Death

Epicurus suffered from kidney stones and finally succumbed to it in 270 BCE. He was 72
years of age when died. He had no heirs or sons as he never married in his life.
His concept of “Ethic of Reciprocity” which said of minimizing harm and maximizing
happiness was later adapted by the democratic thinkers of French Revolution.
Epicurus was born in February 341 BCE to Neocles and Chaerestrate. His father had
migrated to the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos few years ago before
the birth of Epicurus. He was raised in Samos only. He studied philosophy under the
Platonist teacher Pamphilus for four years. Thereafter, at the age of eighteen, he went to
Athens for his two years military service. Following the death of Alexander the Great,
Perdiccas expelled the Athenians from Samos to Colophon, which is a part of Turkey now.
The school got its name as “The Garden” due to its basement in the garden of his house.
The Primary members of this school included, Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Leonteus and his
wife Themista, the satirist Colotes, Polyaenus of Lampsacus, and Metrodorus of
Lampsacus.
Anaxagoras

The most original aspect of Anaxagoras’s system was his doctrine

of nous (“mind” or “reason”).
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was an ancient Greek philosopher credited to be the first
person to bring philosophy into Athens. He was a philosopher of nature and is best
remembered for his cosmology.
//
Born: c. 575 B.C.E.
Samos, Greece
Died: c. 495 B.C.E.
Metapontum
Greek philosopher, scientist, and religious scholar
The Greek philosopher, scientist, and religious teacher Pythagoras developed a school
of thought that accepted the passage of the soul into another body and established
many influential mathematical and philosophical theories.

Early life
Born on the island of Samos, off Greece, in the Mediterranean Sea, Pythagoras was the
son of Mnesarchus. Little is known about his early life. After studying in Greece, he fled
to southern Italy to escape the harsh rule of Polycrates (died c. 522 B.C.E. ), who came
to power about 538 B.C.E. Pythagoras is said to have traveled to Egypt and Babylon
during this time.
Pythagoras and his followers became politically powerful in Croton in southern Italy,
where Pythagoras had established a school for his newly formed sect, or group of
followers. It is probable that the Pythagoreans took positions in the local government in
order to lead men to the pure life that was directed by their teachings. Eventually,
however, a rival group launched an attack on the Pythagoreans at a gathering of the
sect, and the group was almost completely destroyed. Pythagoras either had been
forced to leave Croton or had left voluntarily shortly before this attack. He died in
Metapontum early in the fifth century B.C.E.

Religious teachings
Pythagoras and his followers were important for their contributions to both religion and
science. His religious teachings were based on the doctrine (teaching) of
metempsychosis, which teaches that the soul never dies and is destined to a cycle of
rebirths until it is able to free itself from the cycle through the purity of its life.
Pythagoreanism differed from the other philosophical systems of its time in being not
merely an intellectual search for truth but a whole way of life which would lead to
salvation, or to be delivered from sin. An important part of Pythagoreanism was the
relationship of all life. A universal life spirit was thought to be present in animal and
vegetable life, although there is no evidence to show that Pythagoras believed that the
soul could be born in the form of a plant. It could be born, however, in the body of an
animal, and Pythagoras claimed to have heard the voice of a dead friend in the howl of
a dog being beaten.

The Pythagoreans presented as fact the dualism (that life is controlled by opposite
forces) between Limited and Unlimited. It.was probably Pythagoras who declared that
numbers could uncover the secrets of the universe, limiting and giving shape to matter
(anything that takes up space). His study of musical intervals, leading to the discovery
that the chief intervals can be expressed in numerical ratios (relationships between
numbers) between the first four integers (positive whole numbers), also led to the theory
that the number ten, the sum of the first four integers, embraced the whole nature of
number.
So great was the Pythagoreans' respect for the "Tetractys of the Decad" (the sum of 1 +
2 + 3 + 4) that they swore their oaths (promises) by it rather than by the gods, as was
normal during his day. Pythagoras may have discovered the theorem which still bears
his name (in right triangles [triangle with one angle equal to 90 degrees], the square on
the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares on the other sides), although this
proposal has been discovered on a writing stone dating from the time of the Babylonian
king Hammurabi (died c. 1750 B.C.E. ). Regardless of their sources, the Pythagoreans
did important work in extending the body of mathematical knowledge.
As a more general outline, the Pythagoreans presented the two contraries (opposites),
Limited and Unlimited, as ultimate principles, or truths. Numerical oddness and
evenness are equated with Limited and Unlimited, as are one and plurality (many), right
and left, male and female, motionlessness and movement, straight and crooked, light
and darkness, and good and bad. It is not clear whether an ultimate One, or Monad,
was presented as the cause of the two categories.
The Pythagoreans, as a result of their religious beliefs and careful study of
mathematics, developed a cosmology (dealing with the structures of the universe) which
differed in some important respects from the world views at the time, the most important
of which was their view of the Earth as a sphere which circled the center of the
universe. It is not known how much of this theory was credited to Pythagoras himself.
The mathematical knowledge carried out by Pythagoras and his followers would have
been enough to make him an important figure in the history of Western thought.
However, his religious sect and the self-discipline and dedication which he taught,
embracing as it did a vast number of ancient beliefs, make him one of the great
teachers of religion in the ancient Greek world.
//
Heraclitus was a Greek philosopher who was an independent thinker and unlike other
ancient philosophers, he is not considered to belong to any particular school of tho ught.
Born into an aristocratic family, he described himself as self-taught and was unsparing
in his criticism of his predecessors and contemporary thinkers and philosophers. He
was a loner who suffered from bouts of melancholia which prevented him from
completing several of his works. His personality was characterized by a general
contempt for mankind which coupled with the obscure nature of his works earned him
the nickname the ‘Weeping Philosopher’. The ambiguous nature of his writings makes
them open to several interpretations that are often of conflicting nature. He believed in
the ever changing nature of the universe and the unity of opposites. His works have
been influential in the development of the concept of ‘Logos’ which he considered a
principle of order and knowledge. Regarded as one of the most important pre-Socratic
philosophers, he was famous for departing from the accepted norms and traditions of
his days and criticizing the generally accepted conventional wisdom of others who were
deemed to be “wise” men by the society. Even though his own work was influenced by
the works of his predecessors, he is regarded as a unique thinker who contributed
immensely to the development of Western Philosophy.

 Not much is known about Heraclitus’s birth and early life except for the fact that he
was born into an aristocratic family in Ephesus (now in Turkey). His father’s name
was either Bloson or Herakon.
 As a youngster, he used to play knucklebones with other youths in a temple and
considered kingship duties a burden. He abdicated the throne in favour of his
brother.
 Whatever is known about Heraclitus is known from the writings of Diogenes Laertius,
who was a biographer of ancient Greek philosophers. According to Diogenes,
Heraclitus was a hearer of Xenophanes though Heraclitus himself claimed to be self-
taught.
 Heraclitus is estimated to have lived and worked during the late 6th century BCE as
inferred by his writings. Heraclitus has heavily criticized Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoras
and Xenophanes who had flourished during the 6th century BCE or earlier, thus
suggesting that he existed during the late 6th century BCE.
  He had an inherent dislike for humanity and viewed the majority of human beings as
ignorant and lacking in knowledge. He believed in breaking away from the accepted
conventions and traditions and developing his own views.
 He was a man of extreme views which he expressed in form of ambiguous phrases.
His works are regarded as ‘riddles’ open to numerous interpretations.
 No complete compilations of his works exist. His works exist only in form of
fragments and sentences as quoted by other authors.
 He had an unconventional approach towards wisdom and presented his works in the
form of riddles and puzzles that contained hidden insights. The deeper
understanding of his works depended upon the comprehension of his readers.
 He adopted a unique method of teaching wherein he would present a situation using
examples of simple objects like a river, boat, road, etc. to challenge the readers’
brains and allow them to derive their own conclusions.
 His contribution to the development of the concept of ‘Logos’ is immense. The word
logos in itself is subject to different interpretations, and it is a technical term in
philosophy for a principle of order and knowledge
 He believed in the universal flux, i.e. everything is constantly changing, and in unity
of opposites as suggested by his aphorism, ‘The road up and the road down are the
same thing’.
 Fire was the most basic element according to him. He was of the belief that all other
elements originated from fire and thus it is fire that gave rise to all things. He
considered the human soul to be composed of fire and water—fire being the noble
part and water the ignoble.
 Some scholars consider him to a philosopher of nature while others believe he was a
philosopher concerned with human condition. Heraclitus was of the view that theory
of nature and human condition are intimately connected; he might have even been
regarded a humanist if not for his deep contempt for mankind.
 Heraclitus was a loner and did not take any students. However, his writings have
influenced several philosophers from the early to the recent times. Plato and Hegel
are amongst those deeply influenced by his thinking.
 The Stoics, followers of a philosophical movement that presented philosophy as a
way of life, derived their major principles from Heraclitus’s teachings, particularly his
treatment of fire.

He wrote a treatise ‘On Nature’ which was divided into three discourses—on nature, on
politics and on the universe. The book was deposited in the temple of Artemis which
served as a library during the ancient times. The book became very famous and many
future philosophers referred to it.

 Heraclitus was a loner and did not have any students. He suffered from bouts of
melancholia.
 During his later years he suffered from dropsy. Frustrated at the physicians’ inability
to find a cure, he treated himself with cow manure which resulted in his death.

This famous philosopher was also known as ‘the obscure’

//
Democritus was a renowned Ancient Greek philosopher who is respected by many
modern scientists and scholars for formulating the most accurate early atomic theory of
the universe. One of the best known pre-Socratic philosophers, he was influenced by
Leucippus of Miletus and had proposed revolutionary ideas which were in conflict with
those by Socratic philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. What distinguished him from his
contemporaries is the fact that he had visited many distant countries during his early
life and shared ideas with scholars around the world, which might explain his
rationalism, humanism, and love of freedom. Much of his work has been lost or
available only as fragments, because of which the exact expanse of his knowledge
might never be known. For the same reason, it is often difficult to distinguish his work
from that of his mentor Leucippus, whose mere existence has been denied by Epicurus,
the philosophical heir of Democritus. However, the philosophies and doctrines he
covered can be tracked via numerous citations of his works by many later scholars,
which point to the fact that he wrote over seventy books on natural philosophy. Based
on the precision of many of his philosophical ideas, many consider him the 'father of
modern science'.

 Democritus was born in the 80th Olympiad (460–457 BC), even though some
scholars believe that he was born in about 470 BC. There is confusion about his
birthplace as well; while he is believed to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace,
some consider him a Milesian.
 It is generally assumed that his father was from a wealthy noble family and had
received Xerxes on his march through Abdera during the Second Persian War.
 Some sources maintain that the Persian monarch had left several gifts for the
Abderites, including a number of Magi, who are said to have taught him astronomy
and theology.
 Following the death of his father, he decided to spend his fortune in the pursuit of
knowledge and wisdom, and embarked on a journey to distant countries. He visited
Egypt, Persia, Ethiopia, and parts of Asia, and had reportedly travelled as far as
India.
 According to Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, he stayed in Egypt for about five
years upon his visit. In his writings, he himself mentioned and praised Egyptian
mathematicians for their profound knowledge.
 Considering the fact that he wrote on Babylon and Meroe, it is assumed that he also
spent some time in those places. Furthermore, he is said to have met with the
Chaldean magi, one of whom, Ostanes, had reportedly taught him.
 Even after returning to Greece, he continued to travel throughout the country in order
to be better acquainted with its cultures. During this time he spent a lot of his fortune
to acquire the writings of great Greek philosophers, studying which he further
expanded his knowledge of natural philosophy.
 Democritus eventually returned to his homeland, Abdera, after his wealth expired,
following which his brother Damosis took him in. In order to avoid the law of Abdera
which punished those who wasted their inheritance by depriving them of the rites of
burial, he started giving public lectures to earn the favor of the people.
 With his profound knowledge of various natural phenomena, he was able to
successfully predict events like weather change, which made him famous among the
local citizens. While he was highly esteemed by the common people, he avoided
 involving himself in public affairs and led a very simple and modest life dedicated to
his studies.
 8He had a great sense of humor, for which he became known as ‘The Laughing
Philosopher’. He earned the nickname ‘The Mocker’ from his fellow citizens for his
ability to laugh at human follies.
 It is popularly believed that he took forward his predecessor Leucippus’ idea of
atomism that everything is composed of various invisible, imperishable and
indivisible elements called atoms. However, as the historical authenticity of
Leucippus is uncertain, many credit Democritus as the originator of the theory.
 The atomists were more interested in the material and mechanistic cause of an
event, asking what resulted in the occurrence of the event. In doing so, they stood in
stark contrast to other renowned Greek philosophers like Aristotle or Plato who
sought to explain the purpose of an event.
 According to him, the atom is an inert solid which interacts with other atoms
mechanically, via material links connected with single atoms as attachments. Along
with his disciple Epicurus, he further elaborated on the shape and size of atoms,
stating that different materials had differently shaped atoms, and maintained that
atoms are perpetually in motion.
 When compared to the other prevalent theories of the time, the atomist theory
comes remarkably close in similarity with modern concepts of science, even though
more akin to the modern concept of ‘molecules’ than ‘atoms’. However, rather than
being based on empirical proof, it originated from the observation that because
everything eventually decays and is sometimes recreated, there must be some
invisible building blocks of materials that never decay.
 A major part of the atomistic hypothesis is that there must be considerable amount of
empty space between atoms, termed ‘the void’, which makes the perpetual motion of
the atoms possible. The void is also necessary to explain the existence of liquid and
gas, which can flow and change shape, and the fact that metals can be forged into
any shape without losing property.
 His conception of the early universe was that atoms existed in a state of chaos
before colliding with each other to form larger bodies like we can see around us. He
perceived that there are many worlds that are constantly growing or decaying, and
could be destroyed in a collision between two such worlds.
 Democritus is also credited with establishing the study of aesthetics because of his
theoretical writings on poetry and fine arts prior to scholars like Aristotle made it
mainstream. According to Thrasyllus, at least six of his works were about aesthetics
as a discipline, but many of those remain only as fragments, due to which much of
his thoughts on the topic is unknown.
 Many early scholars have referred to his works in mathematics, including 'On
Numbers', 'On Geometrics', 'On Tangencies', and 'On Irrationals', which points to the
fact that he was a pioneer in mathematics and geometry. He is noted for observing
that a cone or pyramid has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively
with the same base and height.
 He eventually developed a vast knowledge of herbs, plants, and minerals by
experimenting on natural bodies, and recorded his findings in a number of books.
Some of his works that have been cited by other scholars include 'On the Nature of
Man', 'On Flesh', 'On the Senses', 'Causes concerned with Seeds and Plants and
Fruits', and 'Causes concerned with Animals'.
  He described early humans to be akin to animals, lacking in language and any
notion of a community. According to him, after they were forced to form groups to
ward off predators, they developed language and learned about various things
through trial and error.
 Based on the fact that perception through the senses is subjective, Democritus
distinguished two kinds of knowledge of truth: ‘legitimate’ and ‘bastard’. According to
him, the perception of knowledge through the senses is insufficient, and therefore
‘bastard’, while the kind of knowledge acquired through intellect is ‘legitimate’
knowledge.
 Concerning his views on ethics and politics, it is known that he supported the ancient
Greek idea of democracy, stating that the powerful should help the poor and treat
them with compassion. However, it is important to note that his idea of equality was
not inclusive of women or slaves, even though he professed that liberty is preferable
to slavery.
 While he did not criticize the intent to make money, he was against hoarding of
money for one’s progeny, and despised those who earned money in a
disrespectable way. He was against violence, but saw war or execution of a criminal
or enemy as necessary.
 According to him, goodness required practice and discipline, and was not
necessarily an innate human nature. He believed that one should be content with
what he has, and that envy will bring the society down as the society can only
progress as a whole.
 Despite the fact that much of Democritus' work only survive through citation by later
scholars, it is well known that he had gained an extensive knowledge about the
natural order of things. He is respected by many twentieth century scholars as well
for his groundbreaking ideas which were free from most of the shortcomings that
contemporary Greek philosophy was prone to.
 His most notable work is on his theory of atomism which established small invisible
and indivisible atoms as the building blocks for all the elements in nature. Many
scholars like British Historian Bertrand Russell praised his ideas for being
remarkably close to that of modern science.

 Apart from his notion of atoms, his idea of cosmology has also been praised by later
scholars for its precision. Karl R. Popper admired his rationalistic philosophy on the
evolution of humans as social animals, which asserted that languages, customs and
laws are man-made institutions.

Personal Life & Legacy

 Democritus remained unmarried for the entirety of his life, dedicating himself to the
study of various philosophical doctrines. He is said to have lived over a hundred
years by certain sources, even though according to Diodorus Siculus, he died at the
age of 90, in around 370 BC.
 Democritus remained unmarried for the entirety of his life, dedicating himself to the
study of various philosophical doctrines. He is said to have lived over a hundred
years by certain sources, even though according to Diodorus Siculus, he died at the
age of 90, in around 370 BC.
  While there has been a revival of interest in his work by twentieth century scholars
for his precise theory of atoms, he was respected by most of his contemporaries as
well. However, Plato, one of the most celebrated ancient Greek philosophers, is said
to have hated him so much that he wished all his books be burned.
 While there has been a revival of interest in his work by twentieth century scholars
for his precise theory of atoms, he was respected by most of his contemporaries as
well. However, Plato, one of the most celebrated ancient Greek philosophers, is said
to have hated him so much that he wished all his books be burned.

Trivia
 Among the stories circulated about him, one mentions that he blinded himself with
burning glass in order to avoid distractions in his pursuits and to master his
intellectual faculties. While some agree that he might have limited eyesight in old
age, the story is generally discredited on account of his ability to write books,
conduct experiments and dissect animals throughout his life.

//

Viewed by many as the founding figure of Western philosophy, Socrates

(469-399 B.C.) is at once the most exemplary and the strangest of the
Greek philosophers. He grew up during the golden age of Pericles’
Athens, served with distinction as a soldier, but became best known as a
questioner of everything and everyone. His style of teaching—
immortalized as the Socratic method—involved not conveying
knowledge, but rather asking question after clarifying question until his
students arrived at their own understanding. He wrote nothing himself, so
all that is known about him is filtered through the writings of a few
contemporaries and followers, most notably his student Plato. Socrates
was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and sentenced to death.
Choosing not to flee, he spent his final days in the company of his friends
before drinking the executioner’s cup of poisonous hemlock.

Socrates: Early Years

Socrates was born and lived nearly his entire life in Athens. His father
Sophroniscus was a stonemason and his mother, Phaenarete, was a
midwife. As a youth, he showed an appetite for learning. Plato describes
him eagerly acquiring the writings of the leading contemporary
philosopher Anaxagoras and says he was taught rhetoric by Aspasia, the
talented mistress of the great Athenian leader Pericles.
His family apparently had the moderate wealth required to launch
Socrates’ career as a hoplite (foot soldier). As an infantryman, Socrates
showed great physical endurance and courage, rescuing the future
Athenian leader Alcibiades during the siege of Potidaea in 432 B.C.
Through the 420s, Socrates was deployed for several battles in
the Peloponnesian War, but also spent enough time in Athens to become
known and beloved by the city’s youth. In 423 he was introduced to the
broader public as a caricature in Aristophanes’ play “Clouds,” which
depicted him as an unkempt buffoon whose philosophy amounted to
teaching rhetorical tricks for getting out of debt.

Philosophy of Socrates
Although many of Aristophanes’ criticisms seem unfair, Socrates cut a
strange figure in Athens, going about barefoot, long-haired and
unwashed in a society with incredibly refined standards of beauty. It
didn’t help that he was by all accounts physically ugly, with an upturned
nose and bulging eyes. Despite his intellect and connections, he rejected
the sort of fame and power that Athenians were expected to strive for.
His lifestyle—and eventually his death—embodied his spirit of
questioning every assumption about virtue, wisdom and the good life.

Two of his younger students, the historian Xenophon and the philosopher
Plato, recorded the most significant accounts of Socrates’ life and
philosophy. For both, the Socrates that appears bears the mark of the
writer. Thus, Xenophon’s Socrates is more straightforward, willing to offer
advice rather than simply asking more questions. In Plato’s later works,
Socrates speaks with what seem to be largely Plato’s ideas. In the
earliest of Plato’s “Dialogues”—considered by historians to be the most
accurate portrayal—Socrates rarely reveals any opinions of his own as
he brilliantly helps his interlocutors dissect their thoughts and motives in
Socratic dialogue, a form of literature in which two or more characters (in
this case, one of them Socrates) discuss moral and philosophical iss ues,

One of the greatest paradoxes that Socrates helped his students explore
was whether weakness of will—doing wrong when you genuinely knew
what was right—ever truly existed. He seemed to think otherwise: people
only did wrong when at the moment the perceived benefits seemed to
outweigh the costs. Thus the development of personal ethics is a matter
of mastering what he called “the art of measurement,” correcting the
distortions that skew one’s analyses of benefit and cost.

Socrates was also deeply interested in understanding the limits of human

knowledge. When he was told that the Oracle at Delphi had declared that
he was the wisest man in Athens, Socrates balked until he realized that,
although he knew nothing, he was (unlike his fellow citizens) keenly
aware of his own ignorance.

Trial and Death of Socrates

Socrates avoided political involvement where he could and counted
friends on all sides of the fierce power struggles following the end of the
Peloponnesian War. In 406 B.C. his name was drawn to serve in Athens’
assembly, or ekklesia, one of the three branches of ancient Greek
democracy known as demokratia. Socrates became the lone opponent of
an illegal proposal to try a group of Athens’ top generals for failing to
recover their dead from a battle against Sparta (the generals were
executed once Socrates’ assembly service ended). Three years later,
when a tyrannical Athenian government ordered Socrates to participate
in the arrest and execution of Leon of Salamis, he refused—an act of civil
disobedience that Martin Luther King, Jr. would cite in his “Letter from a
Birmingham Jail.”

The tyrants were forced from power before they could punish Socrates,
but in 399 he was indicted for failing to honor the Athenian gods and for
corrupting the young. Although some historians suggest that there may
have been political machinations behind the trial, he was condemned on
the basis of his thought and teaching. In his “The Apology of Socrates,”
Plato recounts him mounting a spirited defense of his virtue before the
jury but calmly accepting their verdict. It was in court that Socrates
allegedly uttered the now-famous phrase, “the unexamined life is not
worth living.”

His execution was delayed for 30 days due to a religious festival, during
which the philosopher’s distraught friends tried unsuccessfully to
convince him to escape from Athens. On his last day, Plato says, he
“appeared both happy in manner and words as he died nobly and without
fear.” He drank the cup of brewed hemlock his executioner handed him,
walked around until his legs grew numb and then lay down, surrounded
by his friends, and waited for the poison to reach his heart

The Socratic Legacy

Socrates is unique among the great philosophers in that he is portrayed
and remembered as a quasi-saint or religious figure. Indeed, nearly every
school of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, from the Skeptics to the
Stoics to the Cynics, desired to claim him as one of their own (only the
Epicurians dismissed him, calling him “the Athenian buffoon”). Since all
that is known of his philosophy is based on the writing of others, the
Socratic problem, or Socratic question–reconstructing the philosopher’s
beliefs in full and exploring any contradictions in second-hand accounts
of them–remains an open question facing scholars today.

Socrates and his followers expanded the purpose of philosophy

from trying to understand the outside world to trying to tease apart
one’s inner values. His passion for definitions and hair-splitting
questions inspired the development of formal logic and systematic
ethics from the time of Aristotle through the Renaissance and into
the modern era. Moreover, Socrates’ life became an exemplar of
the difficulty and the importance of living (and if necessary dying)
according to one’s well-examined beliefs. In his 1791
autobiography Benjamin Franklin reduced this notion to a single
line: “Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.”

//

Ancient Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy and is the

author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence in Western
thought.
Synopsis

Born circa 428 B.C.E., ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and a teacher
of Aristotle. His writings explored justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in
aesthetics, political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of
language. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in
the Western world. He died in Athens circa 348 B.C.E.
Background

Due to a lack of primary sources from the time period, much of Plato's life has been constructed
by scholars through his writings and the writings of contemporaries and classical historians.
Traditional history estimates Plato's birth was around 428 B.C.E., but more modern scholars,
tracing later events in his life, believe he was born between 424 and 423 B.C.E. Both of his
parents came from the Greek aristocracy. Plato's father, Ariston, descended from the kings of
Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be related to the 6th century B.C.E.
Greek statesman Solon.

Some scholars believe that Plato was named for his grandfather, Aristocles, following the
tradition of the naming the eldest son after the grandfather. But there is no conclusive evidence
of this, or that Plato was the eldest son in his family. Other historians claim that "Plato" was a
nickname, referring to his broad physical build. This too is possible, although there is record that
the name Plato was given to boys before Aristocles was born.

As with many young boys of his social class, Plato was probably taught by some of Athens'
finest educators. The curriculum would have featured the doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras as
well as Parmenides. These probably helped develop the foundation for Plato's study of
metaphysics (the study of nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).

Plato's father died when he was young, and his mother remarried her uncle, Pyrilampes, a Greek
politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is believed to have had two full brothers, one sister
and a half brother, though it is not certain where he falls in the birth order. Often, members of
Plato's family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of Plato's pride in
his family lineage.

As a young man, Plato experienced two major events that set his course in life. One was meeting
the great Greek philosopher Socrates. Socrates's methods of dialogue and debate impressed Plato
so much that he soon he became a close associate and dedicated his life to the question of virtue
and the formation of a noble character. The other significant event was the Peloponnesian War
between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for a brief time between 409 and 404 B.C.E.
The defeat of Athens ended its democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two
of Plato's relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new government, part
of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens.
After the oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was restored, Plato briefly considered a
career in politics, but the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C.E. soured him on this idea and he
turned to a life of study and philosophy.

After Socrates's death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the Mediterranean region, studying
mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and geometry, geology, astronomy and religion in
Egypt. During this time, or soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some debate
among scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three distinct
periods.

Early, Middle and Late Periods: An Overview

The first, or early, period occurs during Plato's travels (399-387 B.C.E.). The Apology of
Socrates seems to have been written shortly after Socrates's death. Other texts in this time period
include Protagoras, Euthyphro, Hippias Major and Minor and Ion. In these dialogues, Plato
attempts to convey Socrates's philosophy and teachings.

In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice,
courage, wisdom and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during
this time with its exploration of just government ruled by philosopher kings.

In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at
his own early metaphysical ideas. He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and
architecture, as well as ethics and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato
suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant and that the perceived world through our
senses is deceptive and changeable.

Founding the Academy

Sometime around 385 B.C.E., Plato founded a school of learning, known as the Academy, which
he presided over until his death. It is believed the school was located at an enclosed park named
for a legendary Athenian hero. The Academy operated until 529 C.E.., when it was closed by
Roman Emperor Justinian I, who feared it was a source of paganism and a threat to Christianity.
Over its years of operation, the Academy's curriculum included astronomy, biology,
mathematics, political theory and philosophy. Plato hoped the Academy would provide a place
for future leaders to discover how to build a better government in the Greek city-states.

In 367 B.C.E., Plato was invited by Dion, a friend and disciple, to be the personal tutor of his
nephew, Dionysius II, the new ruler of Syracuse (Sicily). Dion believed that Dionysius showed
promise as an ideal leader. Plato accepted, hoping the experience would produce a philosopher
king. But Dionysius fell far short of expectations and suspected Dion, and later Plato, of
conspiring against him. He had Dion exiled and Plato placed under "house arrest." Eventually,
Plato returned to Athens and his Academy. One of his more promising students there was
Aristotle, who would take his mentor's teachings in new directions.

Final Years
Plato's final years were spent at the Academy and with his writing. The circumstances
surrounding his death are clouded, though it is fairly certain that he died in Athens around 348
B.C.E., when he was in his early 80s. Some scholars suggest that he died while attending a
wedding, while others believe he died peacefully in his sleep.

Plato's impact on philosophy and the nature of humans has had a lasting impact far beyond his
homeland of Greece. His work covered a broad spectrum of interests and ideas: mathematics,
science and nature, morals and political theory. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in
education have proven to be essential for understanding the entire universe. His work on the use
of reason to develop a more fair and just society that is focused on the equality of individuals
established the foundation for modern democracy.