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Solar thermal with Solar Tower (Power generation)

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 Solar thermal with Solar Tower
(Power generation)
Adebayo Victor O
Department of Energy Systems Engineering
Cyprus International University,
Haspolat, Cyprus
captainaero@yahoo.com
Abstract— Concentrating solar power technologies have continue
to develop and are being deployed globally. The Power towers
will likely play a vital part in the future spread of Concentrating
solar power owing to their potential to produce dispatchable
solar electricity at a low price. This work focuses on the study of
Solar Tower and continuing technology development, history of
solar tower development, evolution from Solar I to Solar II.
Inventions, Research and Development in Solar Tower
technology over the last ten years is also discussed. Different
advancements have been developed during this era, as the subject
of Solar Tower is becoming more mainstream. Improvements are
carried out on heliostat, the collector design and also materials,
heat absorption and transport, power production and thermal
storage. Many applications that can be combined with Solar
Tower Technology to supply power are recommended. The
economics of solar tower is also mentioned in this paper.
Keywords—Concentrating Solar Power, Solar Tower.
I. INTRODUCTION
Solar thermal energy is a ground-breaking technology for
harnessing solar energy to produce heat energy. Solar thermal
collectors can be classified as low or high-temperature
collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates typically
used to warm swimming pools, heating water or heating air for
residential and industrial use.
High-temperature collectors center sunlight using mirrors
or lenses and are usually used for electricity power production.
Solar Thermal Energy for electricity generation is totally
different from the popular P.V, which converts solar power
directly into electricity. Solar thermal power plants convert the
sunlight’s energy to heat first and then to electricity through a
series of processes. They are also referred to as concentrating
solar power plants (CSPs). Solar tower, which is also a form
of CSP captures and focus the sun's thermal energy with
numerous tracking mirrors placed in a very large field. A
tower is placed at the center of the heliostat field. The
heliostats then focus concentrated sunlight onto the receiver
which sits on prime of the tall tower. Within the receiver, the
focused sunlight heats molten salt to above temperatures of
1,000°F (Kumar & Kumawat ,2013). The intense heated
molten salt will then flow into a thermal storage vessel where
Olalekan Oladiran
Department of Energy Systems Engineering
Cyprus International University,
Haspolat, Cyprus
leksonola01@yahoo.com
it's then stored, sustaining 98 percent thermal potency, and
then its finally pumped to a steam generator. The steam spins
a typical rotary engine to get electric power. This method, also
called the "Rankine cycle" is comparable to a normal coal
power station that uses coal as its fuel source, but in this case,
it's been fueled by clean and free energy from the sun.
The inadequate supply of fossil fuels and also the negative
effect of carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil
fuels on our environment gives the increasing use and the need
of renewable energy. Solar tower is one of the presumably
technology for providing the bulk of this
renewable/inexhaustible energy, because it is among the most
cost-effective renewable energy technologies available.
II. SOLAR TOWER AND ITS COMPONENTS
Solar Tower uses a large number of mirrors called
heliostats, having twin axis system (vertical and horizontal).
These heliostats mirror the solar radiation (falling on their
surface) to the fixed receiver situated at prime of a tall tower.
This concentrated solar power focused on the receiver is
transformed to thermal energy, this thermal energy is carried
by the Heat Transfer Fluid passing through the receiver. The
thermal/heat energy of the Heat Transfer fluid is turned-over
to the operating fluid of the power cycle, thus generating
electric power.
One benefit of Solar Tower is that a high geometrical
concentration ratio extending between 200 and 1000 may be
realized. Temperatures of up to 1273.15°K (1000°C) may also
be achieved with the proper heat transfer fluids. The heat leads
to a rise in the power cycle efficiency. Because of this,
possibly, an overall solar to electrical conversion efficiency of
about 28 percent may be achieved.
The use of thermal storage and hybridization can also be
incorporated. Further, molten salt is used mutually as heat
transfer fluid and thermal storage medium. With the potential
higher efficiency, solar tower with molten salt, water, air as
Heat Transfer Fluid has gained impetus in recent years
(CSTEP, 2014).
The major components used in the Solar Tower system are
explained below.
A. Heliostats
According to CSTEP (2014), ‘heliostats are flat mirrors or
mirrors that can curved slightly, mounted on a steel assembly,
which might be controlled or tracked about two axes
(horizontal and vertical), so as to incline the heliostats to
mirror the solar rays to a fixed receiver on the prime of a very
tall tower. The aperture areas of the heliostats that are utilized
in several plants differ considerably from 1 meter’s square to
120 meters’ square, but however, all heliostats within a
particular solar tower plant have the same aperture area’.
B. The Reciever
One of the most vital component of the solar tower is the
receiver. Two kinds of receivers exist: tubular and volumetric.
In tubular receivers liquids are used as Heat Transfer Fluids
(HTF), liquids like; water, thermic oil, molten salt, liquid
sodium and Hitec salt, while volumetric receivers make use of
air or super-critical carbon dioxide as heat transfer fluid. The
kind of receiver depends on the kind of heat transfer fluid and
the power cycle (Rankine or Brayton) employed in the system.
(i) Tubular Receivers: They are of two types, hollow and
cavity
Hollow receivers: In the hollow receivers, the heat transfer
fluid passes through varieties of vertical tubes and gets heated
by the flux mirrored from the various heliostats. There are two
kinds of hollow receivers: External cylindrical receivers and
the Cavity receivers.
In external cylindrical receivers, vertical tubes are placed close
to each other side by side, in a cylindrical fashion and
therefore the radiant flux from the heliostats cuts through from
all directions. Since the receiver is exposed to the atmosphere,
it's subjected to higher convection losses.
The cavity receiver: consists of tubes welded together and
placed inside a cavity so as to cut down convection losses.
Cavity receiver can be either be a single or dual cavity. The
single cavity receiver can have solar arena on one side of the
receiver whereas the twin cavity receivers can have solar arena
facing either side of the receiver.
(ii)Volumetric Receivers: Receivers that use air as heat
transfer fluid are made from porous wire mesh or
metallic/ceramic foams. The solar radiation striking on the
volumetric receivers is absorbed by the entire receiver
(CSTEP, 2014). Volumetric receivers are also of two types:
open volumetric and pressurized/closed volumetric
receivers.
Open volumetric Receivers: In the open volumetric
receivers, air from the atmosphere is slurped through the
permeable receiver where the air gets heated up by the focused
solar energy. The exterior surface of the receiver will have a
lesser temperature than inside the receiver, because the air
coming from the atmosphere makes the surface cool and
therefore will avoid damages to the material.
The Jülich solar tower plant makes use of a permeable
silicon carbide absorber module as its receiver. The air gets
hot to about a temperature of 700°C and is employed to make
steam at temperatures of about 485°C, 27 bar in the boiler to
rotate the rotary engine, which is the turbine (CSTEP, 2014).
Closed volumetric Receivers: They are also known as
pressurized volumetric receivers, in which the heat transfer
fluid (which is usually air) is charged mechanically through
the receiver by the aid of a blower and the receiver aperture is
sealed by a clear opening. The Heat Transfer Fluid will be
heated at the dome-shaped part of the receiver by the intense
concentrated solar energy and also the heated air is used either
in Rankine cycle through heat exchanger or in a Brayton cycle
for generation of electric power (CSTEP, 2014).
C. Heat Transfer Fluid
Different types of Heat Transfer Fluid are being utilized in
Solar Tower based on the kind of receiver and power cycle
employed in the system. The heat transfer fluid employed in
most of the operational Solar Tower plants are either water, air
and molten salt. Other conceivable candidates are liquid
sodium, synthetic oil and Hitec salt (CSTEP, 2014).
Once water is employed as Heat Transfer Fluid, the solar
field produces steam directly (this is direct steam
production/generation) and also the Rankine steam cycle is
employed for power generation. As the Heat Transfer Fluid is
water itself, it eradicates the need of any heat exchanger so as
to transfer the warmth from the Heat Transfer Fluid to water
(or steam) that is been employed to drive the rotary engine in
the power block. The utmost achievable temperature that has
been realized with water is 566°C (CSTEP, 2014).
III. POWER CYCLE
The Power block is also a very vital element of the power
plant, because this is where the solar energy collected by the
receiver from the mirrors (heliostats) is converted to a lot of
usable and very useful energy which is electricity.
Rankine cycle: In the Rankine cycle, the operating fluid is
water. Here the water is heated (either directly if Heat Transfer
Fluid used is water, or in a heat exchanger once Heat Transfer
Fluid used isn't water) and converted to steam. This dry
saturated vapor expands through a rotary engine producing
power. After exit from the rotary engine, at a less pressure, the
low-grade steam will pass through a condenser where it's
changed to a saturated liquid state). This can now be pumped
from a much lesser pressure to a higher pressure. Heat is then
taken up by this cooled water while getting converted to steam
(at constant pressure) and the cycle repeats itself. The sole
distinction is rather than being heated in a conventional coal-
fired boiler, water (which is the operating fluid) is heated by
solar energy emitting from the sun.

Fig 1. Rankine Cycle
Brayton Cycle: One of the benefits envisaged in Solar
Tower technology is the use of compressed air as Heat
Transfer Fluid to boost its temperatures to about 1273.15°K
(1000°C) to run a rotary engine on Brayton cycle. This is
however to be demonstrated commercially. The Brayton cycle
also has the same procedures as the Rankine cycle, but it
doesn't operate within the vapor dome. It operates at high
advanced pressures and temperatures. The operating fluid
being used here is usually gas hat is compressed.
Fig 2. Brayton Cycle.
IV. HISTORY OF SOLAR TOWER DEVELOPMENT
According to Kumar & Kumawat (2013), ‘the solar tower
technology has been the topic of research and development in
the U. S since the middle of the 1970s and therefore the solar
two project signifies the fruits of those great efforts. Although
power towers are commercially less mature than parabolic
trough systems, a variety of component and system
experiments have been fielded around the world in the last
twenty years, demonstrating the engineering practicability and
economic potential of this nice technology. The first of these
systems were constructed in the early 1980’s in Russia,
Europe Japan and slightly later in the US. Now, molten salts
with higher melting temperatures can very good sensible heat
storage and are being used for their efficiency gain over
merely heating of water’.
Progression from Solar I to Solar II
Solar one relied on Rankine cycle with conversion of water
to steam. The solar One thermal storage plant stored solar heat
in a tank full sand and rock and using oil as the heat-transfer
fluid. Several series of heat exchangers allowed the heat to
pass in between the oil/rock storage tank and the steam cycles
employed in the receiver and rotary engine. The system also
prolonged the plant’s power-generation capability into the
night-time and provided heat for creating low-grade steam to
keep components of the plant warm throughout off-hours and
for starting up the plant in the mornings. Sadly, the design of
the storage system was complicated, thermodynamically
inefficient, and used a flammable operating fluid that finally
led to its breakdown.
In solar two, liquefied salt was the operating fluid in the
solar receiver. This differentiates it from other solar tower
technologies. The molten salt at temperature of 561.15°K
(288°C) is pumped from a ‘cold’ storage tank through the
receiver, where it's heated to a temperature of about 838.15°K
(565°C), and then on to a hot tank for storage. Anytime power
is required from the plant, the hot salt from the hot tank is
pumped to a steam generating system block that produces
superheated steam for the turbine to drive the generator. As it
leaves the steam generator, the salt goes back to the cold tank
where it’s held in reserve and eventually reheated in the
receiver. Determining the optimum storage size to satisfy
power-dispatch requirements is a key part of the system
design.
Consequently, the thermal storage system of the plant can be
charged at the same period that the plant is creating power at
full capacity. With a solar multiple of approximately 3, a
molten-salt plant situated in an exceedingly very high-
insolation region can be designed for an annual capacity factor
of approximately 70%. Consequently, solar towers may
probably operate at full power for 70 percent of the year
without the requirement for a back-up fuel supply. By varying
the dimensions of the solar field, solar receiver, and size of the
thermal storage, plants could be designed with an annual
capacity factor reaching around 20 percent to 70 percent
(Kumar & Kumawat ,2013).
Fig 3. Molten Salt Solar Power Tower System.
Source: From the Authors of Solar Power Tower. Indian is equally pre-heated by means of the hot air. This idea
Journal Of Research. basically combines direct steam generation with regular water
Heat Transfer Fluid operations. The new design demonstrates
V. INNOVATION, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOLAR various numerous advantages as, that embrace a higher
TOWER TECHNOLOGY OVER THE LAST DECADE. receiver thermal efficiency, lower receiver temperature and
lower parasitic losses. About 27 percent gain in annual output
According to Barlev, Vidu, & Stroeve (2011), ‘the most is facilitated by these special improvements, compared with
recent CSP technology to spring up into commercial utility the solar air heating system. Separation of evaporation and
was the Solar Tower design. This expensive, powerful design super heating sections will also alleviate thermo-mechanical
has up to now been incorporated in comparatively few stress on the receiver to some great extent.
locations round the world’.
The solar tower technology features a vast array of flat
mirrors called heliostats distributed round about a central
receiver mounted on the prime of a tower. Each heliostat sits
on a two-axis tracking stand, and usually possess surface area
ranging from 50 to 150 square meters. Using slightly indented
mirror segments on the heliostats will intensify the solar flux
they reflect, though this raises manufacturing costs. Each of
the heliostat is individually oriented to mirror incident sunlight
directly on to the central receiving component. Mounting the
receiver on a tall tower decreases the space mirrors should be
sited from each other to avoid the issue of shading. Solar
towers usually stand about a height of 75–150 m. A fluid
circulating in a closed-loop system passes through the central Fig 4. Schematic diagram of a twin/dual receiver unit from top
receiver, absorbing thermal energy for the production of view (left) and side view (right).
power and the purpose of storage. A very good benefit of solar Source: From the Authors of Innovation in concentrated solar
Tower technology is the great amount of radiation targeted on power.
one receiver which reduces heat losses and makes heat
transport simple and also makes the storage requirements
much simpler (Barlev, Vidu, & Stroeve, 2011).
The generation of power is generally implemented by
steam and rotary engine generators. The single-receiver
system also provides for uncomplicated integration/
combination with fossil-fuel power generators (hybrid plants).
The immense solar flux mirrored directly towards the receiver
yields very high concentration ratios (about 300–1500 suns).
Solar Tower plants will therefore operate at terribly high
temperatures (over 1500°C), which categorically will have
high impact on collection and power conversion efficiencies Fig 5. Schematic plant incorporating twin/dual receiver,
by enabling the employment of more advanced-energy cycles. showing three heat transfer stages (preheating, evaporation
According to Barlev, Vidu, & Stroeve (2011), ‘the solar and superheating stages).
tower reflector also can be integrated with concentrated Source: From the Authors of Innovation in concentrated solar
photovoltaics (CPV). The basic principle behind this design is power.
to split the solar spectrum into PV usage and thermal usage
parts. For example, monocrystalline silicon solar cells are said Forsberg etal (2007), recommended the utilization of liquid
to operate at efficiencies extending from 55 percent and 60 fluoride salt as a heat transfer fluid so as to boost the heat-to-
percent at wavelengths of about 600–900nm, then the rest of electricity conversion efficiency of the Solar Tower to about
the sunshine is used for electricity generation using Rankine– 50 percent. The molten salt functions at temperatures between
Brayton cycles, or it can as well be stored to be used at a later 700 and 850 degrees Celsius, delivering heat to a closed multi-
time. reheat Brayton cycle using Nitrogen or Helium as the
The idea of a twin receiver for solar towers was steered by working/operating fluid. Owing to such high operation
Buck etal, (2006|), the proposed receiver by Bucks is made of temperatures, thermal energy storage as sensible heat in
an open volumetric air heater with a hollow evaporator shown graphite is also suggested. A schematic diagram of such a
in fig 4 and 5. In this design, the receiver has both a water solar Tower plant is shown in fig 6. Graphite, which is an
heating section and an air heating unit. Water as Heat Transfer inexpensive solid featuring a high heat capacity, is compatible
Fluid is circulated through, its evaporated in the hollow with the fluoride salt at very high temperatures. The efficiency
evaporator, and is then superheated by hot air. The feed water
boost stated by the authors will greatly cut down electricity superheating and therefore lesser radiation and convective
costs. losses and thermo-mechanical stresses’.
Although on the other hand when compared to other Heat
Transfer Fluids, especially the conventional ones, they have
few major disadvantages like high prices when compared with
air, helium, molten salts, and water. The unfeasibility of direct
thermal storage for some of the liquid metals, also questions of
safety when taking in consideration the alkali metal group,
particularly liquid sodium stand as a strong disadvantage too
(Lorenzin & Abánades, 2016).
VI. HYBRIDIZATION OF A SOLAR TOWER POWER PLANT (USING
VOLUMTRIC RECIEVER).
According to Alexopoulos and Hoffschmidt (2010), ‘in
order to make a solar tower power plant work for long hours, a
hybrid system may be used. In such a system fuel, can be
burnt in a burner or in a gas turbine to heat the boiler in solar
tower plant’. Fig. 7 below shows, a leeway that can be used to
achieve the hybridization of the power plant system with
addition of a burner fired by fuel in front of the Heat Recovery
Fig 6. Solar Tower by means of liquid salt heat transfer
Steam Generator (HRSG). Nevertheless, to be able to achieve
system, graphite heat storage and Brayton power cycle.
the gas parameters at the entry of the heat recovery steam
Source: From the Authors of Innovation in concentrated solar
generator for small load even with little radiation a conduit
power.
burner is added. The burner heats up the pre-heated air from
the receiver to the required temperature.
According to Barlev, Vidu, & Stroeve (2011), the combination
Rather than employing the use of a channel combining a gas
of a single central receiver with liquefied salts as the Heat
turbine with the system could work. Fig. 8 below shows the
Transfer Fluid typically permits the highest operation
process. Outside the main air cycle is the turbine which feeds
temperatures of any CSP system and produces electricity with
the hot exhaust gases into the air cycle found in front of he
the maximum efficiencies. High-efficiency heat storage with
HRSG. It also has a position parallel to the receiver. Exhaust
liquefied salts permits solar collection to be decoupled easily
gas coming from the gas turbine can also be mixed with the
from electricity generation in an exceedingly less complicated
coming air from the receiver to get the supposed mass flow at
manner than water/steam systems will permit.
an extreme temperature. The exhaust gas that exits the HRSG
Lorenzin & Abánades (2016), brought up the concept of
is circulated again to the receiver or can be passed to an
using molten metals as heat transfer fluid. In order to enhance
exhaust pipe. High efficiency, and extra power production by
the proficiency/efficiency of a CSP system, the performance
the gas turbine can be achieved with the hybridization in the
of its receiver must definitely be increased, that is principally
combined cycles. As fuel, like natural gas or biogas can be
done by increasing the operating temperature of the heat
used (to maintain the status of the plant using renewable
transfer fluid. There's a maximum working temperature for
energies). Additionally, the hybridization concepts may be
which the thermal receiver efficiency is maximized. This
employed in completely different operation modes. The burner
optimum has been found to be over the temperature of 900 C,
or the turbine may be operated singly, for instance at night, or
a temperature that can't be reached by typical fluids such
along with the solar air receiver. When using the gas turbine,
water, gases and nitrate salts utilized thus far in the CSP
the exhaust gas is mixed with the air from the receiver to get
systems. Increasing the operating temperature and changing
the nominal mass flow at extreme high temperatures
the Heat Transfer Fluid implies that changes have to take
(Alexopoulos and Hoffschmidt, 2010).
place in the various parts of the system, specifically in the
When you have a hybrid solar tower plant, the utilization of a
solar receiver, circulating system, heat exchanger, control
storage unit is not mandatory, because the hybrid elements
system and also the instrumentation.
will usually cover for the operation of the plant during times
According to Lorenzin & Abánades (2016), ‘the liquid
of low solar input.
metals have been seen to have the following advantages such
as; wider operating temperature range (above 1000 C), lesser
melting point, hence lower energy consumption to keep the
fluid above this point, high boiling point that allows the
operation at extreme temperatures, a large thermal
conductivity which means wider heat transfer coefficients,
higher permissible heat fluxes. The improved heat transfer
also results in improved receiver efficiency, reduced wall

a) Fig 8. Hybridization of the solar tower with a burner.
Source:From the Authors of Solar tower power plant in
Germany and future perspectives of the development of the
technology in Greece and Cyprus
Fig 9. Hybridization of the solar tower with a Gas turbine.
a) Source:From the Authors of Solar tower power plant
in Germany and future perspectives of the development of the
technology in Greece and Cyprus
VII. SOLAR POWER TOWER (MOLTEN SALT ECHNOLOGY) COST
AND PERFORMANCE IN 2015,2020 & 2025.
A. 2015 Baseline Molten Salt Power Tower.
Projected cost for liquefied salt solar towers from the year
2015 through the year 2025 is given in the table 1 shown
below. For 2015, the use of molten /liquefied salt heat transfer
fluid using a two-tank storage is adopted. For the power block,
the temperature of steam is about 838.15°K. Dry-cooling
method is employed and reflection from the heliostats(mirrors)
is assumed to reach about 95 percent. Assuming a capacity of
110MW. (Turchi, C., 2010).
B. 2020 Baseline Molten Salt Power Tower.
For 2020, looking from the table 1, the results show that, it
maintains the same power block design, but storage hours will
be increased. The cost of storage is mainly based on a direct
thermocline. Operational and maintenance cost goes lesser due
to operating experience. Also, manufacturing expertise helps
lower the solar field costs. Most notably, the progress in the
case of 2020 is more dependent on deployment and experience
rather than on Research and development innovations.
C. 2025 Molten Salt Power Tower.
In 2025, the tower is said to assume a capacity of 200MW
with the addition of an extreme high temperature super critical
power cycle, which is assumed to be critical steam Rankine
cycle. Although supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycles
are still under study. (Klara, J. 2007).
As indicated in figure 9 below, the Levelized Cost Of Energy
of liquefied (molten salt) solar power towers continuously
benefits from the addition of storage.
This behavior is said to result from the characteristic style of
the molten salt solar tower, because adding storage involves
just increasing the size and design of the storage tanks.
Usually, having additional storage usually means an increase
in the solar multiple too, with an increase in total solar field
and receiver /tower cost.
Figure 9. Showıng Molten Salt Power Tower LCOE versus
Capacity Factor.
Source: From the Authors of Current and Future Costs for
Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Systems in the U.S
Market.
VIII. BENEFITS OF SOLAR POWER TOWER.
-The Solar Tower can operate for long hours when it is
combined with hybrid system or with a thermal storage.
-It can easily supply electricity to the grid when needed.
-Due to extreme temperatures that can be realized from the
solar tower, the efficiency especially for large plans is very
high
Carbon foot-print is lessened, because there is no emission of
carbon dioxide gas.
-It is environmentally friendly when harmless heat transport
mediums are used.
- Some of the parts are from conventional power plants, and so
it has very high reliability.
-Can still be in operation when during cloudy days.
 Table 1 Shows Projected recent and future costs for liquefied/molten Salt Solar Tower plants. Typical cases at 6 and 12 hours
of storage are displayed.
Source: From the Authors of ‘Current and Future Costs for Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Systems in the U.S Market’.
IX. CONCLUSION
Having the sun as a clear and over abundant inexhaustible,
energy source, there is no surprise that it's been the theme of
so much attention, especially at the flip of the 20th century.
The variety of technologies with that can be used to harness
the sun’s abundant energy continues to mature, and
developments in each element of each concentrated solar
power production regime are perpetually added on to create a
very efficient, durable, economically and environmentally safe
facilities. The solar tower is a rising technology that provides
the potential to produce utility-scale power competitively.
Like the other solar technologies, the source of their fuel is the
energy from the sun and they don't unleash greenhouse gases.
They're distinctive among other solar electric power
generation technologies in that they have the ability to
efficiently store solar energy and distribute electricity to the
grid once needed, even at night time or during times when the
weather is cloudy. With recent research and developments on
different heat transfer fluids, improving heliostat reflection
power and other development they will be the best choice in
coming years.
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