
make sure that every corner of the roof is to be covered with this waterproofing material.

Step four:

After the process of waterproofing, tiling is done with the help of a suitable adhesive.

Madras Terrace Roof:

In the case of Madras Terrace, wooden beams will be fixed first. Wooden battens will be laid at 450mm
center to center perpendicular to wooden beams and it will be ending on the walls. Over this, bricks on edge
will be laid. Over this lime concrete consisting of broken brick jelly and lime (no sand) will be laid for
100mm and rammed with wooden beaters with slope of 1 in 48 and flat tiles of 100mm square laid in two
layers and pointed with lime mortar.

How to repair leaks in flat roof?

Step 1: Clean roof and check all rain water pipes

Clear all debris from the roof. Check all rain water pipes if there is any blockage in pipes as they provide
direct access to rain water and repair defective joints of rain water pipes also.

Step 2: Mark actual area of leakage in daylight

Identify actual causes of leakage and mark leakage in daylight while it is raining. Take help from
professionals in leakage treatment. Actual area of leakage should be calculated with the materials required
for repair. The repair of roof leaks should be done before the beginning of rainy season.

Step 3: Repair Tar felt water proofing coat and cement concrete ‘gola’
Repair Tar felt water proofing coat if it is damaged and restore damaged cement concrete ‘gola’ in junction
of wall and roof slab.
Step 4: Keep proper slope of tile tracing for smooth flow of rain water
Check the surface of roof and keep the slope of tile terracing in 1:40 ratio to drain off rain water quickly and
to avoid leakage. Restore defective joints and repair depressions existing on the top of roof to avoid
stagnant rain water which leads to leakage.

Step 5: Restore the joints of tile tracing

Mend the joints of tile terracing if they are cracked and repair defective/damaged cement pointing to avoid
leakage.

Step 6: Check mouths of rain water pipes

Restore the mouth of rain water pipes and repair their cracked joints with tile terracing to avoid leakage.

Step7: Repair leakage in over head water tank

Repair leakage in over head water tank; which destroys water proofing of roof. Fit proper ‘Bal’ cock and
over flow pipe in over head water tank to avoid unnecessary over flow of water which damages the roof.

Sinking Foundation:
A sinking foundation is one issue that can occur if the foundation is laid improperly or on unstable soil.
Sinking foundations are problems that need to be addressed and examined as soon as you notice them to
prevent further damage (and, of course, repair costs) to the rest of the house.
References:
Engineering Construction & Specifications by Joseph Goldbloom.
Structural Aspects of Building Conservation by Paul Beckmann.
Conservation of Historic Buildings by Bernard.M.Feilden.
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/building-engineering/repairing/methodical-approaches-to-repair-
buildings/85993

https://newmanbuildingsolutions.com/crack-diagnosis/cracks-above-window-and-door-openings/

http://www.civilprojectsonline.com/building-construction/guide-to-repair-and-waterproofing-of-jack-
arch-concrete-roof/

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/building-engineering/rcc/repairs-of-r-c-c-balconies-sagging-
buildings/85708

Factors that affect cracking:

Water: The more the water the greater is the cracking tendency. Water increases shrinkage and reduces
strength.

Cement: Richer concretes crack more. Increasing the volume of aggregates by 10% can be expected to
reduce shrinkage about 50%.

Aggregate: Presence of clay binders in aggregates causes high shrinkage and cracking.

Bleeding: Excessive bleeding induces cracks.

Improper curing: When rate of evaporation is very high, fresh concrete dries rapidly. Early curing and
appropriate screening is necessary in such cases.

Exposure: The southern and western exposures of a structure are usually more severe than northern and
eastern exposures.

Cover: Clear cover less than the specified value expedites corrosion of reinforcement.

Types and classification of cracks:

Dormant cracks: These are caused by some event in the past (e.g. Drying, shrinkage) which is not
expected to recur. They remain constant in width and may be repaired by filling with a rigid material.

Active cracks: These cracks do not remain in constant in width, but open and close as the structure is
loaded, or due to thermal and moisture changes in the concrete.

Growing cracks: Increase in width of the crack becomes the original reason for their very occurrence.
Continuous foundation settlement or reinforcement corrosion are the conditions suitable to develop these
type of cracks.

Repairs to cracks:

For repairing cracks, following factors are to be considered.

a) Determination of extent, location and width of the cracks.

b) Classification of cracks as structural and non structural.
c) With regard to depth- surface, shallow, deep, through cracks.
d) With regard to direction- map cracks or pattern cracks roughly hexagonal and simple continuous
cracks.
e) With regard to the width- thin (less than 1 mm), medium (1 to 2 mm) and wide (more than 2 mm)
cracks.
f) With regard to load transfer- structural and non structural.

Procedure for repairing cracks:

 Classify the cracks according to their width.

 Widen the crack in ‘V’ shape.
 Fill the crack with crack filling material.
 Re-do plastering with necessary precautions.
 Also repair any cracks developed on the disturbed area.
 Observe curing for all the repaired work.