Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
- container Crosslinks
Uncured Cured
Thermoplastic
Are Polymers in which the molecules are held together by weak secondary bond-
ing forces soften when they are heated and so they are called thermoplastics.
Thermoplastic foils, sheets. plates can be formed into different shapes by applying
temperatures of about 1oo•c to 200'C. This can be done over and over aga1n.
Thermoplastic Resins
Thermoplastic resins are those that can be softened by heat and win again be-
come hard when they cool down. The most widely used application for thermoplas-
tic resins in modem aircraft construction is for windshields and side windows.
Many of the earlier thermoplastic resi1s were made of cellulose. a derivative of cot-
ton. Cellulose nitrate was one of the first thermoplastic resins, and it had the draw-
back of being highly flammable. Cellulose acetate has most of its characteristics
and is less flammable.
Cellulose acetate was used for windshields and side windows on many of the very
early lightplanes. V\lhen viewed along its edge, it has a slightly yellow tint, and
when it is exposed to sunlight it becomes brittle, discolours, and shrinks. It will bum
and when 11 ignites It produces a smoky, sputtering flame and an unpleasant
odour, Acetone will dissolve cellulose acetate material.
Acrylic resins sold under the trade names of Plexiglas, Lucile, and Perspex have
almost completely replaced cellulose acetate resins in aircraft construction. Acryl·
1cs are more transparent, and are cons1derably stiffer than cellulose acetate.
They are not damaged by repeated heaUng and cooling, so long as they are not
overheated.
Elas tomer
The third group of plastic materials is called elastomer. If the molecules in a poly-
mer are linked together by a small number of valency bonds so that a loose net-
work is formed then a nubber like material is formed called an elastomer. and this
will have more elastic properties than a simple thermosetting Once it is cured , it
can't be reversed and the polymer is fixed in a permanent shape.
For example:
Silicone Rubber
Tires
Seals
Sealing compounds
Composite Materials polyester and styrene resins IS allowed to sit for a t<me it will cure into a solid mass,
so inhibitors are added to prevent this unwanted hardening.
Just as metal replaced wood and fabric, new generabons of aircraft are being When you are ready to use the restn, add a catalyst that suppresses the inhibitors
made of materials dest1ned to replace much of the metal in aircraft structure. and allows the polyester molecules to join together and cure, the curing time may
These matenals are plastic resins reinforced wtth filaments of glass. carbon, Kev- be decreased by adding a small amount of another chemical called an accelera-
lar, and boron. Let's look first at the resins used as the matrtx for these reinforcing tor.
fibers. Polyester resms cure when heat causes the individual molecules to JOin together
Plastic Resins to form chains. Part of this heat is produced within the resin by the chemical action
between the catalyst and the accelerator It is this internal heat that causes a thick
Plastics have replaced so many materials in our daily life that we take them for layer of resin to cure more rapidly than a thin layer because the thick layer slows
granted, and we sometimes fail to appreciate this family of truly wonderful materi- the escape of the heat.
als. In this section we will consider tl1e resins used in aircraft construction and the
materials that are used to reinforce them. We can basically divide plastic resins Polyester resins shrink as they cure. This is helpful when bonding metal fittings
mto two groups: thermoplastic and thermosetting. into a fiberglass structure as the shrinkage tightens the gri~ on the metal Care
must be taken when applying long strips of fiberglass tape over a flat surface so
Thermosetting Resins that the shrinkage does not distort the base surface. To prevent this distortion, sev-
eral short lengths of tape may be used rather than a single long piece.
A thermosetting resin will not soften when it is heated, and it will char and burn be-
Special care must be exercised when mixing polyester resins to use the exact pro-
fore it melts. The most important application for thermosetting resins in aircraft cedure recommended by the resin manufacturer. Do not mix ingredients from dif·
construction is as a matrix to hold filaments of glass, graphtte, aramid, and other
ferent manufacturers. Use accurate scales and clean containers, and do not use
materials. These reinforced resins are widely used under the collective name of
composites. polyesters when the temperature is lower than 1a•c or higher than 3o•c Mix
enough extra resin to make a test leap. If this test lay up, made with identical resin
Polymer Resins and using identical procedures, gives the results you want, you may proceed con-
The choice of polymer to use in the composite Is as Important as the choice of fi. fidently with the actual job.
bre. The main features of a polymer for use in a composite are· Polyester restn alone is thtck and unmanageable, to overcome this a styrene mon-
It must have the correct mechanical properties, ome• is added typically 36%. Polyester and styrene are very we<o~k when used
It must coat every s1ngle fibre and bond to each one, alone but when combined they produce a very strong resin. Polyester will cure on
its own eventually, so to prevent this happening an inhibitor is added. When we
It must be fatrly easy to use. want the resin to cure a catalyst must be added to overcome the inhlbttor, this is
The type of polymer which can be fa-med into a composite most easily is a liquid usually Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP). As the resin is slow to cure an ac·
one, and this Is usually referred to as a resin. If you wanted to make a polymer into celerator may be added to speed up the cure. The main disadvantage of polyester
a composite, you would have to mix the resin and fibres in the right proportions, Is its h1gh rate of shrinkage. Cure time can be varied by varying the amount of hard-
and then let the polymer harden. This can be done In several ways, which we will ener used
look at later.
Epoxy Resin
Polyester Resin Epoxy resms are strong, resistant to moisture and chemicals and have extremely
Polyester resins are popular for aircraft construction. Pure polyester is thick and good adhesion charactenstics. There are many different types of epoxy resins,
unworkable, so It is mixed with another form of resin called styrene. If a mixture of and they are used as the matrix for many of the advanced composite materials.
* Plastics and composite materials are used in many aircraft parts because
they are lighter than other materials. * Epoxy resins are thermosets
Epoxy resins differ from polyester resins in that epoxy uses a cunng agent rather Fiberglass is available in several forms. Fiberglass mat is a collection of fibers
than a catalyst A typical mix of polyester resin calls lor 64 ounces of resin and 1 pressed loosely together with just enough polyester resin to hold them in place.
ounce of catalyst to produce 64 ounces of catalyzed resin. A typical epoxy resin Mat is used as a fill when tow cost is more important than strength
calls for mixing 1 part of curing agent with 4 parts of resin to produce 5 parts of Roving is similar to yam, but the fibers are formed into a long loose strand
material.
Bidirectional cloth ts woven of glass fibers with the major fiber bundles running in
Epoxy Is the most popular resin used for laminated structures. It is available in both the length of the fabric (warp threads) and width of the fabric (fill threads). Uni-
many colours and as a thin liQUid to a thick paste The main advantage of using directional cloth has all of the major fiber bundles runmng In the direction of the
epoxy resins. are its low shrinkage and its high strength to weight ratio. length of the fabric, and they are woven together with small cross fibers that do not
Epoxies will adhere to almost any other material carry any of the load.
Epoxy does not use a catalyst to cure as does a Polyester Resin
The Hardener or curing agent combines with the Epoxy to cure it Carbon Fibre (Graphite) , • , • •• ,
Where as the polyester catalyst sets off a chemical reaction Carbon fibre was invented by scientists looking lor a stronger, stiffer fibre lor use
Epoxies are cured with a ratio of about 2:1 in composites. It Is made from man-made fibres (similar to the ones used for pro-
ducing sweaters) by a special heating process. They are black. similar in appear-
As the hardener and curing agent are combined It is vital that the correct ratio is ance to black hair, but much finer Carbon fibres are made from two precursors,
used otherwise the mixture will not cure fully Tools should be cleaned with Ace- polyacrynilrile (PAN) and pitch. Carbon fibres are strongest in compression.
tone before any resin is allowed to cure on them otherwise the tools may have to
be dumped. In their early days, carbon fibres caused problems in manufacturing composites
because they are very fragile and difficult to use compared with glass fibres. but
Reinforcing Materials when used property they produce very high performance composites.
Carbon fibres can be woven into cloths similar to glass fibre cloths Nowadays the
The resins just discussed are used only to bond fibers of various materials togeth-
problem of handling the fibres is often overcome by impregnating the woven cloth
er. It is the fibers themselves that produce the strength and rigidity that make com-
with the polymer before using it for moulding. This fibre and polymer combination
posite structures of such importance in aircraft construction. In th1s section we will
is known as a prepreg. All that has to be done to the prepreg is to cut it to shape,
discuss the fibers most w1dely used in aircraft construct1on.
and then cure the polymer to produce a solid composite.
Tho following abreviations ere used for glass. aramid and carbon fibre reinforced
Carbon fibres are more expensive than glass fibres.
pals tics:
GFRP (Glass Fibre Remforced Plastic) Carbon fibres properties are:
AFRP (Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic) High strength
CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic) High E-Modul
low specific gravity
Glass Fibers Low breaking elongation and high temperature reststance
Glass fibers were one of the first reinforcing materials for aircraft composite con- Low conductivity
struction and they are still used for many applica~ons even though they weigh
An example of a carbon fibre Part Number would be;
more and have less strength than many of the other fibers
3K-70-PW
There are two types of fiberglass cloth for use in a~re«~ft construction: E glass 1s
the original glass labnc, and S glass, which is stronger. tougher. and stiffer. and
=
3K 3000 filaments per bundle
70 =Thickness of each filament
weighs slighUy less than E glass.
* Epoxy resin uses curing agent to cure P = Plain weave
* Polyester uses catalyst to cure
w =Worked The fibres are tougher than glass fibres even before they are made into composite,
Carbon/Carbon parts, e.g. brake discs are made by two different methods: so special cuttrng blades and techniques are used to cut the cloth to shape, and
machining the composite after it rs formed.
1. Uquid Impregnation
Kevlar is lighter than glass or graphite and considering loads it resits tension at
Where carbon fibre Is impregnated with pitch and cured under high pressure most
and high temperat\Jre.
It is likely that kevlar will become one of the most widely used fibres in the future.
2. Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI)
The aircraft structural grade of kevlar fibre is known as Kevlar 49 Kevtar 29 is used
Is used to increase the density of graphite fibres with a hydrocarbon gas tor boats and Kevlar 129 is bullet proof matenal.
(methane), this involves multiple cycles to achieve final densification.
Kevlar absorbs more moisture than any other fibre. Weacking will occur with a
Carbon fibres must not be brought into contact with aluminium, as this would badly drilled hole and will absorb moist\Jre and other liquids which may attack the
cause corrosion of the aluminium. A glass fibre barrier must be used. Carbon fi. resin system.
bres will also conduct electricity.
Boron
Aramid '1• ··~ '
Boron fibres are made by depositing boron (an element) onto a thin filament of
Aramid rs most commonly know by the name Kevlar which is trade name given to tungsten. The resulting fibre is aboul 004-inch in diameter. has excellent com-
Aramid by the Ou Pont Chemrcal Company of the U.S.A. pressive strength and stiffness, and is extremely hard. Because boron can be haz-
ardous to work with, along with its high expense, it is not commonly used in civil
Kevlar aviation.
Kevlar is one of the latest reinforcing fibres. It is itself a synthetic Polymer. Woven
Boron has been tested on civil aircraft to prevent cracks where they are known to
cloths and Prepregs are available in kevlar material, and these have even greater occur. It is applied in the form of a patch bonded to the arrcraft.
strength and stiffness than carbon fibres, but are even more expensive, so they
are only used in high performance applications where expense is less important
The Properties of kevlar.
Hrgh Tensile Strength at Low Weight
High Structural Rigidity
Low Electrical Conductivity
High Chemical Resistance * Kevlar is lighter than glass or graphite but when comparing the load
Low Thermal Shrinkage
High Toughness
it resists tension, kevlar is the best.
Excellent Dimensional Stabi ity
High Cut Resistance
Flame Resistant, Self-Extrngulshing
Kevlar can be used on its own or in a combination with glass or carbon fibre rein-
forcements.
Woven Products q ·•. •... ~ Figure 3: Plain Weave.
These are produced from threads formed by twisting together glass fibre strands,
just as other fibres are twisted when they are to be woven Like other woven fab-
!Warp
rics, a vanety of different weaves can be produced from the threads, but in this
case they have important differences in properties rather than bemg made for their
appearance.
The nature of the woven cloth produced depends on the number of threads which
run along the length of the fabric, called the warp, and the number running across
it, called the weft, as well as the way they cross each other.
Plain Weave
Weft
In this type of cloth, each warp and weft passes over one thread and under the
next. This is a good general purpose cloth.
j Warp
Weft Weft
Unidirectional Weave Chopped Strand Mat
In this type of cloth, the warp threads are straight and parallel. The weft threads The rovlngs are chopped into short lengths. say 5 em, and bonded together in ran-
are occasionally added to keep them in place. Th1s gives very high strength in dom directions to form a mat You may have seen it In car re,atr kits. These mats
warp direction, but It is weak in the weft direction are available in a range of weights, for instance, one square metre of mat may
weigh between 250 g and 600 g depending on the depth of fbres used.
Figure 6: Unidirectional Weave
The mat g1ves equal properties In all directions and IS easy to use. It 1s not as
stmng as woven cloths because the fibres are short
•
•
•
Weft
•
Weft (Fill)
Are those threads that run perpendiCUlar to the warp fibres They are des1gnated
as 90 degrees.
The fill Of' weft threads are the threads whtch Interweave with the warp threads.
Selvage Edge
A tightly woven edge produced by the weaver to prevent the edges from ravelling
is referred to as the selvage edge.
It Is parallel to the warp threads.
The selvage edge Is removed lor all fabrication and repa•r work because the
weave is different than the body of the fabric and would not g1ve the same strength
as the rest of the labnc
Bias
The bias is at a 45 degree angle to the warp threads Fabric can be formed into
contoured shapes by us•ng the bias Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias
Figure 8: Fibre Orientation
90"Layer
45" Layer
o· Layer
----------z:------~-
----------- ------
--------- ---~---
_-_-;_,-:.:,~---~---~---------
--.,-- .---~----- ---
-~·~::.:~--~~~----r: ..-
I ----------~---~-;:e
1 --------------
----------~------
, ,. ' -
/
Weft
Curing Systems Resin/Fibre Ratio
We already know that the properties of a compos1te depend on the types of resin
Curing the polymer rrom a thick liquid to a strong solid is a chem1cal process. Th1s
and fibre used, and the direction of the fibres. Another important feature of a com·
can be brought about in two possible ways:
posite structure 1s the proportions of fibre and resin used. or the resin/fibre ratio.
cold curing,
If too much resin is used, the fibres will have little effect and the composite will be
hot curing. weak If too little resin is used Ihere will not be enough to coat each fibre and once
The choice of which method to use depends on what you are making and which again the composite will be weak.
polymer you are using.
There is an optimum resm/fibre ratio to produce the best composite The value will
Cold Curing Systems
vary depending on the fibre and resin used. but is usually about 1:1, one part resin
to one part of fibre by weight. So a composite containing 100 g of fibre will need
Cold curing systems relate to the resin being at room temperature. It is done like 100 g of resin for the best performance.Precise resin/fibre ratios are given by fibre
this. Before the resin is combined w1th the fibres. a carefully measured quantity of and resin manufacturers and in aircraft manuals and maintenance schedules.
a catalyst or hardener is added to the resin and mixed thoroughly. A catalyst is a
substance which produces the crosslinks which will finally set the resin. It is cho- The approl imale resin fibre ratio for different fibres is as follows:
.....
sen so that the resin hardens slowly, over say half an hour. giving lime for the fi. Glass fibre: 1:1.
bres to be added while the resin is still liquid. Remember though, that once the Clliliort. . "=
catalyst is added the curing process starts, and if the resm Is not used It will set in
the mixing pot. ~it -
Calculations Knowing the Final Weight
Hot Curing Systems
Hot curing systems cure the resin at high temperatures, say 80-20o•c It ls done Question:
like this: As with cold curing systems, the crosslinks are formed by a catalyst or If you are going to produce a laminate using, say, 35g of woven glass fibres you
hardener, but in this case the catalyst won't work at room temperature. It has to be know that the final weight after the resin and hardener are mixed should be 35g.
heated before it becomes active. This system has several advantages over the So how much of that 35g is resin, and how much is hardener?
cold curinq system: The catalyst only becomes active when It is heated. so it can
be mixed with resin quite a long time before it is used. The properties of the final Answer:
composite depend on the curing temperature, and how quickly the resin is heated
up. These can be controlled quite accurately by the curing equipment Resin/hardener ratio =100:90
Hot cured composites tend to behave better in service than cold cured composites. Weight of resin needed =100/190 X 35 = 18 4g
There is a drawback. Special curing equipment is needed. Common sense sug-
gests that 1000 g of resin will cure more slowly than, 100 g, but in fact the opposite Weight of hardener needed = 90/190 X 35 = 16.6g
is true. As the resin cures it produces heat which speeds up the curing process.
The large amount produces more heat, and also insulates the heat better.
The moral is, do not mix up more resin than you need.
In extreme cases so much heat is produced that the resin can catch fire this is
called an exotherm.
Figure 9: Cured Epoxy Resin System
'-I I '
}~~"\ J
"'' s "
Pot Life
The Clmount of t1me that the res1n remains usable arter the catalyst Is added Is
called the pot life. This is an important factor in producing good composites. If the
resin starts to harden too much it will not mix w1th the fibres well enough.
Eg:- In a cold cure resin increasing temperature will decrease pot life
Shelf life
Not only do prep regs crossnnks slcw;ly when stored, but polyesters which have no
catalyst added. also solidify over a period of time. The ma10 problem IS that the
properties of the resin deteriorate long before any change in appearance takes
place, so you cannot see when a resin Is off. The only answer Is to store resins in
an even, cool temperature and to use them before they have been stored for too
long. The changes usually take place within a few months of manufacture of the
resin . You cannot use a resin which is two years old even if •t looks OK.
The length of time that a resin can be stored before it is used is known as its shelf
life.
Prepregs Figure 10: Prepreg Manufacturing
A prepreg is a sheet of fibre remforcement impregnated with the resin/hardener
system. The res1n is chosen so that it is fa~rly solid at room temperature in its un·
cured state. It initially softens Into a liquid when it is heated, and then crosslinks to
form a cured solid.
The advantages of a prep reg are that the resin/catalyst ratio and the fibre/resin ra-
tio are carefully controlled by the manufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical.
Also the resin Is already spread evenly throughout the fibres.
Of course prepregs can only be used for hot curing systems because they must
not cure during storage.
All that remains for the operator to do to produce a good laminate from prepregs
is to cut them to shape. stack them properly on the mould and cure them correctly
in the autoclave.
Prepregs are usually bonded with a film adhesive. Consistently good composites
can be produced from prepregs.
Resins are cured in 3 stages:
A STAGE: Wet resin,
B STAGE: Gelled resin (prepreg).
C STAGE· Cured resin.
Film Adhesives Figure 11: Film Adhesives
Film adhesives are similar to prepregs They are used for bonding metal to metal,
sandwich core to skin and
GFRP (Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic)
AFRP (Aramid Fibre Re1nforced Plastic)
CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic)
Adhesives are available as unsuppo1ed and supported films. Supported films con-
tain a knitted nylon carrier.
Film adhesives are supplied on a release paper backing, in rolls with Polythene in-
terleaving to protect the adhesive in storage and when being handled; these cov-
erings must be removed before the adhesive can be used. Heavy rolls should be
stored on a horizontal mandrel passed thnough the tube core on which the noll Is Adhesive
wound. This Will avo1d the risk of local thinning of the film under the full weight of
the roll. The film adhesive has to be cured under a cunng cycle. 1n accordance with Film
the Structural Repair Manual. The fi m adhesive has to be stored under refngera-
tion at -18' C.
Rectangular Core (Ox Core) Hexagonal Core Flexible Core (Flex Core)
/• (l J,1
~ -
!> y
'
Damage to Sandwich Structures Figure 14: Damage Inspection
1/Vhen honeycomb sandWICh structures are damaged. the effec11S usually separa-
bon of the honeyoomb from the FRP skins The honeyoomb IS bonded to the skms
by very fine bond hnes along the edges of the honeycomb walls. and these ane fair-
ly easily broken. As the structure relies on the oone for support, the whole compos-
lie Is weakened. If the sandwich is hil very hard, the core may be crushed, but this
degree or damage is rare.
Damage Inspection
One of the greatest problems caused by replac1ng alullllmum Wllh sandwich struc-
tures, 1s Inspection for damage. Unfortunately, when a oompostte IS hit. most of the
damage takes place at the back, so tt is possible for the oomponent to look OK.
but be badly damaged tnstde. This applies to sandwich structures even more be-
cause the oore is much softer than the skin, and you cannot see the back of the
panels
Damage or this kind IS often referred to as Barely Visible Damage (BVD).
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic mspection has beoome the most Widely used method for detectmg in-
ternal flaws in compos1te laminates and honeycomb assemblies. In this method,
high frequency sound energy is introduced into the test part, and anterpretat1on of
the returned signals determines the presence of porosity, voids, delamination, dis-
bonds. but not moisture
Repair of Composite Structure Figure 16: Drills for Composites
Compos.te construCIJOn of arrcralt 1nspecbon and repa1r have not yet been stand-
ardiZed Each damaged area must be mdivldually assessed and the repa1r de-
stgned so that 1t will meet the reqUirements spec1fted by the manulacture(s
eng~neenng department and described In the structural repair manual (SRM) No
general text can describe all types of repalfs, but some fundamental considera- Side View End View
tions are common to most repairs, and these are deSCflbed here
&ad-Point Orin lor Drimng Kevlar
Cutting and Sanding Composite Materials
You can cut uncured reinforcing materials with conventional heavy-duty Industrial
Iabrie shears, but there are speCial ceramic-blade shears w1th serrated edges that
are better lor cutting Kevlar The set.rabons hold the fibers. allowmg the cut to be
made With a mimmum of pulling and fraymg
Cured composite matenals may be cut. dolled, and otherwiSe machined
Some of the tools used for wooong w1th composites are drlferent from those used
wrth metal
Side View
C>® End View
Kevlar generates special problems dunng drilling because of the fibers' tendency Spade Drill lor OriMng GrapMe Material
to pull and stretch. This leaves the fuzzy ends of the fabric inside the hole. Special
drills are available for Kevlar, Including the brad-point drill When drilling, use a Glass and graphite fibers Will dull ordinary steel saw blades, so be sure to use car-
h1gh speed and little pressure, especially as the dnll cuts through the back of the bide-lipped saws or saws wrth diamond dust tor the If cutt1ng edges when you are
matenal cuttrng cured composite matenals
Hole cutters desrgned to cut fuzz-free holes in Kevtar are available They have car- The best way to scarf tam1nated matenals is to sand With a small, high speed, right-
bide cuttrng edges and diameters from 7/16-lnch (11cm) up to J1nch (7 6cm). angle sander These sanders can be fitted With one 1nch, two inch. or three lnch-
Dnll graphrte With a spade doll Ths drill has Dnll graphrte With a spade dnll doemeter dosks end they tum ot obout20,000 ·pm
Th1s dnll has ample space for the dnll dust to leave the hole. so 11 Will not enlarge Alum1n1um oxide d1sks are SUitable lor sanding glass or Kevlar. but you should use
the hole srl1con carbide lor sand1ng graphite.
Graphite, like Kevlar, should be drilled at a high speed w1th only a little pressure You must wear a dust respirator when sand1ng compos1te materials be-
on the doll cause the tiny arrborne part1cles can be extremely hazardous lo your lungs.
Safety Around Composites Certain chemicals used w1th compos.le con-
struction cause allergiC reacbons for some people. so take precautions
when work1ng w1th them Take special care when handling chemicals clas-
Sified as hazardous materials, and be sure to dispose of therr residue 1n a
manner that cornplres ""th local environmental requorements
Vacuum Bagging Solid parttng film: prevents resin escaping onto the heat blanket and
causing damage
Vacuum bagging is probably the most effective method to apply pressure to are-
pair It is recommended for use whenever possible If you are working In an area Pressure plate (optional); helps maintain the original shape ofthe part be-
with high humidity, vacuum bagging should be used. Htgh humidity may effect the ing repaired
cure of the resins and the vacuum bag system evacuates the air and the humidity Heat blanket supplies heat to the repair.
Surface breather; draws air from around the repair.
Vacuum Bagging Lay-Up Vacuum bag; applies pressure to the repair.
Perforated parting film, allows atr to be drawn from the repatr. Sealer material (extruded sealing compound); prevents a1r getting in.
Surface bleeder: absorbs any resin drawn from the repair.
Figure 17: Vacuum Bagging Lay-Up
PERFORATED =:==~~~~~~~~~~~~=:~==,
~=--SURFACE BLEEDER
PARTING FILM
~THERMOCOUPLE
~~:~~~ ------------======="'
REPAIRPUES ~=~~~~~ ADHESIVE FILM
Edge Delamination Holes in Laminates with Limited Surface Area
Minor edge delamination can, if allowed, be reparred by injectrng resin rnto the 1. Step cut out the damaged area.
delamrnation, clamping the edge and allowing the resin to cure. 2. A temporary stepped alumrnium plate could be made and used to the frt cav-
Figure 18: Edge Delamination
ity.
3. Cover aluminrum plate w~h parting film
4. Clean area with solvent
5. Another temporary aluminium plate should be made 21n (Scm) larger than ply
number 1, which Is also covered with parting film.
6. Clamp aluminium plate In place to provide a solid backup surface for plies 1
and 2
7. Impregnate fabric wilh resin system approved by manufacturer or use prepreg
material.
8. Cut out piles to match cut-out areas.
9. Apply repair plies numbers 1 and 2 and hold them In place with the other alu-
minium pressure plate.
10. Carefully remove the tapered aluminium pressure plate, and Insert the other
repair plies making sure ply orientation Is correct.
11. Cover with parting film or peel ply and apply pressure.
12. Cure In accordance with manufacturer's instructions.
13. Finish rn accordance wrth manufacturer's lnstructlons.
t
J
. '
Repairs to Honeycomb Structures Figure 19: One Face Repair
High-Pressure Seals
Seals are used throughout hydraulic and pneumatic systems to minimize leaKage
and the loss of system pressure. There are two types of seals 1n use, gaskets and
packmgs. Gaskets are used when there is no relative motion between the parts
that are being sealed, and packings are used where relative mohon does exist be·
t>.veen the parts. Cross sectiOn ol a chevron soal
v
Chevron Seals
There are many different kinds of seals used in aircraft applications. These seals
range all of the way from flat paper gaskets up through complex, multlcomponent
packlngs. V-ring packings. or chevron seals are found in many high-pressure ac-
tuators. Chevron seals are single-direction seals with the pressure applied to their
open sides. They are usually installed either in pairs, or in larger stacks with metal
backup rings and spreaders used to force the lip of the seal tightly against the sur-
faces being seated. The amount the chevron seal spreads is determined by the
tightness of the adjusting nut that holds the seal on the shaft.
Chevron seats
0-ring Seals Figure 23: 0-ring Backup in High Pressure Systems
Many modem hydraulic and pneumatic systems use 0-rings for both packings and
gaskets. 0-rings are fitted into grooves that are usually about 10% Wider than the
width of the 0-ring, and deep enough that the distance between the bottom of the
groove and the other mating surface is a little less than the cross-sect1ona1 diam-
eter of the 0-ring. This provides the squeeze needed for the 0-ring to seal under
conditions of zero pressure. If the 0-ring is not squeezed, fluid will leak past IL
Figure 22: O·Ring
F 'n4£AE IS HO IACK\IP RiNG, THE MOH PRESSURE WILL
£XTRUDE THE <>-R:iNO 8ETWEEH TME MOYIHO
PARTS.
U')
~U ~
o o oH
A
Pua~y~~~ Wldg<! oypo
O?
Bo
Puloypo
textema14nternat) (e.....,....,.._, (hN"Y~UOVI
~0
~~
DFY
Putloype
(tntemaiJ
Pushoypo (ontomtl) ~
c::s:
Spoon l'fPe
de=)
eteft· and ~-hand e-JI1tmal)
Cy 'lc=)
"Figure 27. Procedures for proper O·Ring removal" on page 32 shows how to use
these 0-ring installation tools, and the proper method of installing and removing,
0 -rings in both Internal and external grooves.
When inslalling an 0-ring over a sharp edge, cover the edge with paper, alumini-
um foil, brass shim stock, or a piece of plastic, as in "Figure 28. Procedures for
proper 0-Ring installation" on page 33.
Figure 27: Procedures for proper 0-Ring removal
-.&:;;:===
_ ....,q--1 e.-.... -~..1
.,.._o""'~ ..-"""v"""'lyi>O..,...,.
lndnoolt~,.......,.
"'"'*0.M9Nti'IO'Yal~~frPt~OI'
WldhOC:Ik~~**
_ .... _ _1
e_o-.g _ _ _ _ _
MOIII:IC*typt,.,....IOOII
Figure 28: Procedures for proper O·Ring installation
•• I lnslallall0111ool
Soltt,,tn-wa11 4p.~~t~~)
·~~~- cover
Paper
metallic skHlvo
lntomal O·ring lnslallatl011 usln9 metaloc:
skleve to aw>d 0-ring dam&ge.
Wipers
0-rings and chevron seals do not seal around the shaft completely. Enough fluid
is allowed to leak to lubricate the shaft. and this lubricant attracts dust.
A felt wiper IS usually installed in a counterbore around the shaft to keep the seals
from being damS{jed when the shaft Is retracted 1nto the cylinder. ThiS w1per re·
moves any dirt or dust without restricting the movement of the shaft
Sealing Compounds A disposable canndge which stores. m1xes and applies two component matenals
IS also available and convement to use They are available In many SIZes and can
Certa1n areas of all a1rcraft are sealed or to prevent corros1on by sealing agamst be tailored to a SpeCifiC use. To use the cartndge. the seal tl'at separates the two
the weather Most sealant conSISts of two or more mgred1ents that are compound- components must be broken. Th1s 1S done wtth a plunger that breaks the seal
ed to produce a deSired combination of strength, flex1b1hty, and adherence. Some Then the matenals are mixed together by us1ng a lwtsttng and up and down mobon
matenals are ready for use as packaged. but others reqwe m1x1ng before applica- to thoroughly m1x the resm and catalyst together. The label will state how many
tion strokes are requ1red to gJVe a thorough mtx A needle or syn'l!)e may be 1nstalled
onto the end and the restn dispensed through 11
One-Part Sealant
One-pan sealant is prepared by the manufacturer and IS ready for apphcabon as Figure 29: Disposable Cartridges
packaged However. the conSistency of some of these compounds can be altered
to satisfy a particular application melhod. For example. 1f th1nn1ng is reqwed. thm-
ner recommended by the sealant manufacturer is mixed -Catalyst
Resin
Two -Part Sealant
Two-part sealant is compounds recUinng separate packag1ng to prevent cunng
pnorto application. The two parts are identified as the base sealing compound and
the accelerator COmbmmg equal port10ns (by we1ght) of the base and accelerator
compounds generally m1xes two-part sealant and any dev1allon from the pre-
scnbed rabos can reduce the material's quality.
To ensure the proper rabo IS used, at sealant matenat should be carefully weighed
m accordance With the manufacturel's reromnnendabons Sealant matenals usu-
ally we1Qhed W1lh a balance scale equ1pped With we1ghts spec~atty prepared for
vanous quantities of sealant and accelerator To ensure a proper m•x ratio. the
base and accelerator should be thoroughly stirred before they are we!Qhed. Accel-
erator. whiCh is dned oul lumpy or flaky. should be d1SCArde<1 SorM manufactur-
ers produce pre-we1ghed sealant kls that require no we1gh1ng In th1s case the
ent~re quant1ty prov1ded 1s m1xed
After the proper amount of base corrpound and accelerator has been determined, Sealant Curing
the accelerator Is added to the base compound. Immediately after adding the ac- The cunng rate of mixed sealant varies with temperature and humidity For exam-
celerator. thoroughly mix the two parts by stirnng or folding, depending on the ma- ple. at temperatures below 1s•c curing is extremely slow However, a temperature
terial's consistency Mix the material carefully to prevent alf entrapment in the above 21•c typically results In a faster cunng t1me A temperature of 2s•c with 50
mixture Avoid rap1d or pro-longed S11rring, since It shortens the sealant available percent relative humidity is the Ideal condibon for cunng most sealant.
work1ng bme To ensure a compound is well m1xed. test a small port1on by smear- If you must accelerate the curing ttme of a sealanl you may increase the temper-
ing 11 on a clean. flat metal or glass surface If flecks or lumps are found, continue ature by apptymg heal However. the temperature should not be allowed to exceed
mDnng If the flecks or lumps cannot be eliminated, the batch should be rejected 50·c at any time 1n the curing cycle Heat can be appl1ed by using Infrared lamps
The worktng life of nuxed sealant typically ranges from a half-hour to two hours. or heated a1r. If heated air 1S used. 1t must be property filterec to remove mo1sture
dependlllg on the sealant class. Therefore m1xed sealant should be applied as and dirt
soon as possible or placed 1n refrigerated storage
Heat should not be applied to any faymg surface sealant installation until all work Processing
is completed. All laying surface applications must have all attachments. perma-
nent or temporary, completed w1th1n, the application lim1tat1ons of the sealant PR1422A ~
Sealant must be cured to a tack-free cond1hon before apply1ng brush top coatings
TaCk-free cons1stency IS the po1nt at wh1ch a sheet or cellophane pressed onto the VISCOSity FlUid
sealant no longer adheres
Compound Relabonsh1p 100/10
Sealer PR 1422 (Res1n I Accelerator)
General Worlong-hfe ~hour
Viscosity: Consistent
Working-me: Y. hour
Tack-free after 8 hour
PR1422 B 2
Viscosity. Consistent
Working-life: 2 hour
Tack-free after: 30 hour
Cure time at 2s•c 72 hour
Cure time at so•c 36 hour
Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training:·Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
Definitions Material ,
A screw or bolt is defined with the following terms: Common materials are used in th~ manufacture of bolts. These are:
Grip length: Thickness of the material, which it is designed to secure when • Aluminium alloys I .
assembled. * Grip length should be equal to material thickness Carbon steel \
Length: Hexagonal head bolt: Distance from the bottom of the head to the Corrosion resistant steel (CRES)
extreme point. Nickel alloyed steel :
Countersunk head bolt: Distance from the top of the head to the Titanium alloys I
extreme point. I
Plating: Protective coat applied to the bolt to protect against corrosion. *** Anticorrosion Treatment i
Recess: Indentation in the head used to drive the bolt. The following anticorrosion treatmJnts are used in the manufacture of bolts. These
are: I
Diameter: Shank diameter. Cadmium plating I
Chrome plating
Figure 1: Grip Length Anodizing
Nitrating
Recess
.~~
-._j
.!_._ . _j~~~§
~ --=· · · ·~"""""/
Head Types
Hexagon Head Bolt
An all purpose structural bolt used in general application involving tension and
~
0
81)
shear loads. They are available in cadmium plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant
steel and 2024 aluminium alloy.
The drilled hexagon head bolt is similar to the standard bolt but with a deeper head
which is drilled to receive locking wire.
The standard hex head bolt and the drilled head bolt are inter-changeable for a.ll
practical purposes from the standpoint of shear and tension strength. ·
~
Internal Hexagon Head Bolt
Used in both shear and tension applications .
They are high strength steel bolts, which '"are stronger than the standard hexagon
head bolt. 12 POINT HEAD
The head is specially hardened to allow for tightening loads and they are particu-
larly useful for applications where access is limited.
Clevis Bolt
Used only in shear application, e.g. joining a control cable to a control rod . The bolt
must be loose enough to allow the cable to pivot freely and remain secure.
Eye Bolt
Used in various applications for attaching components to the aircraft structure
* Clevis Bolt will use only in shear load
where relevant movement is required . application
Manufactured from various materials depending on the application.
Examples of use would be seat belt attachment point or attachment point for cargo
netting. ·
!/]L\
~
It is necessary to be able to positively identify a bolt. This is because as you have
seen there are so many of these components used in the manufacture of anrair-
craft and many of these components will look alike but their strength and material
specification may vary considerably.
Because of this, bolts are marked with a coding system. This code is on the head
AN Standard
steel bolt
AN Standard
steel bolt
!I~
AN Standard
I steel bolt
8
AN Standard
steel bolt
AN Standard
steel bolt
of the bolt to identify the material that the bolt is made from as shown. (corrosion resistant)
e
I
The amount of information on the bolt head will depend on th.e size of the bolt and
the amount of room available.
00~
There are as many codes in use as there are standards and therefore ·it is
not possible to cover all of them here . '
The only way to decode much of the information found on the bolts will be to
<1)
AN Standard
/A\
~
AN Standard
1~ 0AN *
I
Standard
@ "
i. Length .I A Class-2 fit is a free fit. It is used for some machine screws .
A Class 4 and 5 fit requires a wrench to turn the nut onto the bolt.
Aircraft bolts are manufactured in the Class 3, medium fit.
Aircraft screws are manufactured with a Class 2 thread fit for ease of assembly.
BACB30NE ~ E.IH T8 ~
X = 1/64" Oversize
~ Aircraft bolts and nuts must not be rethreaded, as they may loose strength .
Y = 1/32" Oversize
Length in /16" = 8/16 = 1/2" * Aircraft bolts - Class 3 ( medium fit )
Drilled head * Aircraft screws - Class 2
Drilled shank
J
Sept10 I Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only
u Cat: B1 6.5.2- 6
Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training !Manual --.,_/
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5,.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
A nut is a block or sleeve having an internal thread designed to assemble with the Used when it is necessary to remove a unit frequently without the use of tools they
are generally made from brass or cadmium coated steel.
external thread on a bolt, screw, or other threaded part.
It may serve as a fastening means , an adjusting means, a means for transmitting I
;-·
motion , or a means of transmitting power with a large mechanical advantage !and
non-reversible motion . :
Nuts that we are interested in are the nuts which are used with the external thread-
ed fasteners, bolts and screws.
The number and variety of nuts used in the manufacture of nuts is the same as for
bolts, also the protective coatings applied to nuts is the same as that applied to
i
'I
AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT
$--§t AN315 PLAIN NUT
bolts . +.-----
There are two basic types of nuts, non self-locking and self-locking.
Plain Nut I
Has no means of positively locking it to the bolt so it must be used with either a
lock nut or a check nut to lock it to the material. It can be used in either shear or
tensile load application .
Check Nut
Used to jam against a plain nut to lock it to a bolt so that it cannot turn off.
-J.o.... -:"
~-lOt
diameter of the hole. When the bolt is driven into this por- a
tion of the nut, the nut threads grip the bolt and raise friction
levels :,(itl)~
Anothef'm ethod is to squeeze the end of the nut into an
oval shape . As the bolt is driven through the oval it must re-
o)gf1
shape it back to round again which provides a gripping ac- B Channel nuts
~· ~
. twe~J.,.
t1on
2 ~ tffreads should be shown after the nut has been tight- * Fiber-type self-locking nuts should not use in hot sections above 120
ened . degrees.
b
Clip Nuts
Due to ease of installation and removal, clip * Clip nuts are ideal for Secondary structure applications
nuts are used in place of riveted anchor or
plate nuts. Ideal for secondary structure appli-
cations such as fastening aircraft flooring, ac-
cess panels, instrument components,
electronic cabinet construction, wire clips and
tubing harness.
Tinnerman Nuts
Anchor-Type Tinnerman Nut
This type of Nut is riveted to the structure to hold the
screws for inspection plates. These nuts do not have
the strength of a r.egular threaded nut plate, but they are
approved for non-structural inspection plates where
their use protects the aircraft skin from being damaged
by the repeated insertion and removal of self-tapping
screws.
~
_CTI3
~
Q
Sept10 I Technica l Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.2- 9
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
1
~
oooFlat-head
§B-
Button-head
machine screw machine screw
"Au nsn
TYPE TYPE
~~
There are four head forms in use:
Round head
Pan head
Truss head which is less proud than the round head
1ooocountersink with flat head
1ooocountersink with oval head
Figure 10: Self Tapping Screws
~
A Type 'A' with
gimlet point
CJm-
B Type 'B'
with blunt point
T T
C Round head D Pan head
T T i
E Truss head F Countersunk head G Countersunk oval head
Studs are headless bolts that are threaded for their entire length or at both ends. A Taperlok fastener is a tapered bolt with a threaded end and a selflocking nut.
The stud is inserted into the main body of the component, (sometimes; into heli- The nut is also threaded and includes its own washer. The use of this fastener is
coils inserts) with the assembly passing over the studs and being clamped into almost the same as that of a standard nut and bolt.
place by nuts. The Taperlok fasteners are used in those areas of the structure where a high fa-
tigue performance is required . The Taperlok fastener helps to achieve this per-
Figure 11: Studs formance because it has a constant interference fit in the tapered hole in the
structure. This causes a good compression of the structure material around the
fastener hole, and a balanced stress pattern.
An additional feature of the Taperlok fastener is the good seal effect that is given
by the tapered interference fitting.
Taperlok fasteners are available with a protruding or countersunk head in titanium
or steel alloy.
Figure 13: Taperlok Fastener
liEAO DLOCK
Dowel pins are used to retain parts in a fixed position or to preserve alignment. A
properly fitted dowel pin is subject to shearing strain only.
-
- L +/-0.012
-B " ·O.OW ~
11::1 - ·--
1$1
Hi-Loks
Hi-Loks are bolts of high strength and stability used instead of titanium rivets at pri-
mary structure elements of dificult access.
Steel or titanium are the most commonly used materials for hi-loks
There are two parts of the pin (Threaded) fastener:
a threaded pin with a head (universal or countersunk),
a collar with an internal thread and an external shear groove.
The pin has an hexagonal recess in the threaded end. This recess permits the:use
of an Allen wrench to hold the pin during the installation. The hexagonal drive ~end
of the collar breaks off at the shear groove when the collar is installed to its correct
torque value.
In some areas with a limited clearance self-locking nuts and washers are used in-
stead of collars . In this situation on the wings, a washer is not used, this reduces
the risk of a fuel leak.
When pin (Threaded) fasteners are used to join structure with outer surfaces ,that
are not parallel, self aligning collars or nuts must be used according to require-
ments .
~
COLLAR
EMBOSSED RING
(MANUFACTURER)
INTERNAL
RECESS
PINCTHREADED)
7• MAX.
I BEARING AREA
INCLINATION
==;=JI
PINCTHREADED)WITH PIN THREADED WITH
SELF-ALIGNING COLLAR SELF-ALIGNING NUT/WASHER
~
ONE COMPLETE THREAD
(MINIMUM HEIGHT WITH
NO THREADS IN BEARING
Y PINCTHREADED)WITH SELF-LOCKING
I WASHER
SELF-LOCKING NUT
AREA) NUT AND WASHER
Introduction
Washers are used to:
provide a bearing surface area for nuts Internal !External
act as spacers or shim Diameter
apply a tension between a nut and the surface of the material to prevent the
nut vibrating loose
Plain Washers
Used to provide a smooth bearing surface between the nut and material being
clamped. To act as a shim in obtaining correct grip length for a bolt and nut assem-
bly. ! / / / / / ,, v ////., 1 Thickness
~
They are used to adjust the position of castellated nuts in respect to drilled cotter
pin holes in bolts . ·
Aluminium alloy washer may be used under bolt heads and/or nuts on aluminium
alloy or magnesium alloy structures where corrosion due to dissimilar metals is a Washers should be added to adjust position in castellated nuts to align
factor. cotter pin holes
It is also common practice to use a cadmium plated steel washer under a nut bear-
ing directly against a structure as this washer will resist the cutting action of the nut.
Plain washers are made from the following materials:
Cadmium plated steel
Brass
Corr~si_on resistant steel
(cCf\ ( 5).
Alumtmum alloy ::..---
©~
ening of the nut caused by vibration . ·
There are two types of lock washers:
Spring Washer, also called split lock washers.
Shake Proof Washers, which are available with internal and external teeth .
Spring Washer
00©? ShakeproofVVasher
g They should be installed only in conjunction with a plain washer to protect
~ the components surface. Always refer to the related procedure given in' the
manuals .
Countersunk Washer
Spring or Split Washer
Spring washers or also named as split lock washer consist of a single or double
coil of square section spring. They are placed under the nut and are compressed
by tightening the nut, thus preventing the nut from slackening off.
~) They may be used again as long as the washer retains the spring tension .
They can be used more than once
ShakeproofWasher
Shakeproof washers work on the same principle except that the washer's teeth are
sharp and bent at an angle . When the nut is tightened the sharp teeth tend to dig
into the face of the nut and the component it is securing, this prevents the bolt from
undoing.
Lock washers should never be used under the following conditions:
-D
With fasteners to primary or secondary structures.
Washer Screw
With fasteners on any part of the aircraft where failure might result in damage
or danger to the aircraft or personnel.
Where failure would permit the opening of a joint to the airflow.
Where the screw is subject to frequent removal.
Where the washers are exposed to the airflow.
Where the washers are subject to corrosive conditions.
Where the washer is against soft material without a plain washer underneath
to prevent gouging the surface.
This washer is used in special applications where the bolt is installed at angle to Tab washers do have two or more tabs projecting from the external diameter.
the surface or when perfect alignment with the surface is required at all times . When the washer is fitted, one tab is bent against the component or fitted into a
These washers come in two parts, which must always be used together. hole provided for that purpose whilst the second tab is bent against the flat of the
nut after it has been correctly tightened down .
Figure 4: Self Aligning Washer
* It is used in inclined surface Figure 5: Tab Washer
; !Iii{;(/~ LJ
\_~
. ~OJ" I u
;/Iff MJ4_~
~
{MAXIMUM 3:WASHERS)
FLATWASHER
T ~
FLAT WASHER
.......--..
~OVERSIZE
.___
~
©
c:::::s:::::J
© @ tr I l
LOCK WASHER
~STANDARD
FLAT WASHERS
@JSliAR
(.I:J:J
RADIUS-WASHER
ANGLE
LOCK WASHERS
MTW~HE?ft
(MS20002C)
FLAT WASHER
FLAT WASHER USED FOR:SPACING
~
(MAXIMUM 3,WASHERS)
--'"g'-
FLAT WASHER
FLATWASHER
~
OVERSIZE BOLT OVERSIZE
SOFTMA~G
·
(SEALS,
INSULATION·, ETC.)C:::::==:;:)
:;:• ~ I 6 c:::::FLAT WASHER
OVERSIZE
LOCK WASHER
,.--.....
~OVERSIZE © © @ t[
i
I I J
c::::s::::J
LOCK WASHER
~STANDARD
FLAT WASHERS
@)SliAR
LOCK WASHERS
I ANGLE
i
Outer Ring
Upper Pressure Ring
ates are thin metal plate's places over a nut or bolt installation to provide
Pretorque Ring positive locking of the nut or bolt.
Their main advantage is that they are quick to assemble and disassemble.
Check Holes
The locking plate will itself be locked by a smaller screw or bolt which may then be
safetied using lock wire or a self locking nut and bolt.
The cotter pins, commonly referred to as split pins, used in general aviation · are
made of either: ·
Corrosion Resistant Steel
Cadmium plated, low carbon steel I
I
The most common one is the Cadmium plated, low carbon steel pin . I
Cadmium Plated, Low Carbon Steel Split Pin
I
Used for safetying bolts, screws , nuts, other pins and in various applications where Preferred
I Optional
I
such safetying is necessary.
I
Corrosion Resistant Steel Split Pin
Flathead Pin I
Used in locations where nonmagnetic material is required or in locations where re-
sistance to corrosion is desired . Commonly called Clevis Pin, the fl athead pin is used with tie-rod terminals and in
secondary control, which are not s1ubject to continuous operation.
1
Cotter Pin I Split Pin Safetying The pin is usually installed head up so that if the cotter pin should fail, the pin will
remain in the same place. ., ·
Castellated nuts are used with bolts that have been drilled for split pins . The pins
should fit neatly into the hole, with very little sideplay. Figure 11: Flathead Pin
There are two methods of securing split pins that are generally acceptable. In the
preferred method , one leg of the split pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and I Lenath
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut. With the optional method ,
the split pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped around the castellations.
It is important to note that nuts should never be over torqued to make the hole in
the bolt align with the castellations. If the castellations in the nut fail to align with Diameter
the drilled bolt hole, add washers under the nut until a split pin can be inserted .
The following general rules apply to cotter pin safety:
1. The leg bent over the bolt end should not extend beyond the bolt diameter.
2. The leg bent down should not rest against the surface of the washer. Roll Pins
I
3. If the optional wraparound method is used, the legs should not extend out- Is a press fit with chamfered ends'. It is tubular in
wards from the side of the nut. shape and has a slot running its fJII length.
The pin is inserted with hand todls and is com-
4. All legs should be bent over a reasonable radius. pressed as it is driven into place. Ptessure exerted
I
by the roll pin against the walls of the hole keep it
in place, until removed by use df a drift or pin
puncher. I
I
Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics ;For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.5.3 - 7
SRTechnics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.3 Locking Devices
t.T::r~-Ji
absence of play is essential.
(I
-E TYPEC
$ R
t ~-=--th
TYPED
(J_[_ _ _ _ tffiOO
TYPEE
Grooved Pins
This type of pin is forced into a drilled hole of the proper diameter. Locking fit is
Pal-Nuts
obtained by the compression of the groove . . Pal-Nuts, commonly known as check nuts or lock nuts are thin nuts which are tight-
Grooved pins are resistant to loosening from shock and vibration and may be re- ened down firmly on top of the primary nut, after the primary nut has been correctly
moved and reused without reducing their holding force . tightened .
This action wedges the threads and prevents the primary nut from slackening off.
The pal-nut must not be over-tightened, as stripping or over-stressing of the thread
may occur.
Before reusing the pal-nuts, ensure the threads are not damaged.
Figure 14: Pal Nut
Select the proper safety wire material and diameter according to the drawing in-
struction or the requirements give ~ in the related .manuals .
* Whenever use new safety wire use new safety wire only
That type of fastener are used to secure inspection plates, doors and other remov-
able panels on an aircraft. They also refer to such terms as turnlock, quick-action
'!1)
and stress panel fasteners . STUD
The most desirable feature of these fasteners is that they permit quick and easy
removal of access panels for inspection and servicing purposes .
Quick Release Fasteners are manufactured and supplied by a number of manu-
facturers under various trade names.
Some of the most commonly used are :
Dzus
; ~ { "U"'"''
GROC.~ ~
Camloc "' m
Airloc STUD
ASSEMBLY
Dzus Fasteners REMOVABLE
The Dzus fastener consists of a stud , grommet and a receptacle . The Figure 16 PART
on page 10 illustrates an installed Dzus fastener and the various parts .
The grommet is made of aluminium or aluminium alloy material , and acts as a FIXED
holding device for the stud . The spring is made of steel, cadmium plated to prevent PART\
corrosion . The spring supplies the force that locks or secures the stud in place
when two assemblies are joined.
The studs are fabricated from steel and are cadmium plated . They are available in
three head styles: wing , flush and oval.
Body diameter, length and head type may be identified or determined by markings SPRING
found on the head of the stud. The diameter is always measured in sixteenths of ASSEMBLY
an inch . Stud length is measured in hundredths of an inch and is the distance form
head of the stud to the bottom of the spring hole.
A quarter of a turn of the stud (clockwise) locks the fastener. The fastener may be
unlocked only by turning the stud counter-clockwise. A Dzus key locks or unlocks RIVETS
the fastener.
~1 I '
The stud and grommet are installed in either a plain , dimpled, countersunK, or 2. Oval 1
counter-bored hole, depending upon the location and th ickness of the material in- 3. Wing I
volved .
A quarter turn (clockwise) of the stud locks the fastener. It can be unlocked by turn - The cross pin is manufactured fr~m chrome-vanadium steel and heat-treated to
ing the stud counter-clockwise . provide maximum strength, wear and holding power.
It should never be used the secon~ time once removed from the stud ; it should be
Figure 17: Camlock Fastener replaced with a new pin. j
Receptacles for Airloc fasteners a ~e manufactured in two types:
Coil spring
Q 1. Rigid
\[;;3 2. Floating
Sizes are classified by number: Ndl . 2, No. 5 and No.7.
They are also classified by the cehtre-to-centre distance between the rivet holes
of the receptacle:
~ Grommet
No. 2: 3/4 inch
No. 5: 1 inch
No. 7: 1 3/8 inch
I
Receptacles are fabricated from h'gh-carbon, heat-treated steel.
An upper wing assures ejection of the stud when unlocked and enables the cross
pin to be held in a locked position between the upper wing , cam, stop, and wing
detent, regardless of the tension t<D which the receptacles is subjected .
..~v; . Gf r(Q r~ ~ I
Sepf1 0 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics ,For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.3. 11
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.3 Locking Devices
0 A B c D
Load in Tension
The Rivets are identified by numb~rs and letters according different standards .
The benefits of a rivet joint are several:
The most important are: [
• · Low maintenance cost because they last longer.
No malfunctioning; they are reliable .
AN: Air Force Navy I
They will hold the parts together under stress; they are strong. MS: Military Standard J
They allow a light and yet strong design, because of the low weight. NAS : . National Aerospace Standard
They are resistance to fatigue, due to their high elasticity which contributes to NSA: Norm Sud Aviation I
their durability. Rivets are normally specified by Arperican standardisation . The diameter of a rivet
High productivity because of the low costs involved, compared to other meth- is standardised in 1/32". The rivet lengths are graduated by 1/16" increments .
ods. To describe or identify a Rivet, a cbde, devided into four main parts is used .
I .
Competitive methods like the use of threaded fasteners, such as HI-LOK and: HI- These are:
Shear are mostly used for accessibility reasons . The cost of installing threaded Head Styles
fasteners are, however, much higher than that of rivets.
Pin Length
Gluing is an increasingly used method, but is still normally combined with riveting. Pin Diameter
Material
~ There is a variety of rivets us:ed in the aviation industry. We only discuss the
~ most important rivets.
------
Aircraft Solid Shank Rivets control surfaces were at one time covered with magnesium alloy to reduce weight.
The only type of fastener that would not cause corrosion was the magnesium com-
Solid shank rivets are the most commonly used rivets in aircraft construction. They patible rivet 5056H32. The 5056H32 rivet is identified by a raised cross on its MFG
consist of a manufactured head, a shank and a driven head . The driven head, head and it is designated by the letter B in AN or MS20 catalogue .
sometimes called an upset head, is caused by upsetting the shank with a rivet gun The alloy 2117T4, developed by Alcoa, is produced only as rivet stock . The
or rivet squeezer. 2117T4 rivet is called the "universal" replacement rivet, because it can be used in
Mostly, you will find Solid Rivets as shown in the next illustration . Look at the dif- the "as received" condition from the rivet manufacturer. Rivets made from the alloy
ferent Head Styles . 2117T4 are more corrosion resistant and crack free than any of the copper bearing
aluminium alloys. These rivets are used for plugging holes on wet wing fuel tank
Figure 2: Design of modern solid Rivets installations because of their excellent swelling characteristics . The 2117T4 rivet
is designated by the letters AD in the AN and MS20 system of coding , and it has
an identifying dimple embossed in the centre of its MFG head .
The alloy 20 17T4 is presently made in two forms of rivet stock. The first type, used
in the construction of earlier aircraft, is slightly harder than 2117T4, and it is difficult
to control its cracking when rivets of diameters greater than 3/16 of an inch are
driven. To minimise cracking, such rivets must be re-heat treated before driving . A
new form, the crack free 2017T4 rivet alloy, recently· developed by Alcoa, was first
used for skinning the Boeing 727 wing . It contains slightly less magnesium and a
MS20426 MS20430 . MS20442 precisely controlled amount of iron and silicon . The new crack free alloy has a
100 ' -countersunk round head flat head greater shear strength than the older form . The two forms of 2017T4 are designat-
head rivet rivet rivet ed by a letter D and have a raised dot on their MFG heads .
The alloy 2024T4 is produced as skin, extrusions, and rivets . The 2024T3 rivet is
Rivet Alloys used in the construction of light and heavy aircraft, both internally and externally,
and has been established as the strongest of the copper bearing aluminium alloys .
See Sub Module "6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous", for Heat Treatment and
Figure 3 on page 5. Rivets made from alloy 2024 cannot be driven without first softening them by re
heat treating. The alloy 2024T4 is denoted by letters DO and has two raised shoul-
Rivets used for the construction of aircraft must be as strong as , but much lighter ders on its MFG head.
than steel. Alloying aluminium with other metals such as copper, magnesium and
In 1979, Alcoa and the US Air Force developed a new rivet alloy, 7050T73. The
zinc and then heat treating the metal makes this increase in strength possible .
alloy 7050, in a stable T73 condition , is a rivet material with good form ability, high
Alloyed aluminium rivets which are heat treated and allowed to cool and age hard- strength and excellent resistance to corrosion cracking . The material used to make
en, are as strong as , and about one third the weight of steel. the alloy 7050 is a mixture of magnesium and zinc. This alloy has a fatigue life limit
Rivet alloy 11 OOH 12 and 5056H32 are non heat treatable . Non heat treatable riv- longer than that of the aircraft structure itself. Rivets of 7050 alloy in the T73 tem-
ets are rarely used on primary structures . The alloy 1100 contains an insignificant per are considered to be strongest aluminium rivets commercially available, and
amount of copper (0.01 %). In the AN or MS20 methods of cataloguing , the 1100 they should be considered as replacements for 2024T31 rivets on new aircraft de-
alloy is designated by the letter A. The 1100 rivet has no marking on the manufac- signs . For example, the Boeing 767 uses the 7050T73 rivet extensively. In addi-
tured head . These rivets are never used structurally, but are used in areas where tion , its ability to be driven in the "as received condition" makes the Alcoa 7050T73
strength is not a major concern . The only non heat treated alloy used for structural alloy rivet an excellent choice for automatic rivet setting and field or shop repair
work is 5056H-32. It is used to skin magnesium covered control surfaces because work.
it is compatible with magnesium, its major alloying ingredient. Many light aircraft
The 7050T73 rivet is identified by a ring on its MFG head and is coded oy; the loss of strength which results frorrj a convention~! machine type countersink job.
letter E. The 7050T73 alloy is available in all head styles. Jhe countersunk, coun- One of the primary uses of .this ri\(et has been to skin wings and tail surfaces of
terbored, tension type rivet made from the alloy was developed to overcome' the modern aircrafts. j
I
11 OO-H12 Aluminium alloy A
0 No mark
structure[
I
I
-Not used1on primary ;rr£
'
t ~0'~
,
1 . -~~/, / i,,_J~
to-ttJ s~ !'7a-tlfcP1
.
2117-T4 Aluminium alloy AD
8 Dimpled -Used on ~rimary structure
I
i
Determine the Rivet Length Figure 6: Measuring the Rivet Length with a Grip Scale
I
On Page 3, we have spoken about standardisation of rivets. Remember that 'rivets
are normally specified by American standardisation. The diameter of a rivet is
standardised in 1/32". The rivet lengths are graduated by 1/16" increments.
I
I lo
w
1
T
The figure above shows an example of how to measure the material thickness us-
ing a grip scale. Since the scale is devided into increments of 1/16 inch, and the
reading is -8, the material thickness is 8/16 inch, therefore 1/2 inch. Let's suppose,
that the hole has a diameter of 1/4 inch .
The rivets length can be determined with the following formula:
L= linch+
2
(1l2 x 4linch)
1 3 4 3 7.
L= - + -= - + -= -mch
2 8 8 8 8
QelJJWJ/ RLftt
a) As the stem is pulled into the rivet sleeve, a bulb forms 1on the rivet's blind side
that begins to clamp the two pieces of metal together and· fill the hole.
b) When completely installed, the collar is inserted and th~ stem is fractured flush
with the rivet head.
CR 324 2 - 6 - 4
c~ -~ L Cherry Max Rivet
Basic Maintenance
SR technics f) Training 'Manual
I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
posed. A keyway cutter is needed when installing Rivnuts which have keys .
Threaded 1\\\
mandrei T
Types of Rivnuts j
Rivnuts are manufactured in two head types, each with two ends the flat head with
open or closed end and the Countbrsunk head w,ith open or closed end .
recommende~
Rivnut before installation Rivnut after it has be en upset
Open-end Rivnuts are the most wi!dely_ used and are in preference
*Rivnut can only be installed in secondary structures ( non structural parts) to the closed -end type whenever ~osstble . However, closed-end Rtvnuts must be
used in pressurised compartmend .
~~I!WJ~
Grip length I
Rivnuts are manufactured in six grip ranges . The minimum grip length is indicated
by a plane head. The next higher rgrip length by a radial dash mark on the head.
Each succeeding grip range is indicated by an additional radial dash mark until five
marks indicate the maximum rangb.
~ Some manufacturers sign the Rivnut sizes OE)-200, 06-240, 08-2450 with Part Number
~ one or two circumferential marks. The part number indicates, head style, material, thread size, key or keyless, open
Figure 15: Rivnut or closed end and the maximum grip .
I
Pin Fasteners Figure 16: Hi Strength Pin Riveti
There are locations in an aircraft structure where the strength of a steel bolt is re- Rivet iset
quired, but there is no need for the fastener to be removed in normal maintenance
operations . For these applications , a high-strength pin fastener may be used . -- '~ ' w" - I
· ~·
i
I
High-Strength Pin Rivets
Modern aircraft construction techniques require as I
~
much automation as possible, and in locations where 1
a high-strength fastener is required that is not like 1y to Correctly-driven pin rivet.
Heat Treatment of Rivets Place Icebox Rivets into Cold Storage as follows:
1. As soon as rivets reach the temperature of the quenchant, as determined by
Icebox Rivets tests or by a thermocouple that is attached to the centre of the charge, transfer
rivets to a denatured or isopropyl alcohol bath , chilled to -30oc ± soc (the al-
Icebox is a nickname given to rivets made of alloy 2017T4 more than 3/16 of an
cohol bath shall be capable of cooling the rivets to zero or below within a short
inch in diameter and all rivets of the alloy 2024T4 . These two alloys are too hard
time as defined). Hold the rivets in the chilled bath for at least 3 to 5 minutes,
to drive in their original heat-treated condition.
until the temperature is below -20°C, then immediately transfer the rivets to
They must be reheat treated and kept in a frozen condition until ready for use.
cold storage.
When these two alloys are heat-treated, they harden after cooling down, due to a
process called age hardening. Age hardening brings the metal to its maximum nat- 2. When transferring the rivets to cold storage, do not allow the rivets to reach
ural hardness, which can be held in suspension by storing these rivets in a freezer temperatures higher than -20°C .
~e~. .
3. Store rivets at -20°C or lower.
Years ago when this process was first developed, there were no freezers . So the 4. Do not allow the total elapsed time that rivets are exposed to room tempera-
rivets were stored in dry ice boxes; thus the name icebox rivets. Today there-hard- ture between quenching and driving to exceed 15 minutes, except, if rivets are
ening process is the same as the one originally used to heat treat the rivet , but im- to be driven immediately after quenching, the total elapsed time that rivets are
mediately after the rivet is quenched , it is put into the identified containers and exposed to room temperature may be increased to a maximum of 20 minutes .
stored in a freezer.
Alloys such as 2024 are followed by a temper designation, made up of a letter and 5. Age , when required, in accordance with the Structure Repair Manual.
a number, which indicates the temper condition of the rivet. T4 means solution 6. After completion of heat treatment, remove a representative sample of rivets
heat-treated and age hardened . T3 means solution heat-treated, age hardened for inspection in accordance with Airline Manufacturers Process Specifica-
and then coldworked . tions.
For a long time, the 2024T31 icebox rivet was considered to be the strongest alloy. Figure 17 on page 15 illustrates how storing and handling time is affected by the
However, the new rivet 7050T73 may replace the 2024T31 icebox rivet. temperature. The left part shows a rivet immediately driven after heat treatment.
All heat treatment of rivets are to be carried out in accordance with Airline Manu- The right part of the illustration shows how a rivet can be held in the annealed state
facturers Process Specifications . This could look like the procedure in the following by storing it in a Icebox.
section .
STORED IN ICEBOX
(- 18'C) UP TO 7 DAYS
(- 20'C) UP TO 20 DAYS
HANDLING TIME
QUENCHING
TEMPERATURE AGEING PROCESS
Aluminium Tubing
Alumimum tub1ng comes 1n a vanety of alloys For example, 1n low pressure sys-
tems (below 1,000 ps1) such as those used for instrument atr or venblabng air,
commerCially pure alumin1um tub1ng made from 1100-H14 (half-hard), or alullllm·
um alloy 3003-H14 (half-hard) Is used
Low-pressure fuel and 011 and medium pressure (1 ,000 to 1,500 psi) hydraulic and
pneumatic systems often use lines '!1ade of 5052.0 alum1mum alloy. Th1s alloy,
even in ~s annealed state. Is about one and three quarters times stronger than
half-hard, commerc1ally pure alumlmum.
Occasionally, 2024-T aluminium alloy IS used for fluid lines because of its high
strength. However. it Is not as flexible and. therefore, II is more difficult to bend and
ftare without cracking
Alumlmum alloy tubes are ldent1fied In a number of ways For example. on larger
lubes, the alloy designahon Is stamped directly on the tube's surface However. on
small tubing. the alloy designation Is typically 1dentified by a coloured band.
You can read more about matenal specifications In Sub Module 6 2 "Aircraft Ma·
tenals · Non Ferrous"
Size Designations
* The size of rigid tubing is determined by Its outs1de diameter in increments of 1116
Inch Therefore, a -4 tubing is 4/16 or Y. inch in diameter A tube diameter is typi-
cally prrnted on all rig1d tubing.
Another 1mportant size designation is the wall thickness, smce this determines a
tube's strength. Like the outside diameter, wall thickness 1S generally pnnted on
the tube in thousandths of an inch.
One dimension that is not printed on rigid tubing is the inside diameter. However,
since the outside diameter and wall thickness are indicated, the ins1de diameter is
determined by subtracting twice the wall thickness from the outside diameter. For
example, if you have a piece of -8 tubing with a wall thickness of 0.072 inches, you
know the inside diameter is 0.356 inches.
-4 1/4
3/8
-8 1/2
-10 5/8
-12 3/4
-16
Identification of Tubing Figure 1: Rigid Tubing Identification
All fluid·, gas lines and ducts, (excep; as outline below) are marked to identify sys-
tems on which they are installed Marking is either by a code marker as shown in
Figure 1 or with a colour band corresponding to colour of code marker. Locat1on of
coding will vary accordmg to the length of the assembly. Coding location should
be readily vis1ble.
Following a few points to cons1der:
Hose assemblies 1n pylon and p'XI areas are not colour coded.
Heating and ventilabon flex1ble air ducts are Identified by part number only
and are not coded.
Lines and ducts which are subject to temperatures exceeding 2so•c (Soo•F)
are tdenlified by part number on y and are not coded
Skydrol resistant hose assemblies are identified during manufacturing and do
not require colour coding.
Static and pttot system hoses are identified, by function as well as system.
with a marker of whtte acetate tape Imprinted with function
Hydraulic lines have addttional marking to Identify function and direction of flu· Coolant ~ Hydraulic 0 Lubrication 0
0
id flow within each line.
~ 0 0
No tdentiftcation is required on lines installed in integral fuel tanks.
~ 0 0
0
~ o~ 0
~
0
blue bl~!e yellow 0 yelfow 0
* Hydraulic line - Blue yellow D c.
I:;.
Breathi11g De-Icing
* Breathing oxygen - Green D
Oxygen
D /:;./:;. r
* De icing - Grey
* Fire protection - Brown
D
D
grey
/:;. 1-
/:;./:;. J
J0
groen D {';
D rn''
Warntng Symbol
Rigid Pipe Connections Figure 2: Flared Tubing
Secuons of ngod tubing can be JOt ned to another tube or to a fotung by several meth- Single Flare Double Flare
ods These onclude songle and double-flare connectors, nareless connectors, or a
hose and clamps over a beaded tube (see TtVe Screw Type Hose Clamps· on
page 24)
The most common ones will be made of steel or alumomum alloy The type of fit-
tongs used ts determoned by the pressure range, the routong. and the matenal betng
used for the lines IMlenever you must replace a fttltng, make sure you select a
fitting made of the same material as the ongonal
PrecautiOns must be taken when seecbng fitllngs to prevent dlssomilar metal cor-
rosion from formmg
Tubing Flaring
Most of the metal tubing used in modern aorcraft Is connected to other tubing or to
components by flaring Its ends and using flare·type fittongs IMlen flanng tubing for
onstallahon in aircraft. be sure to us;, the correct naring tool AN fitltngs must be
nared woth a 37• angle and AC fittings woth a 35• angle
Double Flare
Due to omprovong of matenals and piptngs, double flare fitbngs are very seldom
seen these days Nevertheless, we will dtscuss about thts fitting
Tubtng made of 5052-0 and 6061-T alumomum alloy on sozes from 1/8 to 318mch
outside doameter should be flared with a double flare Double flares are smoother
than songle flares and are more con~ntric Also, the extra metal makes the flare
*** more resostant to the sheanng effect when the flttmgs are torqued
Flared Tube End Fittings Figure 4: MS Ftaretess Fitting
There are two types of nuts that may be used on a flared tube: the singlep1ece Preset Tool or
AN817 nut and the two-piece AN818 nut and AN819 sleeve Connector Fitting Nut Sleeve Tube
The AN817 nut cannot be used on tub1ng where there 1s a bend near the end The
AN818 nut and AN819 steeve comb1nation Is the preferred type of connector be-
cause it lessens the poss1bihty of reducing the th1ckness of the flare by the w1pmg
I
or ironing action when the nut is tightened. With the twopiece fittmg, there is no
relative motion between the fitting and the flare when the nut is being tightened.
Colours
Depending on the material, flared tube fittings do have different colours.
* Steel tube fittings are colored black.
AluminiUm alloy fittmgs are colored blue
Remember! On rigrd tubing, the outside diameter Is measured in increments
of 1/16 inch. Therefore, the matching nut for a tube diameter of 1/ 2 inch is,
as an example, an AN818 - 8 nul AI,
MS Flare/ess Fittings
The fluid lines used in some of the high-pressure hydrauUc and pneumatiC systems
are so hard they are drfficult to flare without cracking, so a system of flaretess fit-
tings has been developed. These fittmgs consist of a body or a fitting, a steeve,
and a nut. The rnside of the fitting has a smooth counterbore, rnto which the end
of the tube fits. The taper at the mouth of the fitting prov1des the seat between the
fitting and the steeve, and the seal between the sleeve and the tube is provided by
the bite of the sleeve into the tube as shown in Figure 4.
MS ftareless fittings are attached to the end of the metal tubing by presetting the * In a proper flared fittings, there should be good seating between the flare
sleeve on the tube. Presetting puts enough pressure on the fitting to deform the
sleeve and cause it to cut into the outside or the tube. and nut
HMS Fitting by hydraulic pressure acting on dies Portable swageing tools are available that al·
low a technician to make permanent repa11s to ftuid lines installed in the a11craft by
Figure 5: Harrison Fitting: A modified, improved MS Fitting. cutting out the damaged section and splicing in a new section with swaged frttings.
Figure 6: Swaging Tool
Swaged A1<crah
fin•ng tubmg
'
I
Tube Tube
Hydraut.;
pressure
connection
8ENCH.BRAZED LINE ASSEM8UES
@_
SmGL£ ESCAPE.MrNT
UAlEO SU:EV£
AN816Fitbflt
AN and AC Flared Tube Fittings Many or the airplanes built during World War II used AC fittrngs which are similar
to the AN fitting. However. there is enough drfference that they are not inter-
Flared tube fittings are available in many configurations. The AN816 nipple and
changeable AN fittings have a short shoulder between the end of the flare cone
AN822 elbow are used to connect a Oared tube or a flexible hose to a component and the begrnnrng of the threads. The older AC fittings do not have this recess.
with tapered pipe threads. The AN821 elbow and AN815 union are used to join
Steel AN fittings are colored black, and aluminium alloy AN fittrngs are colored
nared tubes or nexrble hose The A '1820 cap and AN806 plug are used to seal
blue. AC fittings are colored erther gray or yellow.
tines and fittings to keep dirt and contamrnants out or the system.
~ AC fittings are seldom used these days.
Figure 10: AN Flared Tube Fittings
AN 820
~=r~~~:~~p··
:f.'.'.":=.=.\
~: ·:;·::::.:·;·.-~1 1::.:-..
AN 816
.·-..................
.. ---·--... ---~.
~
.. .·,.
; t '
.
i====::=~
··!-······-..
AN 821 AN 822
Bobbins Make sure that you install the parts m the correct posrtion and in this se-
quence·
Bobb1ns are often used in modem hydraulic systems. They are used to assemble
different components together to transfer fluid between them. install the back-up rings 1n the grooves before you install the seals
install the 0-nng on the identification groove side of lhe bobbin (manifold
Figure 12: Assembli ng of Bobbins side)
(!] Get the seal mstaliation tool applicable to the d1ameter of the bobbin Install
the bobbin on the tool.
Lightly apply Common Grease on the 0 -ring (or the square seal) or Immerse
Packing~ the 0-rlng (or the square seal) into Hydraulic Fluids.
Note:
Backup Ring( ! ) If you lubricate the seal wtth hydraulic ftuids it is necessary to immerse the seal into
hydraulic fluid for a mtnimum of a quarter of an hour before you install it on the bob-
Bobbin~
bin.
Slide the 0-ring (or the square seal or the back-up ring) onto the sleeve until
it touches the conical end of the sleeve
Make sure that the 0 -ring (or the square seal or the back-up nng) is in the cor-
d) rect posibon wtthout any torsion or damage.
Align the bobbin with its housing and slide the bobbin into its housing.
(1) Remove the tool.
~ I ~ Make sure that the groove side of the bobbin is installed into the manifold
~
~
p_,
Ptungot
Flexible Hose Construction and Material * This lay lme not only Identifies the hose but also indicates if the hose is twisted dur-
ing installation. When installed properly. the line Will run straight and not spiral
Flexible hose construction generally consists of an inner liner covered with layers around the hose as shown in Figure 20.
of reinforcement to provide strength. and an outer cover to protect from physical
damage. Fig ure 20: Lay Line
The materials and manufacturing process of each layer determme the suitability of
a specific hose for a particular application. Correct Installed
Hoses a re made of Butyl Rubber"", Synthetic (Silicone) Rubber or Teflon"'
with sta1nless steel reinforcement to meet the system requirements of low, med1um
and h1gh pressure.
( Y\.HI~!;<t•f.1r..MR:J
(G
For hoses used with petroleum products. the inner liner in made from synthetic
rubber and outer braid is grey black.
For hoses used with Phosphate Ester Fluids, as e.g. Skydrol"'". the inner liner in lncorrect lnslalled(Twisled)
made from synthetic butyl rubber or Teflon rM and the outer braid is green.
On the landing gear assembly's, high-pressure type hoses are installed and
equipped w ith corrosion resistant fitllngs.
( -""' ft·~ .. &,.. ...f .....,..o __
~
Figu re 19: Flex Hose Constru ction
Size Designation
Like ngld tubing, a dash number 1nd1cates the tube diameter.
MIL -H -8;'94 SIZE·6·2. 92 AIFG SYAIECL
The size of flexible hose is approximately its inside d1ameter in 1/1 6-inch incre-
ments. This refers to the outside diameter of a rlg1d tube thai has the equivalent
flow characteristics For example, a -8 hose has flow characteristics equivalent to
a piece of -8. or 1/2-lnch (8/16) rigid tub1ng The inside diameter of the hose 1S not
exactly 1/2-inch. It rs slightly smaller to allow for the tube wall thickness
Types of Flexible Pipes Medium Pressure Hose
While a1rcraft hoses are manufactured for various applications, the types of hoses Made with a seamless inner tube and a cotton braid impregnated with a rubber
are normally classified by the amount of pressure they are designed to w1thstand. type compound to securely bond the single steel braid to the inner tube.
Over the steel bra1d reinforcement IS placed a braid of rough oil resistant cotton.
These Include low-pressure, medium-pressure. and high-pressure
Figu re 22: Medium Pressure Hose
L o w Pre ssure H o se
These hose Is mainly used for low-pressure instrument air
Made with a seamless inner tube and a reinforcement made of a single layer of
colton braid.
An outer cover of ribbon or smooth rubber is used to protect the reinforcement
from physical abrasion
Figure 21 : Low Press ure Hose
-3
Size J.D.
1/8
Max. Operating Press(PSt)
3000
-4 3/16 3000
-4 7/32 3000
Figure 25: High Pressure Teflon Hose
-6 11/32 3000
-8 7/16 3000
-10 9/16 3000
-12 11/16 3000
-16 718 3000
Flexible Hose End Fittings
Flexible hoses may be equipped with either swaged or replaceable end fittmgs If
a hose having swaged fittings 1s damaged, the ent1re hose must be replaced with
one carrying the same part number or one that is approved by the aircraft manu-
facturer as a replacement
Replaceable end fittings consist of three Nut Socket
p1eces:
a nut
a nipple
and a socket
Fuel Lines Figure 26: Fuel Co uplings
Fuel lines are made from sta1nless steel. 'Nhere hoses are requ1red, the hose must TYPE A
*be made out of fire resistant material. As a common rule, self locking line connec-
tions are used inside the fuel tanks. W1re locked connections are used 1n fuel lines
outside the fuel tanks.
However, always consult the applicable maintenance manual.
TYPE~
Flexible Couplings Figure 27 : Flexible Couplings
Sketch (A) shows a couplmg which has provision for a certain amount of misalign- Split Retalnel
ment as well as both angular and axial movement of the pipes The pipe ends are
beaded. and the surfaces wtthin the joint are smooth and polished. so that the
seals may shde freely over the ptpes
A spht retainer encloses the beads. When the coupling nut ts bghtened on the
body. the 0-rings a re squeezed between the gland washern and the split retatner.
and expand to form a seal between the body and the pipes.
Sketch (8) shows a coupling whtch is less flexible, but which has provision for a
limtted amount of misalignment and movement.
When the inner and outer sleeves are screwed together. pressure is applied to the
split collars and the rubber seal is squeezed out to form a seal between the inner
sleeve and pipe beads.
General
Ducts are mainly used to transfer a" from one point to another. Ducts carry differ·
ent sorts or air to and from venous systems.
Engine bleed atr (High and low pressure)
De-tcing system
Air condihonlng
Cabin pressurisation
Ventilation
Ambient air
These ducts a re made from·
Slatnless steel
Titanium
Aluminium alloy in a wide range of configurations Flange Clamp Flange
Ducts require break pomt to facllttate both Installation of ducts and maintenance.
These break points are usually provided by installing flanges or hoses on each end Figure 30: High Pressure V-Band Clamp
ofducting
Holding the flanges and duct sections together is done with dtfferent kind of clamps
and couplings. Care is requtred in assembly handling and installallon of ducts that
requires special clamps and couplings. Keep protective covers tn place at all times
on prectston flanges and preciston mating surfaces!
Janitrol Clamp
Check
at Clearance
"A" on b th .d ~~ Maxtmum
. Clearance
0 st e "A" 0.015 Inch
~
D'ctfloogo .
Flange ~\
O·Rmg Duct
,---1' ~ '_
_ __
Corrujoint Seal
f ' \
Figure 32: Janitrol "" Clamps with and without Locking Pin Flange and Sleeve Coupling
Boll Suppon
* ature,pressure
Flange and sleeve couplings are often used where the ducts move due to temper-
or structural motion They are equipped wrth one or two gaskets.
Two cables or rods are tnstalled to prevent the ducts from slipping out of the
sleeve.
Figure 33: Flange and Sleeve Coupling
Support
Screw Type Hose Clamps
Large d1ameter lines carrying low-pressure a1r etc may be joined w1th a rubber
hose sllpped over the ends of the tube and held in place with screw type hose
clamps. Rubber hoses are often used on the air distribution system in the cabin or
in the lavatory system. The ends of the tubes being jomed must be beaded After
the hose Is slipped over the beads, the hose clamps are centred between the ends
ot the hose and the beads.
Figure 34: Hose Clamp Installation
6.7 Springs
Introduction Characteristics of Springs
Many advances have been made in the spring industry 1n recent years. Helical Sprmgs do have a linear spring-charadenstic a s shown in Figure 1. Ta-
pered or conical Springs do have a progressive charactensllc as shown in
For example·
Developments In matenals permit longer fatigue life at h1gher stresses. simplified Figure 2.
design procedures reduce the complexities of des1gn and 1mprove methods of Figure 1: Characteristic of a Helical Spring
manllfacture help to speed up some of the complicated fabncatlng procedures and
Increase production. 600
New types of testing instruments ano revised tolerances also permit higher stand- kn
ard of accuracy. 500
Types of Springs
The more commonly used types of springs are.
Extension Spring
CompresSIOn Spring
Torsion Spring
Torsion bars
Special types and designs rarely used mciUde:
Volute Springs 40 60 80 nrn tOO
Tr&VIJI Strole•
Belleville Washers
Constant Force, Ring and Spiral Springs Figure 2: Characteristic of a Conical Spring
and those made from rectangular Wire 600
Hel1cal Springs can be both· kn
Extension Springs 500
Compression Springs
Spring Ends
,,
There are many ends on springs~ Two are shown in the figure below. nt-'J "-300
~
l Hookends l f Ground ends ~
& 200 ~-----"'~--~
tOO
r111111M 60
Travel Stroke
80 mm tOO
Extension Spring Compression Spring
Generally. extension Springs are manufactured pre-stressed that the windings are
Helical
straight together On both ends, there are formed eyes or hooks. The real spring-
action begins, when the applied force is bigger than the pre-stressed force of the Th1s spring is des1gned to withstand compressron loads. Th1S
spring. spnng has a wide vanety of applications from heavy duty springs
,:oo
used m land.ng gear systems to very small prec1s1on made
Figure 3: Characteristic of an Extension Spring springs used in Instrumentation One disadvantage of this sping
* is a condition called 'fioat'. This is where the frequency of com-
pression equals the resonant frequency of the spnng and im-
pedes Its etfecllveness. To overcome this problem install two
springs of different diameter one ms1de the other In this way the
resonant frequency of one of the springs may be reached but the
"1 2 other spring will still be able to operate effectively.
2 * ground
The end of a helical compress1on spring may be ground or un-
The advantage of a ground end is that when the sp·ing
0 6 12 ..,.,s
is placed on a nat surface (such as a washer) the spring stands perpendicular The
disadvantage of this type of spring end is that the diameter of the spring material
is reduced, weakening the end of the spring In add1Uon this type of end is more
expensive to manufacture. The unground end is easier to manufacture and is less
expensive but as the end of the spring is not nat. special fittings have to be manu-
factured to accommodate the spring ends
Figure 4: Helical and Conical Compression Spring
F,_321<N
Figure 5: Application of a Compression Spring on a RAT Torsion Spring
Torsion. by definition means an external stress that produces tw1sting w1th1n a
body.It is commonly used in twisted movements
The most commonly used types of ends for torsion spnngs are:
Hook
Hmged
Straight Offset
Straight Torsion
To produce these types o f springs requires only limited tooling.
Figure 6: Torsion Springs
C)OO'd
•
Stowed position
Torsion Bar
Torsion Bars are mainly made of round spring steel. Usually, the ends are
thoothed You can find Torsion Bars for example on a bulk cargo door as a balanc-
ing mechanism.
Figure 7: Torsion Bar
Figure 8: Application of a Torsion Bar shown on a Bulk Cargo Door
HJN6t AM
Material
Locating or Floating
The material of which nngs and rolhng elements are made IS normally a low-al- Thrust Bearing Bearing
loyed. through-hardening chrom1um steel with a h1gh punty. and a hardness of
58...65 HRC Rockwell. wh1ch is identified by the deslgnalton 100Cr6 (tool steel)
n Read more about Rockwell Hardness
U on Page 20m Sub Module 6.1 "Aircraft Material- Ferrous•.
Figure 3: Bearing Arrangement on a Gas Turbine Engine
-,
DIFFUSER LOW·
LOW-PRESSURE HIGH·PRESSURE AND PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR COMBUSTOR TURBINE
Rolling Bearing Components tolerance of one grade is very slight The generatnces of cyhrdncal rollers and ta-
pered rollers have a logarrthm1c profile The centre part of the generatrix of a nee-
Rolltng beanngs generally conSlst of dle roller •s straight . and the ends are slightly crowned This ~rofile prevents edge
beanng nngs (onner nng and outer nng stresstng when under load
nng). rolltng elements whteh roll on tile
raceways of the nngs and a cage
which surrounds the rolling elements
The lubriCant (usually lubncabng
grease or lubncaling 011) also has to be
regarded as a rolling beanng compo-
nent as a beanng can hardly operale
without a lubricant Seals are also in-
creasongly bemg integrated into tile
beanngs 8 -iilll-
Rolling Elements
Rolling elements are class1fied, acco·d1ng to the1r shape, mto balls. cylindrical roll-
ers needle rollers, tapered rollers ard barrel rollers
Figure 4: Rolling Elements
0 D Ball Cylindrical
roller
Needle
roller
D O D
Taper Symmetrical Asymmetncal
roller barrel roller barell roller
The rolling elements' functiOn is to transmtt the force acting on the beanng from
one ring to the other For a htgh load carrying capac1ty it 1S 1mportant that as many
rolling elements as posstble. wh1ch are as large as posstble. are accommodated
between the beanng nngs Thetr number and s1ze depend on the cross secbon of
the beanng It IS JUSt as Important for loadab1hty that the roll1ng elements wrth1n the
beanng are of lden~cal SIZe Therefore they are sorted accord•ng to grades. The
Bearing Rings The transmissiOn of forces is not one of the cage's functions Cages are classified
Into pressed cages, machined cages and moulded cages.
The beanng nngs- onner nng and outer ring- gu1de the rolhng elements in the di-
rection of rotation. Race way grooves. lips and inchned runntng areas guide the Pressed Cages
rollers and transmtt axtal loads in transverse direction. Cyhndncal roller bearings
and needle roller bearings have lips only on one beanng ling; they can, therefore, Pressed cages are usually made of steel, but somet1mes of brass, too. They are
accommodate shaft expansions as floating bearings. lighter than machtned metal cages. Smce a pressed cage barely closes the gap
between Inner nng and outer nng, lubricant can easily penetrate Into the bearing
Figure 5: Bearing Rings It is stored at the cage.
a a a Machined Cages
Machined cages of metai and textile laminated phenolic resin are made from tubes
of steel, light metal or textile laminated phenolic resin. or cast brass rings.
These cages are ma1nly eligtble for bearings of which small series are produced.
To obtain the required strength, large. heavily loaded bearings are fitted with ma-
chined cages. Machmed cages are also used where lip gU1da1ce of the cage Is re-
qwed. L1p-gwded cages for htgh-speed beanngs are in many cases made of light
materials such as hght metal or textile lamtnated phenohc resin to keep the forces
of gravity low.
a • raceways Moulded Cages
b • lips
Moulded cages of polyamide 66 are produced by Injection moulding and are used
The two rings of separable rolling beanngs can be mounted separately. This is of m many large-series beanngs. Injection mouldmg has made it posstble to realize
advantage if both bearing rings have to be mounted w1th a tight fit Separable bear- cage des1gns with an especially high load carrytng capac1ty. The elasticity and low
ongs include, e.g. four point bearings. double-row angular contact ball bearings weight of the cages are of advantage where shock-type bearing loads. great ac-
with a split ring, cylindrical roller bearings, needle roller beanngs, tapered roller celerations and decelerations as well as tilting of the bearing rings relative to each
beanngs, thrust ball bearings, cylindrical roller thrust beanngs and spherical roller other have to be accommodated Polyamide cages feature very good sliding and
thrust bearings. Non-separable bearings include. e.g deep groove ball bearings, dry running propertieS
single-row angular contact ball bearings. self-aligning ball bearings, barrel roller
bearings and spherical roller bearings. Cages of glass fibre reinforced polyamide can be used at operating temperatures
of up to +120 'C for extended periods of time. In oil-lubricated beanngs. additives
Cages contatned in the oil may reduce the cage life. AI increased le'llperatures. aged oil
may also have an impact on the cage life so that it 1s Important to observe the oil
Functions of a cage: change intervals.
to keep the rolling elements apart so thatlhey do not rub agatnst each other
to keep the rolling elements evenly spaced for uniform load diStribution Seals
to prevent rolling elements from falling out of separable bearings and bearings The seal should, on the one hand. prevent the lubrocattng grease or oil from escap-
which are swiveled out ing from the bearing and. on the other hand. prevent contaminants from entering
to guide the rolling elements m the unloaded zone of the bearing the bearing The effectiveness of a seal has a considerable influence on the serv-
Ice life of a bearing arrangement
Non-rubbing Seals Rubbing Seals
The only fnctoon ansmg wtth non-rullb~ng seals IS the lubncant rnctoon '" the lubn- Rubbtng seals contact their metallic runnmg surfaces under a oertatn force The
caOng gap. These seals can runcbon for a long bme and are SUitable even for very tntenstty of the resulting tnctiOn depends on the magnttude a thts force, the lubn-
htgh speeds Outside the beanng, gap-type seals or labyrinth seals may. for in- catmg condttiOn and the roughness of the runn•ng surface. as well as on the shdtng
stance be used Space-savtng seal ng elements are dust shtelds mounted 1n the veloCity
beanng Beanngs wtth dust shtelds are supplied With a grease filling Felt nngs prove partiCUlarly successful With grease lubncatoo1
Radtal shaft seals are above all used at oil lubncatJOn
Figure 6: Non-rubbing Seals V-nngs are hp seals With aJual effect which are frequently used as pre-seals en or-
der to keep d•rt away from a radtal shaft seal
Beanngs wtth •ntegrated seal~ng washers allow the construcbon of pla1n des;gns
Figure 7: Rubbing Seals
Grease Lubrication
Grease lubrication 1s used for about90% of all rolling bearings
The main advantages of grease lubrication are:
a very simple design
it enhances the sealing effect
long service life but little maintenance is reqUired
With normal operating and enVIronmental conditions. for-life grease lubrication is
often possible.
If a bearing is heavily stressed (load, speed, temperature), suitable relubrication
intervals must be scheduled.
Oil Lubrication
011 lubricetion is the obvious solubon for applications where adjacent machine el-
ements are already supplied with oil or where heat has to be removed by means
* of the lubricant. Heat can be removed by circulating substantial oil volumes. It may
be required where high loads and/or high speeds have to be accommodated or
where the bearings are exposed to external heating.
With oil throwaway lubrication, e.~ oil mist lubrication or oil-air lubrication. the
bearing friction is kept low.
Types of Bearings and Applications Tapered Roller Bearing
Note that 1n th1s type of beanng, the axes of the bear.ng rollers are not parallel to
Ball Bearings the shaft they are supporting and the beanng will accept rad1al loads and axJSI
loads In one dlfectton
Th•s os the most common type of beanng used on an a•rcraft A ball beanng as-
sembly normally cons1sts of an inner and outer race or shells wh•ch are the sup- The proportiOns of the loads the beanng has to carry w•ll determine the degree of
taper The greater the aXJalload the greater the taper.
porting element of the bearing and a set of balls that •s secured between the two
races *
A typtcal apphcabon for tapered beanngs are wheels as shown 1n Ftgure 8 and
Th1s type of beanog IS desJgned to operate under conhnuous rotary COnditions. FIQure 9
and IS des•gned to take rad•al and thrust loads or a combination of both.
* Tapered roller bearing is normally used on wheels
Figure 8: Tapered Bearing Application
There are two types of ball bearings n general use, the caged type and the crowd-
Wheel-half assy Wheel-hall assy
ed type
outer
Caged Ball Bearings y
In general, this beanng is used for eng1ne applications and for eqUipment with ro- I
tat•onal speeds in excess of 100 R.?.M When used within eng.nefgearbox cas-
Ings they are lubricated w1th engine oil supplied by Jets or by splash. When used
outside casings, they are lubricated by the apphcat1on of grease, wh1ch may be ap-
plied at spec•fied •ntervals by grease gun, or they may be of the pre-packed type
where lubrlcaUng grease is packed and sealed 1nto the beanng on assembly
Some caged ball bearings can be dtSmanUed Tapered
roller bearing
Crowded Ball Bearings
ThiS beanng has filhng slots .n one or both races and has no cage or separator
The balls therefore touch each other dunng operatiOn, hence the term "crowded.
They are suttable only where slow rotabon or port rotDbon (osctllahons) are found,
and are usually of the sealed or pre-packed type
Crowded ball beanngs usually cannot be dismantled
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings are normally classified by two types, stra•ght roller or tapered roll-
er Their use will depend on the requ~rements of the a~rcraftfengine des1gners.
Straight Roller Bearing
Stra•ght roller beanngs are used when they are subjected to rad•al loads only
whereas tapered roller bearings are subJected to both rad1al and thrust loads
Figure 9: Tapered Bearing Application Loads on Tapered Roller Bearing
This type of bearing produces an axial or thrust force on the cone rib. It lllerefore
requires good lubrication at high speed to prevent wear. Tapered roller bearings
are very often fitted In pairs witl1 the cone ends facing each other to balance out
the axial thrust
Ball
bearing
Deep groove ball bearing Angular contact Four point Sell-aligning Thrust Angular contact
ball bearing bearing ball bearing ball bearing thrust ball bearing
single row double row single row double row
Roller
bearing
R~
Cylindrical roller bearing
n H~ ~
Needle roller
bearing
Tapered roller
bearing
Barrel roller
beanng
Spherical roller
bearing
Ali
Cylindrical roller
thrust beanng
~
Spheric3l roller
thrust bearing
. tJtG)
Ool ~s
passag~
External Internal
Bevel Gear HypoidGear
~ln•o
This type of gear is used when the drive is required to be transm•tted through an This is a type of bevel gear, which is used where a
angle; in th•s case the gear teeth can be straight cut or in a helical fonn, when the change in speed is reqwed. but the ax1s of the
axis of the shafts intersecl shafts do not intersect. This gear form is not normal·
An example of use would be for the transmission of dnve from the main rotatmg ly used on gas turb.nes
~~~ar
assembly on a gas turbine to the accessory gearbox, or the tail rotor gearbox on
a helicopter
Figure 3: Bevel Gears
Hypoid gear pair with
hypold :ooth system
Worm Gear
Th1s gear form is used where there is a large resistance to turn-
Ing, and a large reduc!Jon in speed is reqwed. The worm teeth
are similar to a multi start thread. and are cut at an angle or on
the skew. in which case the gear may be called a skew gear.
Straight Spiral
Planetary Gear Figure 5: Planetary Gear
Planetary gear systems are typically used to reduce the propeller shaft speed on
more powerful aircraft eng1nes. This allows the eng me to turn at a higher. econom-
ic rpm and develop more power In a planetary gear system, the propeller mounts
on a spider like cage that holds the planetary gears. These planetary gears rotate
around a fixed central sun gear
In some planetary gear systems. the sun gear 1s the dnve gear and the ling gear Planetary gear With
is fixed 10 the nose section of the engine. In this situation. the planetary gears act fixed outer gear
as simple idler gears in the system. (Figure 5 on page 4)
Figure 4 : Planetary Gear on a Turbo Prop Engine
Reverse-now annular
combUstion chamber
Three-stage
axial turbine
(Outer gear)
First-stage
ceotrifugal
compressor
Spider
main function of planetary gear is to increase or decrease speed. Outer (ring) gear driven by engln~~ Axed Inner (sun) gear
Driven gear
Chains are used to change dtrection of control n.tns in systems where considerable Roller
~.rj=
force tS requtred, such as elevator controls
In addttion to the standard roller and Inverted tooth types, a wide variety of drive
chams of dtfferent construction are available.
Such chains are manufactured to degrees of precision ranging from unfinished
castings or forgings to chains having certain machined parts. Practically all of
these chains as well as standard roller chains can be equipped with attachments
to fit them for conveyor use.
Roller Chains
Widlh belween
tnoer plates / £l-o"""'"
/ "._Bearing pin
A roller chain is made up of two kinds of links: roller links and pin ltnks alternately
spaced throughout the length of the chain.
Roller chains are manufactured in several types, each destgned for the partlcular
service required. All roller chams are so constructed that the rollers are evenly
spaced, throughout the chain. Movtng
The outstanding advantage of this type of chain Is the ability of the rollers to rotate direclion
when contacting the teeth of the sprocket.
Two arrangements of roller chains are in common use. the single-strand type and
the multiple-strand type.
In the latter type, two or more chains are joined side by stde by means of common
pins. which maintain the alignment ol the rollers in the different strands.
A simple roller chain consists of
Outer and inner plates Detachable Chains
Rollers The links of this type of chain. which are identtcal, are easily detachable. Each has
Bearing pins a hook-shaped end in whtch the bar of the adJacent link articulates. They are avatl-
Bushes able in malleable iron or pressed steel. The chtef advantage is the ease with which
any link can be removed.
The chain has three prtncipal dtmensions (known as beanng dimensions since
they are related to the size of the wheels on which the chains n.tn}. these being: Cast Roller Chains
Pitch (distance between the centres of the rollers) Cast roller chains are constructed, wholly or partly, of cast mete/ parts and are
Width between inner plates avatlable in vanous styles
Roller diameter In general the rollers and stde bars are accurately made castings without machine
finish The links are usually connected by means of forged ptns secured by nuts
or cotter pins. Such chains are used for slow speeds and moderate loads. or where
the preclsJon of standard roller chains is not required
Pintle Chains Sprockets
Unlike the roller chain, the pintle chain is composed of hollow cored cylinders cast There are generally four d1fferent designs or types of roller chain sprockets:
or forged integrally with two offset side bars and each link idenbcal. with a pla1n plate
The hnks are JOtned by pins mserted In boles 1n the ends of the side bars and w1th a hub on one side
through the cored holes in the adjacent links. Lugs prevent turmng of the pins In
w1th a hub on both sides
the Side bars and thus ensure articulation of the chain between the pin and the
cored cylinder. with a detachable hub
Also used are shear pin and slip clutch sprockets designed to prevent damage to
Figure 15: Roller Chain attached to a Control Cable
the drive or to other equipment caused by overloads or stalling.
Figure 17: Sprockets/Chain Wheels
Pilch Oiam<!ler
Tl11d<noss
Woodruff key
-·
(Disc shape) I
Out$1d-o Oiamelor
Sprocket Materials
For large sprockets, cast iron is ccmmonly used. especially in drives with large
speed ratios. since the teeth of the larger sprocket are subjected to fewer chain
engagements In a given time.
For severe serv1ce, cast steel or steel plate Is preferred. The smaller sprockets of
a dnve are usually made of steel. \Mth this material the body of the sprocket can
be heat-treated to produce toughness for shock resistance. and the tooth surfaces
can be hardened to res1st wear
Stainless steel or bronze may be used for corrosion res1stance. and Formica"'·
Nylon"' or other suitable plastic materials for spec1al applications.
Example of use
The followmg figure shows a typ1cal application of cha1ns and belts. It is an extract
out of a Stabilizer Trimmwheel mechanism located in the center pedestal of a com-
mercial aircraft.
Torque Shaft Transmission Figure 21: System Components
Q;C~'
Torque shaftsfTransmlssion shafts
Steady bearings in the fuselage and wings
Joint connections
Angle gearboxes
Torque limiters Power Orlvt Unit
'?' -......··-·
~
...
Downdrive (Not explained- Aircraft specific)
&HT ANGlE
Figure 20: System Layout ARB OX
- o ovN OIUVE
~WIOl
The male part of the sliding end connection has an indicator groove. It shows when
the engagement of the male and female part is below a minimum. A check dimen-
sion Is for the maximum engagement.
Steady Bearing
Steady bearings, which support the torque shafts, are attached to the structure.
Torque Limiters
A torque hmiter installed In the transmission system operates in both d1rect1ons to
stop the transmission or too much torque. It is set w1th its own individual lock-out
torque values for extension and retraction. The torque lim1ters protect the wmg
structure and the actuators from a torque over1oad which could be generated by a
ftap mechanism fault or fa1lure. A latch type mechamcal indicator shows that a
lock-out torque has occured.
Fig ure 24: Torque Limiter
BALL ttAitPS TllP unncnoa
Q;ll
1i)
E
"'
i:5
!
7 x 7 Flexible 7 x 19 Ex1ra Flexible
Control Cable Control Cable
Measuring of Cables Figure 5: Measuring method of Cables
:: : , _-___-_-_-p
A
I I I ,_-_-_-_-_-_[1
6riiiilii!!i.\jn!!rcffiCC I } S¥%$l ©:1 I
c E
* Usually end of the cable will be fitted with swaged sleeve or thimble
Adjusting and Compensation Devices Figure 9: Safetying Methods
Tumbuckles!Turnbarrels
Control cable rigging is adjusted by usmg turnbuckles The bronze barrel has nght-
hand threads in one end and tefthand threads in the other end Nohce that there os
a groove around one end of the turnbuckle barrel. This groove identifies the end
*** of the barrel that has the left-hand thread.
The cable terminal ends are screwec into the barrel and as it1s turned. it pulls the
ends onto ot. To be sure that the terminals are screwed into the barrel enough to
produce full strength. there must be no more than three threads exposed on either
*** end of the barrel.
Figure 8: Control Cable Turnbuckle
c:t:::_:Q mGLiiJJ:=f\1'
&mOO~:.)I:... .
~ placed the wire locking method in a wide nange.
* After adjusting turnbuckle we should check safety and locking of turnbuckle COli
I ....,.L..
o!::ck=in=g=P=in=:;=:-r-'S
Compensation Devices is nearly constant. the frequency of vibrat1on (resonance) of the cables can be con-
trolled withm close limits away from any critical aircraft resonances.
Cable operated Oymg control systems in larger a1rcraft need to be fitted with a de·
vice which will maintain the correct cable tens1on at all times. This is necessary for Operation of Cable Tension Regulator
a number of reasons.
Aircraft structure and control cables are made or different matenals and expand A cable tens1on regulator 1s a mechan1cal devtce wh1ch when fitted in a cable sys-
and contract by different amounts when the temperature changes. tem. allows the cables under all conditions of temperature change and structural
As the aircraft reaches cru1sing speed at altitude the fuselage outer structure may deflections, to be taken m and let out equally on each side of the circuit. thus main-
get very cold, or hot dependmg on the speed. The cable system Inside will be at a taming umform tens1on
temperature determined by the a1r oondibonmg system or perhaps heated by ad- Two compression springs in the compensating unit prov1de the force necessary to
jacent engines, thermal anti-Icing or cabin heating ducts. Even if there IS no heat- maintain the desired cable tension. A braking device allows the springs to exert
ing or cooling inside. there is insulating air between the control system and the their force only when the cable system is in neutral i.e w1th equal tension on both
structure causing the cables and structure to be at different temperatures. cables. As soon as a control load is applied in either direction, by the pilot or control
An additional thermal factor becomes important when the a1rcraft is left standing surface, the regulator brakes out the action of the springs and gives the pilot rigid
in the sun before take off w1th the control cables at a lower temperature m the air control, instantaneously.
conditioned cabin. This causes the tension in the cables of unregulated control Figure 11 on page 10 shows a typical cable tension regulator. Th1s type of regula-
systems to become unusually high just before take-off at a lime when it is usually tor conststs of two spnng loaded quadrants. w1th a pointer and scale for recording
necessary to fly the a1rcraft manually for a oons1derable length of tJme. the cllange in length of the cables. The cables are Inserted through slots 1n the re-
Cable tension regulators maintain the correct cable tension under all conditions.
*** cesses end of the grooved quadrants and the cable ends are secured at the an-
chorage's shown. The cross-head is des1gned to fit the locking shaft very closely,
Control system cables are quite often not located on the neutral bending and tor-
Sional axes of the aircraft fuselage or wing. but is free to slide on the shaft. Each quadrant is free to rotate about a common
Deflection of the structure then results in the cables becoming slack or over ten- p1vot. but both are kept in phase by the cross-head and the two links The
sioned. For example the nose or a large aircraft may move 6 inches (152.4 mm) cross-head is spring loaded in a direction to apply the cable tension.
or so with respect to the central parlor the aircraft. If the cables are located near Any extension of the cables attached to the quadrant tends to give equal slacken-
the side of the fuselage, they must expand and contract as fuselage deflection oc- Ing or !he cables The regulator springs then rotate each quadrant in opposite di·
curs. An aircraft on the ground may have the w1ngs deflected downwards, wh1le In rP.ctions. thP. link ;~rm~ moving thP. ~ross-he::~d freely along the locking shaft. The
the air the wings will deflect upwards If the cables are not located on the neutral compression springs maintain the correct pre-set cable tension.
bending axis of the wing, relative length cllanges between cable and structure will
again occur Any shortening of the cables will have the reverse effect, tending to give equal in-
Pressurisation of the aircraft cabin can also result in changes in structure length crease in tension 1n the cables. The quadrants agam move in opposite directions,
relative to cable length. the link arms moving the cross-head inwards along the locking shaft.
Without cable tension regulators. h1gh initial cable tens1ons must be used to pre- When a control force is applied to the system. the cross-head tilts on its lock1ng
vent the cables from becoming slack in one extreme thermal or structural condi· shaft causmg II to lock on to the shaft. Both quadrants are now locked together and
lion. In the other extreme condition, the cable tension would 1ncrease to a sVII operate as a lever and give the pilot, pos1tive control or the system. During Hight
higher value Cable pulley fnction varies in proportion to the cable tension, there- the regulator is braked only when control loads are applied It compensates for
fore the cable system friction wtll vary widely. Cable tension regulators mamta1n a changes in cable tens1on only when no control loads are being applied On the
nearly constant tension thus allowing the use of lower 1nitial cable tens1ons. This ground, the regulator compensates tor gradual expansion or contraction as It oc-
results in lower and nearer constant cable system friction and operating forces. curs.
Lower cable tension also reduces cable and pulley wear Since the cable tension
Figure 11: Cable Tension Regulator and Quadrant
.--
..,.
Tensiometer Figure 12: Tensiometer
Non-regulated System
Non-regulated cable systems are used where cable length is short and no expan·
sron or contract ron Is expected. Therefore, a tensionregulator is unnecessary and
the cables tension must be adjusted with turnbarrelsi each cable run. To check the
tensron, a tensrometer IS used.
Regulated System
The cable tensron is adjusted on both sides of the circuit by means of turnbuckles
until the correct readong is obtarned on the regulator scale. The scale reading de-
pends upon the ambrent temperatLKe and is obtained by referring to a graph
shown in the aircraft maintenance manual.
After the control system cables have been set to the correct settong, regulator com-
pensation may be checked by grasping both cables near their point of entry to the
regulator and forcmg both cables in towards each other The resultrng movement
of the quadrant should be smooth and even. If the regulator fails to move. or the
movement is jumpy, it may indicate !hat the cables have been incorrectly rigged
so that the tension Is uneven, causing the locking mechanism to operate, locking
the control system.
In regulated systems, a tensiometer IS often used to check the tensionregulators
accuracy.
In Sub Module 7 13 "Control Cables", you can read more about Cables.
Pulleys Figure 13: Pulley Assembly
Pulleys are used to guide cables and also to change the dtrection of cable move-
ment They are also used to support stratght 'runs' of cables where they travel over
a large distance.
When adJUSting a control cable it is important that the cable end fittings do not foul
the pulley, otherwise cable movement will be restricted
Pulley bearings are sealed and need normally no further lubncation other than the
lubrication done at the factory or overhaul shop.
Types of Pulleys
Metallic
Non Metallic
Metallic pulleys are used where high tension, high temperature and hazardous en-
vironment condttions are presenl
Cable Guards
Cables passmg pulleys are kept in place by guards. Guards are close fitting to pre-
vent jamming or to prevent cables from slipping out when cables slakes due to
temperature variations, or when cable tension being relived for maintenance pur-
poses.
Cable System Components Figure 14: Pressure Seals
Fair/esds
*** Used to guide cables In a straight line through
or between structural members of the a~rcraft.
Fairleads may be made from non-metallic
materials such as phenolic m1carta or a metal-
he material such as soft alummium.
The rairlead completely enc1rcles the cable
where it passes through bulkheads or other
structural parts
Pressure Seals
Installed where cables route from a pressurised area to a non-pressunsed area. Ground Silicone Cover
Seals ane moulded of synthetic or silicon rubber. Silicone rubber seals are less Plate Rubber Sealing Plate
susceptible to damage caused by bushmg popout, cleaning abuse and agemg.
When replacement is necessary the damaged seal should be replaced according
to applicable maintenance directives.
Skin Panel , tr n .1
* A mechanical linkage passing through a pressure bulkhead must always be pressure sealed.
-/
- -@~ ·~~,,.
'
&'
-----
I Fig u re 17: Bowd en Ca ble
Rod End Support Bracket ~
Rod End
'\..__-c!~~===c===~~
Connections
These are used where it is necessary to uncouple the cable at some point in the
control run or where the bowden cable is used in conJuncllon w1th some other type
of control cable.
Junction Boxes
Used when connecting a single cab e to two others, where there are two compo-
nents to be operated by a single control.
Figure 18: Connector/Junction Box
Aircraft Materials - Introduction have allowed us to build structural shapes that are superior to metals in strength,
weight, and rigidity.
The development of new ·space age· materials for both aircraft structure and en- Modern aircraft are manufactured from many different types of materials. Those
gines has made the vast progress of av~ation possible. The basic structure of most most commonly used are aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, Monel (a nickel alloy),
of the ear11est nying machines were made of strips of spruce or bamboo, and the stainless steel, and chrome-molybdenum steel.
lifting surfaces were covered with cotton or linen cloth. After World War I, welded
steel tubing replaced the wooden truss used for the fuselage structure of most of Civilian aircraft are constructed primarily from heat-treated aluminium alloys, while
the new aeroplanes. And 11 was during the 1920s that formed plywood became mihtary aircraft (fighters) are constructed primarily from titanium and stainless
used for the primary structure of sorre of the most streamlined and high-strength steel. It is to say that more and more primary structure parts are being made of
aircraft of the time. composites.
The technological developments made during World War II allowed the all-metal, Submodules 6.1 to 6.3 will consider the materials used in aeroplane construction.
stressed-skin , semi-monocoque structure to replace the tabric-covered truss and will look at some of the processes used to adapt these basic materials to air-
structure in the vast majority of a~rcralt. This technology was standard until the last craft use.
few decades when resins remforced with various types of composite materials
Figure 1: Materials
Materials
Figure 2: Example of Material Usage In Airliner
IUS - U(IAD
707S.. U
U"ll UIN f 'lUU\1 H U Wit UJJ.U(IAD
I O WU S•IN fll ANIIISI \UOIH' l OCI SI'INS JOJ'$-U(lAD
sr.u (.U\
"'"''f'ttl
tfAOIHG IOGI S•IHS Ulf·tU SIIUt
SlAil "" uu.tUUtfll
tu.C•\
UA1 U 'INS
SlAt S•INS
n
,,. .. ,,
l ol l JOIG!14'
"IHS r"lUUI II
JI'I,..S f1111WGIHJ CAtiON ttOif
IONCftOH.t &INI(lJ JUO~IUIIr'il l • H ·UUAO \HfU ( AIION ff01J
IONGt t Otoi\ (tiiiHI 707$-UCUD )OU... fHClAO SHIU Catt ON lfOJ'f
'"'' uo,us n •·•·• ltlJ-IUII UU ( AUON ttOJT
fU ..U 1\lllff .. UA I) 1Ct7S-U(lAO 300itlo 0110
fUMU IIOUHOI
fU,MU lflUUO IOJ
JOSO.IU
Jl$0-fUS11
H -'·' UH
fl• •. , UH
JIQO I t .lNf\S Grtt/ HONIX
''"" '""'""0 0'" '"0""11 ~~~~~~r=t:====~~~~~S,OilliS
I AOOM I Gi lt
!!!!!ill!
UIPU J I IN 1t,J.U tnt SHill
lOWfl 11liN nu 11 uu SHiff
'JH,HUI l'IJ~1U .U IU
.....,.
UttiiSUII WUS 0 11UJII IUOINCO I OCt 1015-.. U (1.\0 SII~JI
tutuHco nca
NOU
lOWtt \tAt CAll
lO'I"UitA.IWU'
u ..srM "·"H
U.JrM H-IOIS
JUING,IIS ttOW U I
StU C•n ttOIGIOJ ,
USt~UlJH
lOWU U IH
(A II OH HOlT
(AtfON «t OIT
CfNifl JOtM CAttON tt O n
lOt"'
StOI UIH)
All I .tolliNG "''
cntJilC
UAt (PAJ fUU UOfD)
stAt WU PUU
ltJ•·U1J11
JOIJ. tUI ''"'
Ill !INC uso.n•
Metals temperatures. A material Is considered to be heat resistant if there is not an impor-
The basic classifications of metals for aircraft structure are ferrous and nonferrous. tant loss of strength up to a temperature of soo•c.
A ferrous metal is one that contains iron, and in this classification are the various
Elasticity
types of steel. Nonferrous metals are classified 1nto "lightweight" and "heavy-
weight" and include aluminium, magnesium, titanium, and monel . In aviation in- It is the capability of an object or material to be stretched and to recover its size
duslly, titanium with its alloys is considered the heaviest light weight metals (see and shape after its deformatoon
"Figure 5" on page 6). The flexibility of spring steel used for the construction of landing gear is a good ex-
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must possess a thorough knowledge ample of elasticity Another form of elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft skins
or metals. However. before you can develop a complete understanding of metals expand and contract when an a1rcraft is pressurized.
used in the aviation industry, you must first become familiar with some of the prop- A metal's elastic limit is the point beyond which the metal does not return to its orig-
erties metals have. inal shape after a deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as lead, copper,
and pure aluminium have very low elastic limits, while the elastic limit of hard
Properties Of Metals spring steel is very high.
A given metal can possess several properties. Among these are strength. hard-
Figure 3: Simplified Elasticity Layout
ness, malleability, ductility, brittleness. conductivity, expansion, elasticity, tough-
ness, fusibility, and density.
*** Hardness
The property of a material that enab:es it to resist penetration, wear or cutting ac-
tion.
Strength
The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in any
direction, or the ability of a materiallo resist stress without breaking.
Considering the way a piece of material is loaded, the strength takes a different
name:
Tension Strength
Pressure Strength
Shearing Strength
Bend Strength
Tension Strength Is the most important one, evaluating material( see Tille "Tensile
Strength Test" on page 22)
Thermal Strength
If metal Is heated up during loading, it will tum ductile ear11er than at ambient tem-
peratures. Because of this phenomenon is necessary to test metals at different
Plasticity Toughness £ /Q~-~/Ct!• t)
The property of a metal wh1ch allows it to be reshaped. When a force acts on a The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking Breaking
lattice structure, the atoms in 1t will begin to slide from each other If there is change when it 1s bent or stretched. Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal
1n the form of the piece of material. without cracks, when the force stops to act, are that must be tough as well as hard to be useful.
Conductivity tle.t{~~•)f{e,/)
The characterisbc of a material which makes it possible for ~ to transmrt heat or
electrical conduction
Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons. making them good electrical con-
ductors. Electrical conductivity is the measure of a material's ability to allow elec-
Ductility ( fl<..l,..,,cv/(e,t / tron flow. A metal oonductor can be a wire, an aircraft frame. or an engine.
Electrons now much eas1er in some metals than they do in others, because of their
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without break- molecular structures. The best electrical conductors are gold, silver. copper, and
ing. Ductile metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming aluminium.
and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason, aluminium alloys are
often used for cowlings, fuselage and wing skins. and formed or extruded parts
Durability ( /lflitk-ltt.l- I /{(1 f.&;.,J sk'r. (-
such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads. The property of metal t!lat enables it to withstand force over a period of time.
Durability properties are important considering fatigue1or metal.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beating Density
r~~"'""""'~!
with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking. Hardness and mal- Density is actually the mass-per-unit volume of a material, and throughout the dis-
leability are generally considered opposite characteristics. To help increase mal- cussion of metals we use the density of a material to compare weight.
leability, several metals are annealed, or softened (see Title ' Annealing· on
page 16) . The density of some of the more commonly used metals is s~.own in the table be-
low
In this condillon complex shapes can be formed. After form1ng is complete. the
metal is then heat treated to increase its strength. A metal may be fully annealed
when the forming is started, but hammering and shaping can harden it to such an
extent that it must be re-annealed before forming is completed
Figure 5: Metal Classification Considering Density
5 Kg/dm3
Density
Cube of Aluminium Cube of Steel
BJ 2.7Kg
~d~ 7.8 Kg
Ferrous Metals
Any metal that contains iron as its principal constituent is called a ferrous metal In
airaart structure we are chiefly concerned with steel, which is iron with a controlled
amount of carbon added.
I
Nose Landing Gear
Steel Alloy
*Alloyed steel is mainly
using in landing gears
Steel Manufacturing
Iron
Iron is. in Its pure form. a fairly soft, malleable, and ductile metal that is easy to form
or shape It is silvery white m colour and Is quite heavy. havmg a dens1ty of 7.9gl
cm3. Iron easily combines with oxygen to form Iron oxide, which is more commonly
known as rust.
Cast 1ron is seldom used in aircraft construction because of its low strength-to-
weight ratio.
When the iron is removed from the furnace. after it has been taken out of ore. it is
in a form known as pig Iron It may be re-melted and cast Into cast-Iron compo-
nents, or it may be taken to some of the steel-making furnaces, or converters, to
convert the iron into steel.
Unalloyed And Low-Alloyed Steels
Pig Iron from the blast furnace is re-melted In a special furnace where oxygen is
forced through the molten metal so that oxygen can unite with the carbon and burn
it out. When the carbon is burned ou~ a controlled amount of carbon is put back
in. along with other elements that are needed to get the particular characteristics
we want from steel.
High Allo yed Steels
If a steel alloy contains more than 5% of an alloying agen~ it is considered as a
high alloyed steel.
Higl1 allOyed is the kind of steel we use in aircraft construction. 11 is maoe in electnc
furnaces. which allow much better control of the alloying agents than the gas fired
furnaces.
Alloy Steels Standards SAE Classification of Steels
Most of the steel used in aircraft structure IS classified according to the SAE four-
There are different standards, used 'or civil aviation steel clasification. The most
applied ones are listed below· digit numbering system that identifies its composition.
SAE (Society of Automotive Engtneers) Figure 7: SAE Notation
AISI (Amencan Iron and Steel Institute)
AMS (Aerospace Material Specification)
This standard does not g1ve mformation about material components. Be- **** Basic alloytng element
cause It tncludes many different material it is often used as a material or- 1 = Carbon (C) only
dering system
BS (British Standard}
2 = N1ckel (N1)
3 = Ni + Chromium (Cr) SAE 4130
AFNOR-A11 ("Association Francaise de Normalisation")
BMS (Boeing Material Speclficabon)
4 = Molybdenum (Mo)
5 = Chromium (Cr)
6 = Vanadium (V) + Chromium (Cr)
7 = Tungsten (Tg)
8 = N1 + Cr + Mo
9 = Silicon (Si) + Mangan (Mn)
cD@
®
Percentage of the basic element in the alloy
Percentage of carbon m the alloy in hundredths of a percent
Eg:- (1) SAE 1020 is plain carbon steel containing 0.2 percent carbon
(2) SAE 2330 is Nickel Alloy with 0.3 percent carbon
For example, SAE 4130steel is a Molybdenum steel that contains approx. 1% Mo
and 0.30% carbon Some of the most commonly used SAE st.eels are.
/.ow Ctil'hCVI - (fttt 1xxx Carbon steel:
Steels containing between 0 10% and 0.30% carbon (SAE 1010 and 1030}
""'J,v. . . - c'Cikv. - n((( are classed as low-carbon steels and are used for making safety wire and cer-
tain secondary structural parts where stnenglh is not critical.This low carbon
steel does not have sufficient strength for aircraft structural applications. and
its use is limited to secondary structuri~here the loads are not high. Steels
containing between 0 30% and 0 50% ¥JrbOn (SAE 1030 and 1050) are me-
dium-carbon steels and are used for machined and forged parts. especially
where surface hardening is needed. Steel containing between 0.50% and
1.05% carbon (SAE 1050 and 1105) are high-carbon steel and ane used
where extreme hardness is reqwed . Springs are made of high-carbon steel.
2AAx Nickel s teel : A lSI Classification of Steels
Between 3% and 3 75% nickel may be alloyed with carbon steel to mcrease This Standard is used, '" av1alion. to classify corrosion resistant steels.
1ts hardness. tensile strength. and elast1c lim1t Without appreciably decreasing
1ts ductility SAE 2330 steel is used for aircraft bolts, cable terminals, keys, Figure 8: AlSI Notation
clevises, and p1ns
310lX N ickel-c hromium steel:
NICI<el giVes to1.1ghness to steel. and chrom11.1m hardens it Ntckel chrom1um
AISI403
steels such as SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and machined parts
where htgh strength. duct1hty. toughness. and shod< resistance are needed The AISI notatJOn does not descnbes the alloy components
410lX Chrome-molybdenum steel: Table 1: Identification for Heat and Corrosion Resistant Steels
Most a1rcrart structural steel IS a chrome-molybdenum allOy that combines
toughness and htgh strength Witt ease of weld1ng and machinrng AISI 2XX Chromtum-nlckel-manganese (non-hardenable, austenill<:,
nonmagnell<:).
SAE 4130 1S one of the most popular alloys, and it •s used extensively lor
welded steel struc1ure such as 'uselage frames. landmg gear, and eng1ne AISI 3XX Chromium-niCkel (non-hardenable, a1.1stenrbc, nonmagnebc)
mounts Eng1ne cyl1nders and ot,er htghly stressed parts are often made of
SAE 4130 steel AISI 4XX Chromum. (hardenable, martensillc and lemlic, magnebc).
Heat-treated SAE 4130 steel has an ultimate tenS<Ie strength of about four AISI 5XX ChrOilllum (tow chrom1um, heat reS<sbng)
bmes that of SAE 1025 steel. wh1ch makes 11 an Ideal chotee for landing gear
structures and engine mounts
Somet1mes It IS pos1ble to find one or more letters close to th9 AISI number, de-
610lX Chrome-vanadium steel : scnblng the follow1ng caractenst•cs
Chrome-vanadium steels are used extens1vely for wrenches and other hand
tools where extremely h1gh strength and toughness ere essential Table 2: Letter Code
For more inlormabon about stainless steel (see T•tle ' Corros1cn-Res1Stant (Statn·
less) Steel' on page 13)
Alloying Agents Nickel
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength And
Ca rbon n1ckel, used as an alloy. slows the critical rate of harden1ng when the steel is heat-
Carbon is the most important element found In steel. mixing Wltl'l tl'le iron to fomn treated. This increases the depth of hardening and produces a finer grain struc-
compounds of iron carbides called cementite. It is the carbon In the steel that al· ture Nickel also reduces the tendency of steel to warp and scale when 11 Is heat-
lows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength, and treated. Nickel is one of tl'le chief ingredients in corrosion resistant, or stainless
toughness. steel.
The greater the carbon content. the better the ability to heat treat and therefore the
higher the tensile strength and the hardness. However, increasing the carbon con· Chromium
tent deCfeases the malleability and tl'e weldabihty of the steel. Th1s hard h1gh-melbng point element is alloyed with steel to increase its strength
A high carbon content. up to about 0.953%, may be used where extreme hardness and wear resistance. as well as its resistance to corrosion. It also gives steel a
is needed and malleability is not of primary concern. High-carbon steel is used in good measure of hardness. Chromium is usually used In conjunction witl'l other el-
the manufacture of cutting tools and springs. ements, such as molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium, to give steel the special
qualities that are needed in aircraft structure
Low-carbon steel that conta1ns about 0.203 carbon is used where a great deal of
fomning or deep drawing is needed, and where strength is of minor concern. Chrome-vanadium alloy is used when extremely tough steel is needed for applica-
tions such as wrenches and ball bearings.
Medium-carbon steel, one having between 0.253 and 0.503 carbon , is used for ap·
plicatlons where both strength and ductility, or form ability, are required. Chrome-molybdenum steel has tl'le strength, toughness and lightweight needed to
make it the primary steel for aircraft structure and for high-strength engine compo-
Manganese nents such as cylinders.
Manganese is alloyed w1th steel to eliminate some of tl'le oxides and the sulphur Nickel-chrome steel is the primary alloy used in the manufacture of aircraft hard-
from the steel. making it a clean. tou~h. and uniform metal. Manganese also im- ware, and because of its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, tung-
proves the forging characteristics of the steel by making it less brittle at the rolling sten-chrome steel Is used for high-speed cutting tools.
and forging temperatures. In addition to its Important function as an alloying element in the manufacture of
steel. chromium may be electrolytically deposited on cylinder walls and bearing
Silicon journals to provide a hard, wear-resistant surface.
When tl'lis non-metallic element is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener. When
it is used in small quantities. it also improves the ductility of the steel Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for a1rcraft structural steel is mo-
Phosphorous lybdenum It reduces the grain size of the steel and Increases botl'l its impact
This element ra1ses the yield strength of steel, which improves the resistance of strength and its elastic limit Molybdenum steels have some of the best wear re-
low-carbon steel to atmospheric corrosion No more than 0.05% phosphorous Is sistance and fatigue strength of any of the alloys. This accounts for their popularity
nomnally used in steel, as more of it will cause the metal to become brittle when it for high strengtl'l structural members and for engine cylinder barrels.
is cold. Chrome-molybdenum steel responds very well to heat treatment, mach1nes easily,
and is readily welded.
Vanadium
When extremely h1gh strength is reqLired of steel along with toughness and good
ductility, chrome-vanadium steel is used. Vanadium used in amounts up to alxlut
0.20% improves the grain structure and Increases both the ultimate tensile
strength and the toughness. Most wrenches are made of chrome-vanadium steel.
Tungsten
Tungsten, which has an extremely high melting point. brings some of this charac-
teristic into the steels with which it is alloyed. Tungsten alloys are used for breaker
contacts In magnetos and for cutting tools. Tungsten steels retain their hardness
even when operated red-hot.
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the outstanding
advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets.
Since the 1940s the term stamless steel, also designated corrosion resistant steel The most important characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion reststance.
{CRES). has become a household word because of its many applications in con- strength, toughness, and resistance to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be
sumer items as well as in atrcrart applications, for example fire walls. divided into three general groups based on their structures: austenibc. ferribc, mar-
** Aircraft firewalls are made by Stainless steel tensitic and Precipitatton hardenable.
Austenitic The most widely used stamless steels for general use are those in the 300 series,
The austenitic steels are chromium (Cr). nickel (Ni) and chromtum-nickel-manga- called 18-8 because they contatn approximately 18 percent chromium and 8 per-
nese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold worktng, and heat treatment cent nickel. Typical of these types are 301. 302, 321 and 347.
serves only to anneal them. They are nonmagnetic In the annealed condition, al-
though some may be slightly magnebc after cold working. Precipitation Hardenable
The increase of flight speed increased friction with the air and grater heat1s devel-
Steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the cnttcal range and holding oped. Therefore, the need arose for materials that have good corrosion resistance
to form a structure called austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed and great strenght at room temperature and at moderately high temperatures to
followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range. approximately 4oo•c (675.K). This led to development of this kind of Steel. They
This kind of CRES is of wide use in aviation. are alloyed with elements such as copper and aluminium. These elements make
precipitation hardening possible.
Ferritic
Ferritic steel contains no carbon; they do not respond to heat treatment. They con· Handling Peculiarities of CRES
lain a substantial amount of chromium and many have a small amount of alumin- Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages
ium. They are always magnetic. It is lo mention that this kind of CRES Is not used that must be faced by the fabricator and designer:
in aviation
Stainless steels are more dtfficult to cut and form than many materials.
Martensitic Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels, and
Martensilic steels are straight chromium alloy that harden intensely if they are al- they conduct heat at a lower rate; this makes welding more difficult
lowed to cool rapidly from high temperatures. They differ from the two preceding
groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment
Many of the stainless steels lose the1r corrosion resistance under h1gh tempera-
tures.
In the use of corrosion resistant steels for aircraft. the technic1an must assure that
the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft Involved.
In most cases a damaged part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified
by the part number; however. there are situations where it is preferable to repair a
part by patching or welding In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant
steel (CRES) must be chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred. because this process causes
less defonnatlon due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation.
The expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than
twice that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cui, form, shear, ma-
chine. or drill than ordinary steel. For this reason the techmcian who is to work with
this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or
must be directed by an experienced technician.
Heat Treatment of Steel the carbon particles W111 be extremely fine and wlll effectively bind the molecular
structure of the steel together, making it hard and strong.
When steel is heated its temperature increases steadily until it Is momentarily The critical temperature and the ultimate strength steel will develop, will vary with
checked at the critical po1nl. At th1s point the metal absorbs heat and changes oc- the alloying agents, but the most important factor Is the amount of carbon.
cur in the structure of the metal . without temperature rise. After this period has
passed the temperatune continues to rise as before. Lowo<:arbon steel will not heat-treat satisfactorily because of the small amount of
carbon, but as the amount of carbon is increased, the steel gains the abihty to be
If steels h<IVing different carbon contents are heated In this way and the critical hardened and strengthened by heat treatment. This occurs up to about 0.80% car-
points plotted on a graph, and if all these po1nts are joined an Iron/Carbon Equilib- bon.
rium Diagram is produced (see "Figure 10• on page 17)
Beyond this, the hardness does not incnease, but its wear resistance improves with
Most of the heat treatment that are carried out on carbon steels nelate to the tem- an increase in the amount of carbon.
peratures on the Iron/Carbon equilibrium Diagram
Iron IS an allotropic metal. which means that It can exist 1n more than one type of
lattice structure, depending on the temperature. Molten pure iron will begin to so-
lidify at 153s•c. The structure at this point is known as the l> (della) fomn. If cooling
continues to 1392•c the atoms will rearrange themselves into the y (gamma)
austenitic form. Strangely enough iron in this form Is nonmagnetic. CRE: /JLf- Lj
\.
When lhe nonmagnetic austenitic gamma iron is cooled to 911°C another change
occurs. The iron is transformed into a nonmagnetic fomn of the ex (alpha) ferritic
structure. If cooling continues to 769'C the material becomes magnetic with no fur-
ther change In the lattice structure.
/ ..J
..
Steel (iron + carbon) exists in two basic forms that are of interest in our consider- '>-? ... /iiJ [~rr,_l
ation of heat treatment. Ferrite is alpha solid solution of iron into which some car-
bon has dissolved. It exists at temperatures below the lower crttical temperature.
Above this lower critical temperature, the steel begins to turn into austenite, which
Cr ;V,
consists of austeniticgamma Iron into which carbon has been dissolved. As the
temperature is increased, this transformation of ferrite into austenHe continues un-
til the upper critical temperature Is reached. Above the upper critical temperature,
the entire structure consists of austenite.
Below its lower critical temperature the carbon, which exists in the steel in the form
of cementite (iron carbides Fe3C), is scattered throughout the iron matrix, or its
molecular structure, as a physical mixture
When the steel Is heated to its upper critical temperature, this carbon dissolves
Into the matrix and becomes a solid solution, rather than a physical mixture. The
steel has now become austenite. and the iron Is in its gamma fomn.
When the temperature of the steel drops below this crillcal value. the carbide par-
ticles precipitate out of the solution. If the steel Is cooled slowly, the particles will
be quite large and the steel will be soft, but if it 1S cooled very rapidly by quenching.
Figure 9: Relationship of Temperature and C-content of Steel Annealing
If steel is heated to about 1o•c above its critical temperature, and is held there until
1600 the carbon goes into solid solution with the matrix, and is then allowed to cool very
slowly, the carbon that prec1p1tates out will be in large particles that do not bind the
1536 ~ matnx lightly.
:.......
~ r------_
1500
The steel will be soft and ductile and may be easily fonmed, or worked. The tem-
peratures and oooling rates vary with the alloy, but for annealing they are normally
1300 above 871•c The steel may be oooled by leaving It in the furnace but shutting off
--......... the heat so it will cool slowly, or by packing the steel In hot sand or ashes to insu-
d'~~
Austenlle I process known as normalising.
I
0 1000 The steel is heated to about 40•c above Its upper critical temperature and held un-
l~
'- I til this temperature is unifonnn throughout. Then it is removed from the furnace and
e2 I allowed to cool in still air The particles of carbon that precipitate out are not as
..e
a.
911
900 ~e
,v< I large as those formed when the steel is annealed, but the molecular stresses are
relieved
~"'
E
~ / Austen~te •
Cementite
I
I
800 I Hardening
I
Austeollt~/ I If the steel is to be hardened, it is heated above its critical temperature so the car-
•Ferrite Lower CriUcaJ Temperature
723 han ~.an Anler into a uniform solution with the iron matrix. and is then cooled rapidly
700 by quenching 11 In water. otl, or brine. The speed of the quench Is determ1ned by
I I
I I the quenching medium. Oil provides the slowest quench, and brine the most rapid.
Ferrite+ !! Perlite+ I If the quench is quick enough, insufficient time is allowed for !he carbon to precip-
600 - Perlite --~- - Gtalnboondary
itate out, and ~ beoomes trapped in the solution. The resultant structure is known
Cemenllts I
I I as martensite. and is a supersaturated solid solution of carbcn in an iron matrix.
500 I I Although martensite is the hardest possible structure, it is not the des~red result of
I I
I heat-treating. Martensite is far too hard and brittle for most applications, and the
I I I
Carbon Content(%)- 2I
I final product must be obtamed by tempering.
0 I Tempering
l
0.8 2 .06
The hardened steel may be tempered. or have some of the hardness drawn ou~
Iron t+•-------Steet -.-cast leon by heating it to a temperature considerably below its cntical temperature and hold-
Straw 230
Golden yellow 243 Center punch
64 67 - Al99.5% 110
105 110
133 140 - AA 2024 440
143 150 -
190 200 -
238 250 22.2 TlAI5Sn2 814
285 300 29.8
342 360 36.6 Waspaloy 1120
361 380 38.8 lncoloy 901 1050
437 460 46.1
- 550 52.3
-
- 650
800
57.8
64
AISI4130 1450
- 940 68
-- 1'500
10'000
-eo
-100
Ceramic Insert
D1amante
HB
Tensile Strength Test Figure 13: EJttension/Compression Test Workstation
In lhts test the material is placed in a machtne and pulled until it breaks. To ensure
uniformity, test-piece dimensions are specified in standards for tensile testing.
The figure below shows a typical test piece, and It wtll be seen that a section is of
reduced diameter. so that the extension and the breakage will occuratong that part
of the test·piece. The extension of a length called the gauge length ts studied dur-
ing the test. The points that indicate the ends of the gauge length are called the
gauge points. In a routine tes~ these points are marked by centre punch, but, if a
more detailed test is to be carried out, the extension Is measured by an instrument
cal!ed an extensometer. which prodLces the gauge potnts when it is attached to
the test-piece.
There is a fixed relationship betwee1 the gauge length and the cross sectional
area of the test-piece at the reduced diameter. If the material is ductile. it w111 de-
velop a 'neck' or 'waist'. as shown in the figure below: but if it Is brittle, it will break
before local extension occurs. *tensile strength can be tested by Stretching the metal
The Tensile Strength
This is defined as the maximum force taken by the test-piece, divided by the orig-
inal area. This value is used to compare the strength of materials, but a safety fac-
tor is applied when making design calculations, to bring the working stress well be
low the limit of proportionality.
Figure 12: Specimen
Fatigue Strength Test Sheet & Plate Bending (Flexural Fatigue)
Procedure: A test stress is selected and converted to a bend1ng moment for the
Fatigue failure is caused by repeated stress cycles, such as reversal or alternating
stresses (reversal ol direction of bend1ng or torsion , or alternating compressive particular specimen configuration The constant- stress tapered specimen is rigidly
clamped at its wide end to the vise or bending moment load cell, the narrow end
and tensile stresses). fluctuating stresses (variation of Intensity of stresses), and
is attached to the stroking portion of the machine. Machine stroke is adjusted to
repeated stresses (application and removal of stresses).
yield the desired peak-to-peak load. The mean load is achieved by adjusting the
This form of failure is encountered ~ery frequently in engineering , and, although position of the vise which retains the speetmen or load cell. As the machine speed
much publicity has been given to the fatigue of aircraft structures, this form of fail- is adjusted, the cycle counter records the number of test cycles. Fracture of the
ure is very common in more ordinary circumstances; motor-car half shafts, crown specimen automatically terminates the test The number of test cycles is recorded
wheel and pinion assemblies, and pedal-cycle crank spindles are susceptible to and plotted.
fatigue failure.
Figure 14: Sheet Bending Machine
'A/hen the fatigue resistance ol a material is to be determined, a number of
test-pieces is prepared and tested The number of stress cycles that produce fail-
ure is recorded. The first test Is carried out with a high maximum stress, and each
subsequent test employs a lower maximum stress.
The object of the series of tests is to determme the highest maximum stress that
will permit a given 'life' in terms of stress cycles; alternatively, the fatigue limit may
be required. (The fatigue limit is the highest maximum stress that will permit the
material to undergo an 'infinite' number of stress cycles before failure).
If fatigue conditions are present, the material will fail at a stress that is much lower
than that associated with a static force. The fatigue strength of a material is be·
tween 0.35 and 0.65 of the tensile strength, depending upon composition: but the
fatigue strength of a component is reduced by poor finish, sharp corners, and cor-
rosion.
/
/
/
~-./
r-,v '
...... ......
.,)'
......
Standard Specimen
Pendulum Machine
COCKPIT SKIN FLOOR STRUCTURES DOORS : SKINS : ALJCOPPER ALLOY WING UPPER PANEL
TITAN IUM - ALIZINC ALLOYS OTHERS : ALIZINC ALLOY • ALIZINC ALLOY
PYLONS
·ATTACHMENT FITTING :
TITANIUM ALLOY
· MAIN STRUCTURE :
TITAN IUM+
STEEL ALLOY
- SECONDARY :
STAINLESS STEEL
INNER FLAP
MAINLY ALICOPPER ALLOY
WING FITIINGS
PYLON, MLG, FLT/CTL
-TITANIUM
FUSELAGE SKIN
WiNG LOWER PANELS STRINGER : ALJCOPPER ALLOYS
RIBS AND SPARS FRAMES : SHEET : ALICOPPER ALLOYS
- ALJCOPPER ALLOY MACHINE : ALIZINC ALLOYS
Non Ferrous Metal Standards AAA Standard
There are different standards, used f:>r CIVil aviation non ferrous clas1fication. The Figure 2: AAA Notation Copper is the main alloy
most applied ones are listed below: element
AAA (American Alum1n1um Assoc1ation) Q) Main alloy element:
AMS (Aerospace Material Speclflcation) =
1 aluminium (AI) 99%
This standard does not give Information about material components. Be· 2 =copper (Cu)
cause it includes many different material it is often used as a material or-
dering system
3 =mangan (Mn) 202~- T3
=
4 silicon (Sl)
GS~® CD
BS (British Standard)
AFNOR-Air ("Association Francaise de Normalisation") =
5 magnesium (Mg)
BMS (Boeing Material Specificalion) 6=Mg+Si
7 =zinc (Zn)
6 = special alloy
Indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero. it indicates
the original alloy: digits 1 through 9, wh1ch are assigned consecu-
**AAA Numbering system tively. indicate alloy modifications
Aluminium
Thickness of cladding: 3 • 5% of T
Cladding Material
(Pure Aluminium)
~
Waspaloy 58%Ni, 19.5%Cr, 3%Ti, 13.5%Co. Compressor
(AMS5709) 4.3%Mo, 1.4%AI disks, turbine
~ 500 disk~
c
~ Nimonic 90 NiCr20Co18Tl Compressor and
...~ 250
c
(AMS 5829) Turbine. disks,
•1anes. disks
{E.
100 300 500 700 900
Temperature (•c)
Monel Metal
Monel contains min 63% Nl and 27-32% Cu, along woth small amounts or iron and
manganese It can be welded and has very good machonong characteristics. Cer-
taon types or monel, espeCJally those contaonong small percentages or alumonum.
are heat-treatable to tensole strengtts equrvalent to steel Monel worils well in
gears and parts that require hogh strength and toughness, as well as for parts in
exhaust systems that reqwe hogh sl!ength and corroSJon resostance at elevated
temperatures
The value or Monel foes pnncopally on ls strength and corrosoon resoslance.
Monel Is nonmagnetic on all conditions It os easily worked on a manner somolar to
steel and has comparable strength. K-Moneloncludes a small amount of aluminium
(2-4%. max 2% Fe and 0,3-1% TI) and is heat-treatable to develop maximum
strength. It Is particularly useful in ma1ufacturing durable parts that are or may be
subjected to corrosive condotoons.
Non Ferrous Metal Heat Treatment The quenching must occur rapidly. After quenching the material initially is soft and
ductile.
Heat treatment of aluminium, magnesium, and btanium alloys differs in some ways Because in the sort condition the material has only little strength, parts may be in-
from heat treatment of ferrous metals. stalled into the aircraft structure only after they have reached sufficient strength.
Aluminium and Magnesium Alloys Depending on the type of alloy the age hardening process lakes place at room
Several of the aluminium and magnes1um alloys may be hardened by solution heat temperature (20°C) or at an elevated temperature ( 120• to 2oo•c). The period of
treatment. Unlike ferrous metals, these alloys are not hard when they are first re- age hardening is called 'precipitation heat treatment'.
moved from the quenching medium, rather they gain lheir full strength and hard- Heat Hardenable Aluminium Alloys
ness by natural aging over a period of a few days. To further strengthen these
alloys, they may be artificially aged by a process called precipitation heat treat- The strength of certain aluminium alloys can be increased by a process of heat
ment. What is the term given to the process in which an aluminium alloy is heat treated to treatment.
a specified temperature for a specified time? Solution heat treatment The increase In strength is possible because certain chemical elements that were
Heat Treatment of Aluminium Alloys added in the alloying process are more soluble within the aluminium grain at higher
Heat treatment is a series or operations involving the heating and cooling ol metals temperatures than at room temperature. Such alloy elements are copper. zinc and
in the1r sohd state. Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serv1ceable, and silicon.
safe for a definite purpose. By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger,
Non Heat Hardenable Aluminium Alloys
and more resistant to impact. Heat treating can also make a metal softer and more
ductile. However, one heat-treating operation cannot produce all these character- This kind aluminium alloys are hardened by alloying and strain hardening The
istics. In tact. some properties are often improved at the expense of others. In be- terms 'Cold Worked', 'Work Hardened' and 'Strain Hardened' refer to hardening
ing hardened, for example, a metal may become brittle. processes such as rolling , drawing, bending or pressing.
All heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling The following kind of alloys are not heat hardenable: AISI, AIMn, AIMg, AIMgMn.
of metals. They differ. however, In the temperatures to which the metal is heated
and the rate at which it is cooled. Why is steel tempered after being hardened?
There are two types of heat treatmen:s used on aluminum alloys One is called so-
lution heat treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat treatment. Some To relieve its internal stresses and reduce its brittleness.
alloys, such as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution
heat treatment followed by about 4 days of cooling, or ag1ng, at room temperature.
However. other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat treatments. How can the strength of non- heat treatable aluminium alloys be increased?
Note: All heat treatment or aircraft pa1s has to be done in accordance with the air- By strain hardening, or cold working
craft manufacture matenal processing specification
The hardening takes place in three steps.
1. Solution heat treatment.
2. Quenching.
3. Age hardening at:
room temperature (natural aging)
elevated temperature (artificial ag~ng).
***Aluminum Alloy Temper Designations about plus or minus 6 2•c (1 o•F) of this temperature and the base metal is soaked
until the alloying element is umform throughout. Once the metal has suffic1enlly
The temper, or condition of hardness, of an aluminum alloy is indicated by a letter
soaked. it is removed from the tumace and cooled or quenched. It is e.xtremely Im-
that follows the alloy designation. as we see bellow.
portant that no more than about ten seconds elapse between removal of an alloy
F The metal is left as fabncated. There has been no control over its temper. from the furnace and the quench The reason for th1s is that when metal leaves the
T
The metal•s heat treated. furnace and starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to precipitate out of the base
metal. If this process is not stopped, large grains of alloy become suspended 1n the
T3 Solution heat treatment followed by strain hardening.
aluminum and weaken the alloy. Excessive precipitation also ncreases the likeli-
A second digit, if used, indicates the amount of strain hardening.
hood of intergranular corrosion.
T4 Solution heat treatment, followed by natural ageing at room
temperature. ,,~ 1~~,t t ... To help minimize the amount of alloying element that precipitates out of a base
metal, a quenching medium is selected to ensure the proper oooling rate. For ex-
101~ T6 Solution heat treatment, followed by artificial ageing
· (precipitation heat treated). ample. a water spray or bath provides the appropriate cooling rate for aluminum
alloys. However, large forgings are typically quenched in hoi water to minimize
T7 Solution heat treatment, followed by stabilization.
thermal shock that could cause cracKing Thin sheet metal normally warps and dis-
T8 Solution heat treatment. followed by strain ha~denlng and then torts when it is quenched. so it must be straightened immediately after it is re-
artificial aging. U.i111b£1 <~ moved from the quench. After the quench, all metals must be rinsed thoroughly
T9 Solution heat treatment. followed by artificial ageing and then strain since the salt residue from the sodium or potassium nitrate bath can lead to corro-
*** hardening. sion if left on the alloy.
H The metal cannot be heat treated, but can be hardened by cold working.
Precipitation Heat Treatment
H1 Strain hardened by cold working.
Heat-treatable aluminum alloys are comparatively soft when first removed from a
H 12 Strain hardened to its 1/4 hard condition.
quench. With time, however. the metal becomes hard and gains strength. When
H14Strain hardened to its 1/2 hard condition
an alloy is allowed to cool at room temperature. It is referred to as natural ageing
H 16 Strain hardened to ts 3/4 hard condition.
and can take several hours or several weeks
H18Strain hardened to ls full hard condibon.
H 19 Strain hardened to ls extra hard condition. For example. the ageing process can be slowed by string the metal at sub-freezing
H2 Strain hardened by cold working and then partially annealed temperatures Jmmecliatly aner quench.
H3 Strain hardened and stabilized. This strengthening process may be speeded up and increased by returning the
H36 Strain hardened and stabilized to its 3/4 hard condition. metal to the oven and heating it to a temperature much lower than thai used for
solution heat treatment It is held at this temperature for up to 24 hours and then
0 The metal has been annealed. removed from the oven and allowed to cool in still air. This precipitation hardening.
One of the most popular alloys used in aircraft construction is 2024-T3. This par- or artificial ageing, greatly increases the strength and hardness of the metal, but ij
ticular alloy has been solution heat treated and strain hardened by passing it decreases the ductility. the metal becomes more difficult to bend and form. This
through rollers in the process of its fabrication. procedure has no effect. however. on its corrosion resistance.
400 /--
/
/'
.,.. --- -- exposed to excessive heat, some of the core material tends to mix with the clad-
ding. This reduces the metal's corrosion resistance.
Reheat Treatment
300 Material which has been previously heat-treated can generally be reheat treated
any number of times. As an example, rivets made of 2017 or 2024 are extremely
hard and typically receive several reheat treatments to make them soft enough to
200 drive.
The number of solution heat-treatments allowed for clad materials is limited due to
100 the increased diffusion of core material into the cladding. This diffuston results in
15min decreased corrosion reststance. As a result, clad material is generally limited to no
more than three reheat treatments.
Artificial Ageing
Testing of Non Ferrous Materials
The material testing methods are explained in Sub Module 6.01(see Title "Testing
of Ferrous Materials· on page 20)
Corrosion General Chemical Corrosion
Corrosion is a natural phenomenon. which attacks metal by chem1cal or electro Chemical corrosion results from direct exposure of a bare surface to caustiCliquid
chemical action and converts it into a metallic compound, such as an oxide, hy- or gaseous agents The most common agents causing direct chemical corrosion
droxide. or sulphate. Corrosion Is to be distinguished from erosion. which is prima- include:
rily destruction by mechanical action. Spilled battery ac1d or fumes from batteries.
The corros1on occurs because of the tendency for metals to return to their natural Residual flux depos1ts resullmg from inadequately cleaned, welded.
state. Noble metals. such as gold and platinum, do not corrode since they are brazed, or soldered joints.
chemically uncombined In their natural state. All corrosive attacks begin on the Entrapped caustic cleaning solutions
surface of the metal.
Electro Chemical Corrosion
The corrosion process Involves two chemical changes. The metal that is attacked
or oxidised undergoes an anodic change. with the corrosive agent being reduced Electro chem1cal corros1on IS similar to the electrolytic reaction that takes place in
and undergoing a cathodic change. Tendency of most metals to corrode creates a dry cell battery. When the number of electrons matches the number of protons
one of the major problems In maintenance of the aircraft, particularly in areas in an atom, the atom is said to be electrically balanced.
where adverse environmental or weather conditions exist. However, if there are more or fewer electrons than protons. the atom is said to be
Some metals, under the right conditions, produce corrosion products that are so charged and is called an ion. If there are more electrons than protons, it is a neg-
tightly bound to the corroding metal that they form an ox1de film (called a passive atiVe ion, but if there are more protons than electrons. it is a positive ion. An ion is
~lm), which prevents further corrosion. As an example· copper oxide film is green unstable, always seeking to lose or gain electrons so it can change back into a bal-
colored. When the film of corrosion products is loose and porous, an electrolyte *** anced, or neutral, atom.
can easily penetrate and continue the corrosion process. producing more exten- The amount of chemical action that takes place is determined by the activity of the
sive damage than surface appearance would show. elements that are involved._Figure 2 on page 4 lists a group of familiar metals ar-
Most pure metals are not suitable for aircraft construction and are used only in ranged according to their ctiemical activity. The metals at the top of the list are the
combination with other metals to form alloys. Most alloys are made up entirety of most anodic and they give up electrons most readily, while those at the bottom of
small crystalline regions. called grains. the list are cathodic and do not readily give up their electrons. As we will see, when
Corrosion can occur on surfeces of those regions, Wh1ch are less resistant, and any two of these metals are involved in a corrosion cell, the metal nearer the top
of the list will be corroded while the one below it w111 not.
also at boundaries between regions, resulting in formation of pits and intergrannu-
lar corrosion. Metals have a wide range of corrosion resistance. * If two different metals are in contact with each other then
The most active metals (those whict tend to lose electrons easily), such as mag- corrosion by electrolytic action will occur and result deterioration.
nesiUm and aluminium, corrode easily. The most noble metals (those. which do
not lose electrons easily); such as gold and sliver do not corrode easily. That is why we should not keep two unlike metals together
Chemical Fundamentals
There are two general classificat•ons of corrosion. chem1cal and electro chemical;
however, both types involve two simultaneous changes. The metal that is attacked
or oxidlsed suffers an anodic change, and the corrosive agent is reduced and suf-
fers a cathodic change.
Figure 1: Electrolytic Reaction
Copper Aluminium
cathode anode
Hydroc111oric
aeld
oloctrolyto
Formation of Corrosi on Figure 2: Electro-Chemical Ser le$ for Metal
Corros1on is a very general term and it maybe caused by a vanety of forms, three This means Magnesium u Magne sium
forms are listed below. becomes anodic and i5 Zinc
0 7075-T clad a lu minium alloy
Galvanic Action corrodes easily z
~ 5056 aluminium alloy
This common type of corrosion occurs any time two dissimilar metals make elec- Pu re aluminium
2024 clad aluminium alloy
trical contact in the presence of an electrolyte.
Cadmium
For example, galvanic corrosion can take place where dissimilar metal sktns are 2024 aluminium alloy
riveted together, or where aluminium Inspection plates are attached to the struc- Steel
ture with steel screws. Iron
Lead
Electro-Chemical Series for Metal Chromium
One of the basic characteristics o f metals is their electrode potential. This simply Brass and bronze
means that when two dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte. there will exist Copper
between these two metals an electrical potential or voltage. This Ioree will cause Stai nless steel
the electrons in the more negative material to now to the less negative malerial the Titanium
u Monet
cathode if a conductive path is provided. 0 Silver
Metals are arranged to show the relative ease wilh which they ionise in what is 0
J: Nickel
called the electro-chemical series. The earlier a metal appears in the series, the
more easily it gives up electrons. In ether words. a metal that gives up electrons is
~ tnconel
0 Gold
known as an anodic metal and corrodes easily. On the other hand . metals that ap-
pear later in the series do not give up electrons easily and are called cathodic met-
als. Electro Chemical Action
A piece of alum1nium alloy such as alloy 2024, of which most aircraft structure is
made. In the material, copper is alloyed with aluminium, and the microscopic
grains or the copper and the aluminium serve as the cathode and lhe anode for
our explanation.
Aluminium is more negat1ve than copper and will act as the anode in the galvanic
action that takes place Within the metal 1tself. the forces are such that there will
be no ftow of electrons between the two alloying agents until an external path 1s
provided to form a complete circull Th1s path is provided by the electrolyte. which
may be a surface film of moisture, which contains such pollutants as acids. salts,
or other industnal contaminabon's.ln our illustration we will stick with a lillie hydro-
chloric acid in the atmosphere.
The electrode potential difference between the aluminium ard the copper grains
causes positive ions to exist within the aluminium. When the electrolyte film covers
the surface, the alumm1um 10ns attract chlonne Ions from the hydrochlonc acid and Microbiological
form aluminium chloride. the salt of corrosion. For years. wafer that condensed In fuellanks produced relat1vely mmor corrosion
Hydrogen 1ons Will be attracted to the copper by the electrons from the aluminium problems Jet aircraft, however, use a h1gh VISCOSity fuel that holds more water m
These hydrogen Ions wlll become neutralised and form molecules (H 2) wh1ch suspension than other av1at1on fuels
leave the surface as a free gas Corros1on has formed on the anodic aluminium but This water contams ITllcroscop•c animal and plant life ca11ed Microbes These or-
no corros1on products are evident on the copper, the cathode ganic bodies live In the water and feed on the hydrocarbon fuel
Th1s type or electro chem•cal attack ~roduces p1ts filled w1th the salts of corroSion Furthermore, the darK 1nsldes of the fuel tank promote their growth. and m very
and is usually rather localised But, 1f the ent~re surface is covered with a strong short periOds of time these bny creatures muiUply and form a scum mSide the tank
electrolyte, there w111 be so much more corrosiOn that it will produce a more or less This scum can grow to cover the ent1re bottom of a tank and hold water 1n contact
uniformly damaged area Th1s type of conros10n 1s called a d1rect chemiCal attack wtth the tank sii\Jcture Th1s provides a place for concentrati~n cell corrosion to
Figure 3: Direct Chemical Attack form If the scum forms along the edge of the sealant in an 1nlegral fuel tank. the
.
sealant can pull away from the structure. cauSing a leak and an expensive re-seal-
ing operabon
,~ .;.. ....
Stress
Stress corros!Oil occurs when metal IS subjected to a tensile stress in the presence
of a corros111e enVIronment
The stresses 1n the metal can come from 1mproper quench1ng after heat treabnent.
or from an mterference fit of a fastener Stress corros•on can be transgranular or
1nter granular 1n nature Cracks caused by stress corrosion grow rapidly as the cor-
rosJve attack concentrates at the end of the crack rather than along its sides
Alumonum 8110\1 structure Figure 4: Stress Corrosion
Effects of Corrosion Both bare and clad aluminium alloys resist corrosion in non-marine areas. Where
airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present all aluninium alloys require
Most metals are subject to corrosion. but corrosion can be minimized by the use protection. The corrosion product of alumimum IS a white-to-grey powdery materi-
of corrosion resistant metals and finishes. The pnncipal material used in a1rframe al, wh1ch can be removed by mechanical pollshmg or brushing with materials soft·
structure is high-strength aluminium alloy sheet coated (clad) with a pure alumini· er than the metal.
um coating (alclad) which 1s h1ghly resistant to corrosion on attack. General surface attack of aluminium penetrates slowly but is accentuated in the
However, with an accumulation of airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants along presence of dissolved salts. Considerable attack can usually take place before se-
with an electrolyte (motsture) p1tting of the alclad will occur. Once the alclad sur- rious loss of structural strength.
face is broken, rapid deterioration of ~igh-strength aluminium alloy below occurs.
Other metals commonly used in airtra11e structure, such as non-clad high-strength Factors Which Influence Metal Corrosion
aluminium alloys, steel, and magnesium alloys, require special preventive meas- Some factors which inffuence metal corrosion and the rate of corrosion are the:
ures to guard against corrosion.
Type of metal
Aluminium alloys, for example, are usually anodised (a chemical coat-
ing), or aluminium applied plabng, then primed and possibly top coated Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal (galvanic corrosion)
w1th paint. Anode and cathode surface areas (m galvanic corro~1on)
Steel (except most stainless steels) and other metals. such as brass and Temperature
bronze, require cadmium plating, zinc plating, and aluminium coating etc. Heat treatment and grain direction
Magnesium alloys are highly susceptible to corrosion attack, especially Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water. battery ffUJds. etc.)
where airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present and require Availability of oxygen
special chemical and electrc chemical treatments and paint finishes. Presence of different concentrations of the same electrolyte
Presence of biological organisms
Effects of Co"osion on Metals
Mechanical stress on the corroding metal
The characteristics of corrosion in commonly used aircraft metals are: Time of exposure to a corrosive environment
Steel:
Corrosion of steel is easily recognised because the corrosion product is Causes of Co"os/on
red rust. When iron-base alloys corrode. dark corrosion products usually
form first on the surface of the metal. These products are protective. Corrosion is an electro chemical reaction of a metal with 1ts environment. The nec-
essary condition for this reaction 1s an electrical potential difference and an elec-
However, if moisture is present. this ferrous oxide coating is converted to hydrated trolyte.
ferric oxide, which is ned rust. This material will promote further attack by absorbing
moistune from the air. The most practical means of controlling corrosion of steel ts Corrosive agents such as:
complete removal of corrosion products by mechanical means and by maintaining AcidS
the protective coating system (usually a plating, often combmed w~h a paint sys- Alkalis
tem). Salts
Aluminium: The atmosphere
Aluminium and its alloys exhibit a wide range of corrosive attack including water
umforrn surface, galvanic, pitting. intergranular, exfoliation, crevice,
stress, and fretting corrosion. Micro-organisms give the best conclihons for corrosio1 to start when they
come m contact with the metal surface
Acids Mari ne A tmosphere
Most acids will cause corrosion on most of the alloys, which are used in the con- The atmosphere in marine areas conta1ns salt chlondes, or droplets of salt-,satu-
struction of an aircraft But in the list which follows you are given those acids which rated water Corrosion on alumin1um and magnesium alloys will occur very eas11y
can quickly cause corrosion. in this type of atmosphere. Th1s IS because salme mo1sture IS a good electrolyte.
Sulphuric Acid (battery acid)
Wate r
Halogen Acids (hydrochloric)
Hydrofluoric (hydrobromic) Water conta1ns mineral and organic impunt1es and dissolved gases, for example
oxygen. The amount of these impurities will change the corrosion strength of wa-
Organic Acids such as human and am mat waste ter. Corroston on aluminium and magnes1um alloys will occur very easily in this
type of atmosphere. This is because saline moisture is a goo:l electrolyte.
Alkalis
Alkalis do not usually cause corrosion as much as acids. But aluminium is very Micro-Organism
sensitive to alkaline solutions, which do not contain a corrosion inhibitor.
It is not unusual to get the water in aircraft fuel tanks, this water can contain iron
The list that follows gives you some of the alkaline solutions to which aium1nium oxides and mineral salts. This water can also contam micro-organtsms, these or-
alloys are especially sensitive· ganisms make the water Into slime. This slime wi11 1ncrease the rate of corrosion If
Wash Soda corrosion occurs.
Potash
Lime
Salts
Most salt solutions are good electrolytes and can cause corrosion. On some stain- AJ f/JIJ ~ ., ~r
less steel alloys corrosion does not occur by a salt solution. Aluminium alloys and Tc~ .:<A7
steels are very sensitive to some solutions which contain salt 1';:· "'
The Atmos phere --J:Y·
The general atmosphere contains Moisture and oxygen, which are the primary !C_' r
causes of corroston. Corrosion of ferrous alloys will occur in the general atmos-
phere, if they have no protection.
There are o ther gases and contamination In the atmosphere, which also cause
corrosion, for example. the atmosphere in industrial and marine can give special
problems.
Industrial Atmosphere
The atmosphere In industrial areas will frequently contain oxldised sulphur and ni-
trogen oompounds. When these oompounds mix with moisture they make an actd
which easily causes corrosion .
Types of Corrosion High strength aluminium alloys like 2024 and 7075 can develop intergrannular cor-
rosion it they have been improperly neat treated and are then exposed to corrosive
Pitting Corrosion MO.- , ,,, environments.
The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnes1um is pitting Pit- Figure 6: lntergranular Corrosion
ling first appears as a white, powdery depos1t lt starts on the surface of a material
and then extends vertically into the material.
Th1s type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which de-
crease the material strength. You do not get a large indication of this type of cor-
rosion on the material surface. This corrosion can be the startmg point of
intergranular corrosion.
For example. contamination's during the alloy process, metal chips, or electrolyte
liquids can cause pitting.
Figure 5: Pitting Corrosion
Aluminium
Alloy
lntergrannular Corrosion
lntergrannutar corrosion is an attack along lhe grain boundaries of the metal with
only smaller or no indication on the surface. Each grain has a clear defined bound-
ary, which d1ffers from the metal Wlthm the grain centre.
The grain boundary and the grain centre can react with each other as anode and
cathode when it gets contact with an electrolyte. Rapid selective corrosion at the
grain boundaries can occur with delamination.
* Intergranular corrosion can not be detected by surface condition
Filiform Corrosion *** Exfoliation Corrosion
Filiform corrosion IS a spec1al form of oxygen concentratton cell corros1on or crev- Exfoliation corrosoon is an advanced form of intergrannular corrosion where the
Ice corros1on, whiCh occurs on metal surfaces hav1ng an orgamc coaUng system surface gra1ns of a metal are llrted up by the force of expandong corrosion products
It 1s 1dent1fied by 1ts charactenstac worm·hke trace of corrosion products beneath occurrmg at the gram boundanes just below the surface Exfol1abon is most prone
the pa1nt film It occurs mainly under paint coating to occur an wrought products such as extrus1ons th1ck sheet sand, and thin plates.
Fd1form occurs when the relatwe hurn1d1ty of the a1r 1s between 78 and 90 percent wh1ch have elongated nat type gra1n structure.
and the surface IS slightly acid Corros1on starts at breaks Ill the coatoog system Figure 8: Exfotlant Corrosion It occurs mainly in extruded section
and at fastener heads and extends along the surface of the paonted sheet under-
neath.the coabng . •
Mo1sture CorrosiOn Products
If filiform corros10n 1S not removed the corrosiOn can lead to 1ntergrannular corro-
siOn, espec;alfy around fasteners and at seams Filiform oorrosaon can be removed
by usmg glass bead blasbog matenal With portable abrastve equipment and/or
sandong
Figure 7: Filiform Corrosion
Topcoat
MotSture
Primer
AI Alloy
Topcoat
Primer
Topcoat
Clad
Primer
Corrosion
Products
Microbia( Corrosion Mainly occurs in Fuel tank sections Figure 10: Microbial Corrosion
Microbial attack includes actions of bacteria, fungi, or moulds. Micro-organisms Micro Organismus
occur nearly everywhere. Those organisms causing the greatest corrosion prob- I
lems are bacteria and fungo
Bacteria may be either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerob1c bacteria require oxygen to
hve They accelerate corros1on by oxidising sulphur to produce sulphuric acid.
Bacteria living adjacent to metals may promote corros•on by depleting the oxygen
supply or by releasing metabolic products.
Anaerobic bacteria. on the other hand, can survive only when free oxygen is not Fungus
present. The metabolism of these bacteria requires them to obtain part of their sus- Colony
tenance by oxidising inorganic compounds. such as Iron, sulphur. hydrogen. and
carbon monoxide. The resultant chemical reactions cause corrosion.
Primer
Fungi are the growths of m1cro-organ1sms that feed on organic matenals While
low humid1ty does not kill microbes. 1t slows their growth to prevent corrosion dam-
age. Ideal growth conditions for most micro-organisms are temperatures between AI Alloy
68 and 104• F (20 and 40° C) and relative humidity between 85 and 100 percent.
It was formerly thought that fungal attack could be prevented by applying moisture-
proofing coat1ngs to nutrient material or by drying the interiors of compartments Anode, Corrosion Location
with desiccants.
However. mould. bacteria. or other microbes attack some moisture proofing coat-
ings, especially if the surfaces on which !hey are used are contaminated. Microbial
growth occurs at the intertace of water and fuel, where the fungus feeds on the-
fuel. Organic acids, alcohol's, and esters are produced by growth of the fungus.
These by-products provide even better growing conditions for the fungus. The fun-
gus typically attaches itself lo the bottom of the tank and looks like a brown deposit
on the tank coating when the tank is dry. The fungus growth may start again when
water and fuel are present.
The spore form of some micro-organisms can remain for long periods while dry,
and can become active when moistUJe is available. When desiccants become sat-
urated and unable to absorb moisture passing Into the affected area. micro-organ-
isms can begin to grow. Dirt, dust. and other airborne contamination's are the least
recognised contributors to microboal attack. Unnoticed, small amounts of airborne
debris may be sufficient to promote fungal growth
Microbial corrosion can be mlnimosed with a maintenance program which oncludes
frequent sump draining. tank inspectoon, total removal of microbial growth, and ap-
plication of biocide with effected soak periods.
Stress Corrosion Figure 11: Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking is an intergrannular cracking of the metal, which is Moisture
caused by a combination of stress and corrosion. Stress may be caused by inter-
nal or external loading.
Internal stress are produced by non-uniform deformation during cold working. by
unequal cooling from high temperatures, and by internal structural rearrangement
involvmg volume Cllanges.
Internal stresses are induced when a piece of structure is deformed during an as-
sembly operation (i.e. during pressing in bushings, shrinking a part for press fit, in-
stalling Interference bolts, Installing rivets. etc.).
Concealed stress is more important than design stress. Corrosion is difficult to rec-
ognise before it has overcome the design safety factor The level of stress varies
from point to point within the metal. Stresses near the yield strength are generally
necessary to promote stress corrosion cracking, but failures may occur at lower
stresses
Specific environments have been identified which cause stress corrosion cracking
of certain alloys. Salt solutions and seawater may cause stress corrosion cracking
of high strength heat treated steel and aluminium alloys. Methyl alcohol-hydrochlo-
ric acid solutions will cause stress corrosion cracking of some lilamum alloys.
Magnesium alloys may stress corrode in moist air. Applying protective coatings,
stress relief heat treatment, using ccrrosion Inhibitors. or controlling the environ-
ment may reduce stress corrosion.
Shot peening a metal surface increases resistance to stress corrosion cracking by
creating compressive stresses on the surface which should be overcome lly ap-
plied tensile stress before the surface sees any tension load, and therefore, the
threshold stress level is increased.
Galvanic Corrosion Crevice Corrosion
Galvanic corros1on occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in Crevice corros1on IS a form of concentration cell corrosion. This is corrosion of met-
the presence of an electrolyte The rate which corrosion occurs depends on the al 1n a metal-to-metal JO•nt, and corrosion at the edge of a joint. Sealing of jomts
difference in the acbvibes and gaps and usmg of protect1ve coatings in the fraymg surface area can reduce
The greater the difference 1n actrv~ly the faster corrosiOn occurs For example, crev1ce COrrOSIOn
magneSium would corrode very qulddy when coupled w1th gold ma hum1d atmos- Figure 13: Crevice Corrosion
phere, but alum1mum would corrode very slowly m contact With cadmium
The rate of galvamc corrosiOn also depends on the SIZe of the parts in contact If
Electrolyte Metal
the surface area of the corrodmg metal (the anode) IS smaller than the surface
area of the tess acbve metal (the cathode), corros100 will be rapid and severe
VI/hen the oorrod1ng metal 1S larger than the less acbve metal. corrosion will be
stow and superfic1al
For example an alufl11mum fastener in contact With a relatiVely 1nert Monel struc·
w~
;;~::(
~~ft¢--oxygen
ture may corrode severely. while a Monel bracket secured to a large aluminium R1m Area (Noble)
member would result In a relatiVely superficial attack on the alum1nium sheel
Figure 12: Galvanic Corrosion
)n=:J;... -
Expandtng Comxuon Product
Moisture
~ .
Topcoat
Primer
AI Alloy
Mltl()(
Olameoe• -1- Eifecu..
Diametor
"~
'oiamerer
---
·-
- A>•I o/";;1
\;-·I
\j
e .............. --
Thread Number Thread Direction
Accord1ng to the number of threads they are named etlher single threads or multi- According to the direction of thread. the threads are named right hand thread or
ple threads. Most screw threads are single. The s1ngle thread has a stngle ridge left hand thread.
and groove A right hand thread tightens when turned clockwise. A left-hand thread tightens
Multiple threads are used to obtain an increase in lead Without weakemng the when turned counter- or anti clockwise.
sCfew itself Left-hand threads are used if RH thread could become loose when installed or af a
certain linear movement is necessary (turnbuckle).
A double thread has two threads and two grooves starting on opposite of the
sCfew. The lead of a double thread 1S twice that of a single thread having the same ~ Left-hand threads are marked with the letters LH
pitch.
A triple or treble thread has three threads and three grooves The lead of a triple Figure 4: RH and LH Thread
thread is three times that of a single thread having the same pitch. Therefore, the
linear pitch of a double thread is 112 lead and the linear pitch of a triple thread is
1/31ead.
Figure 3: Th read Numbers
fUi.SCREWS
CLOCKWISE
INTO NUT
I.
* Double thread - 1/2 lead : '-.
* Triple thread - 1/3 lead
Standards for Screw Threads Figure 5: ISO Metric Threads
In past century numerous thread systems have been Introduced but many of them Bolt (External Thread) Nut (Internal Thread)
have gone out of use The future hes pnne~pally w1th the 1sometr1C thread. but the
others are likely to be 1n use for some years until the Sl system IS fully estabfished
1!.'
ISO Thread Pitch of a standard Pitch of a fine thread in
Diameter d ,. 0 thread in mm mm
8 1 25 1
10 1.5 1 25
12 1.75 15
16 2 15
Unified Inch Threads Table 2: UNC Threads
The Un1fied Inch Threads have the same design form as ISO Metric threads. UNCTHREAD MAJOR TAP DRILL SIZE
Also there are two series. SIZE IN INCH AND DIAMETER IN
Coarse series - UNC NUMBER OF
INCH MM DRILL INCH MM
Fme series - UNF THREADS PER
NO
Below X Inch diameter, the nominal sizes of both are given as series of numbers INCH
from 0 to 12. 1 64 073 1.85 53 0.0595 1.5
Above X inch diameter. the nominal sizes are given as fraction an inch. 2 56 .086 2.18 50 0.07 1.80
The SIZe 1-64 through 12-24 are machme screws. The first number Is a code 3 45 .099 2.51 47 0.08 2.05
number and indicates not the screw diameter. The seccnd number ind1cates the
number of threads per inch. 4 40 .112 2.84 43 0.09 2.30
5 40 .125 3.17 38 0.10 2.60
***
Pitches are given as the number of threads per inch. Thus a 112" diameter bolt with
UNC thread has 13 threads per inch and IS designated as 112 • 13 UNC. 6 32 .138 3.50 38 0.11 2.75
The size 1/4-20 through 718-9 are aircraft bolts. The fractions indicate the diameter 8 32 .164 4.16 29 0136 3.5
and the number indicates number of threads per inch.
[1lA>t-:-~<:::24{il;"l~ 1:;.-!,19
:~
For example: 10-24. 10' stands for .190 inch. 24' stands for 24 threads per inch ~
12 24 .216 5.48 16 0.177
See the highlighted row in Table 2 on page 5.
1/4 20 250 6.35 7 0.201 5.1
5/16 18 .3125 7 93 F 0257 65
3/8 16 .375 9.52 5/16 0.3125 79
7/16 14 .4375 11.11 u 0.368 9.3
1/2 13 .500 12.70 27/64 0.4219 10.8
9/1 6 12 .5625 14.28 31/64 0.4844 12.2
5/8 11 .625 15.87 17/32 0.5312 13.5
3/4 10 .750 19.05 21/32 0.6562 16.5
718 9 .850 22.22 49/64 07656 19.5
Table 3: UNF Threads Dimensions and Tolerances
UNFTHREADSIZE MAJOR TAP DRILL SIZE In order to provide for interchangeability and ensure the correct class of fit for a
IN INCH AND DIAMETER IN particular application, standard unified threads are controlled by a system of toler-
NUMBER OF ances.
INCH MM DRILL INCH MM The tolerances permitted for the major, effective and minor diameters of a screw
THREADS PER
NO thread provide, In effect, an envelope of lim1ting boundaries wi:hin which the thread
INCH
0
1
80
72
'""' .060
.073
1.52
1.85
3164
53
00449
0.0595
1.20
1.50
surface must lie. The accuracy of pitch. however, should be assessed over the
specified length of engagement of the mating parts In a similar manner no sepa-
rate tolerance is normally quoted for the Rank angle.
2 64 .086 2.18 50 0.07 1.80
3 56 "099 2"51 45 0.082 210
4 48 .112 2.84 42 0.0935 2.40
5 44 .1 25 3.17 37 0.104 2.65
6 40 .138 3.50 33 0.113 2.90
8 36 .164 4.16 29 0.1 36 3.50
10 32 .190 4.82 21 0.159 4.10
12 28 .216 5.48 14 0.182 4 60
114 28 .250 6.53 3 0.213 5.50
5/16 24 .3125 7.93 I 0.272 6.90
3/8 24 .375 9.52 Q 0.332 8.50
7/16 20 .4375 11.11 25164 0.3906 9.90
'ml.:- .:.~ ·-·:·~· "!771!: -·,rt:~~ -:1~~
9/16 18 .5625 14.28 33/64 0.5156 13.00
5/8 18 .625 15.87 37/64 0.5781 14.50
3/4 16 .750 19.05 11/16 0.6875 17.50
7/8 14 .875 22.22 59164 0.9291 20.50
The size 0-80 through 12-28 are rrachine screws. The first number is a code
number and indicates not the screw diameter. The second number Indicates
number of threads per Inch.
For example: 112-20. 1/2 stands for .500 inch 20 stands for 20 threads per 1nch.
The size 114-28 through 7/8-14 are aircraft bolls. The fraction indicates the diam-
eter and the number indicates number of threads per inch. See the highlighted row
in Table 3 on page 6.
SR Technics f) 0 Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
r0
I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
'--' ' - "'--'
Aircraft Environmental Zones Figure 1: High Vibration and High Temperature Areas on MD11
Aircraft electrical cables will be required for many uses in many different locations
throughout the structure of the aircraft in following manner:
Pressurized zones
Hydraulic fluid area
Fuel area
Vibration area
Hot areas
c-~
Fire areas I
·-~
I
Most of the wire used in an aircraft electrical s~stem is made of copper or alumin- Stranded tinned PVC insulation Extruded nylon jacket
ium. Copper conductors are coated with tin, nirkel, or silver to prevent oxidation copper conductor
and to facilitate soldering. Both copper and aluminium wires are stranded for pro-
tection against breakage from vibration . I
' I
The conductor is insulated with white polyvinyl:chloride (PVC) which is often cov-
ered with a clear nylon jacket. This !_ype ?_f wir~ ;is sui_table for installation~ in w~ft!
**the temperature does not exceed~The m1sulat1on has a voltage ratmg offlj},eW
~~ - , . I
a
A wire will be understood to be single wire st~and or small stranded conductors.
A cable will be understood to be larger stranded conductors or multiple conductors
in one outer sheath . : I
Aircraft wires and cables must possess the foll t wing properties :
• Voltage resistant up to 600 :volts I ·
Resistant to all fluids \
Highly flexible
Highly strengthened
Light in weight
~
Voltage continuous operation intermittent operation Size Size Current A Current A
WG mm 2 in free air in bundles
* Current carrying
14 v 0.5 V or 3.5% 1.0 Vor 7%
AN-24 0.25 3 2 capacity of a cable is
28 v 1.0 v 2.0 v AN-22 0.4 6 3 classified by American
AN -20 0.6 11 7
115 v 4.0V 8.0 v wire gauge.
200 v 7.0 v 14 v AN -18 1 16 10 Please note :- When the
AN -16 1.5 22 13 number decreases
AN-14 2 32 17
AN-12 3 41 23
diameter increases
AN -10 5 55 33 eg :- diameter of AN24
is less than AN22
/1/'i c e lo (lc ~C<J AN -8
AN-6
9
14
73
101
46
60
AN-4 22 135 80
AN-2 34 181 100
* When replacing a copper wire with an aluminium wire, AN-1 42 211 125
the aluminium wire must be larger in size. AN-0 53 245 150
AN-00 68 283 175
AN -000 85 328 200
AN-0000 107 380 225
'
Si+e Size Current A Current A
A~G mm 2 in free air in bundles
I
AL!-6 14 83 50
AL-4 22 108 66
AU-2 34 152 90
I
.,
I
Sept tO I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes on,ty Cat: 61 6.11 - 6
SR Technics f)
("
·....-
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
0 \..._..-
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
-~-~~~XitP~~~
~. ' ...:. maintains its mechanical stability a(very high and very low temperatures .
The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of overall insulation wall
thickness . Some general wiring cable types employ only four layers of Kapton, giv-
ing a total wall thickness of approximately 0.06 inches (1.5mm).
resists high mechanical stress during assembly, installation and
rations. -1(i{m~rsft~~tt11l1i~6~~~1~P~lg:Qy.~¢ ~ top coat provides a coloured surface which
gives added protection to the cable and will also accept print.
I.flifM[(l~iJi!Ma'ft~~:~Kitiroo~moin:atid;t;J. s .o.f;K8,Q}Pn1~WTFE, FEP, and Fibreglass
has significant resistance to most chemicals, solvents, lubricants
'tO give improved performance. · ·---'.:"·.··,;-:--;. :.r '~!.,,,,. · ..,_ . . ,/~'
and fuels or hydrocarbons. ·
allows space and weight savings. Table 4: Kapton Isolation
has excellent formable and bondable characteristics . Maximum I Materials
allows significant potential for increasing the energy-to-size ratio of mo- Temperature
tors and transformers (power-to-weight ratio) .
s:, ·_~"'~,!',~r:.._r.~~'CT
150°C Kapton
,..., " .... > "T ////1 markable l) FEP Fluor Ethylene Polyamyd
Nickel plated Copper 2ndKAPTON Tape
A .1rcratt w1res...
· II
as shown in the figure below are very specific a~ d can not be substituted with wires
available from the common electric installation or car industry.
Gable BF
-~TFE insulated Colour: Temperatur Range:
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ -t crossed tape overlap 24 + 18Dwhite 200°C
+ silver flash
22Diightgreen
20Diightblue
1
Gable CF
Kapton tape overlap/ Kapton tape overlap / Dispersion
Nickel-plated copper --........_ I
I
/ ,
24/20-1 ODwhite 20ooc
22Diigthgreen
I
Gable DK
I
Kapton tape overlap Kapton tape overlap / 2nd PTFE overlap
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ I
I
/ / ;
. · white 260°C
I
BXS 7007
FEP Fluorcarbon Polyimide (Kapton) coated
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ I 1
/ /
I lightbrown 200oc
I
~801684 TFE Fluorcarbon
•
Polyimide (Kapton) coated
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ / / 260°C
I II I lightbrown
Tinned copper
. :
Stranded tinned PVC insulation Extruded nylon jacket braid shielding
~'
sensitive signals. These wires
~~-JJlf:§1~~jlliigei@!~l§®±19@~~~t:[f®,§'[Ef[~¥t?if~}li:<:!8g~;A~~q~~~llf~!g@%£i~F~IfU8~oJ~;f,";=.~-
Working on ignition system is hazardous and lethal (Upto 26KV)
Thermo Couple Cables . I Figwe 8: EGT indicating system with thermocouple harness installation
I
These cables are used for the connection of cyl,inder head temperature indicators, ~ALUMEL J EXHAUST
~G
K
turbine engine exhaust gas temperature indica~ors and other temperature indicat- TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
ing system, to their respective thermocouple sensing elements. I
i
~
1 ALUMEL {-)-
The conducting materials are normally the sam e as those materials used in the
thermocouple sensing elements. :=c:CHROMEL (+)-
1
• Copper and Constantan: Cylinder Head Temperature or EGT {~:B
·•rL
;:.
LIGHTS
• Chrome! (alloy of chromium and nickel) Alu1mel (alloy of aluminium and nickel)
~
used for Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)(
oil and brake temperature indication I
LEFT ENGINE
In the case of cylinder head temperature indica~ing systems, only one thermocou- EGT
THERMOCOUPLE
p.le·. sensi.ng ..elemen.·t is used and the cables betw\een it and a firewall connector are
normally asbestos covered.
J~~~ilt~w,'J mber of thermocouples are required to be radially dis-
posed around the jet pipe"in the gas stream . It is usual practice to arrange theca-
bles in the form of a harness tailored to suit a ~pecific engine installation .
~~'J~lDI:f~~of the harness cables isll either silicone rubber or PTFE im-
pregnated fibreglass . The cables terminate at an engine or firewall junction box
from which cables extend to the flight deck indi'"ator. The insulating material of ex-
tension cables is normally of the polyvinyl type, 1since they are subject to lower am- CHROMEL ALUMEL
bient temperatures than the engine harness. \ white insulaton green insulation
In some applications extension cables are enc$sed in silicone paste within a met-
al-braided flexible conduit.
Note
Coax cables are heat sensitive. Avoid passing through hot areas. Transmitter r------.
Bending radius of should be wide enough . Tx
Coaxial cables are grounded at both ends .
Coax-
For certain applications the cable length is critical and must not be altered . Transmit
Receive )( ) 1 Cable
Switch
Receiver
Rx
VHF TRANSCEIVER
~I
I
Example I Let,t er code (continued)
i
A cable numbered 2L88A 18RD I S Radar
SA Radio altimeter
.2 System nr. 2
SN Radar navigation
L Lighting
SX A TC transponder
88 Wire number 88 of system
SY TCAS
A Section A
18 Wire gage 18 I T Special electrqnics
TO Passenger address
RD Colour red TL Visual approach system
I TN
TP
INS
Special electronic power
TW Weather radar
TZ Passenger entertainment
Letter code
A
I V DC Power and control
Autopilot \ W Warning and emergency
c Surface controls
X AC Power
D Instruments (other than flight or engin!e instruments
Z . Spares
E Engine instruments \
F Flight instruments
G
H
Landing gears
Heating, ventilating and de-icing
I
I
. 22S=illG
226
227
p 9!-80-67-n
---t=cd
~
y
,"3-14-1'1~70 179
l}
209VT '"= 81 F@@
211 278 67\VG
13 IS
BLP BORRO-
67 R ! 227V(
STR657 125
7051
1TK24ttB
r. 1s1st•
1TKZ'l B
c
B
®
@
RNN L T TEST & INTFC
126STR550 70VU I 969VC R 75 I SVP
\31 SHHBBO 137 STR\961
163-CF22~2
l~1=E~~~ =====~ 164 - CF22
53
i6017t:R
IPF22 B
0
0
®®
6H
,. %·54-54
'" 231 ''s-------1
I 939VC
19'15VC
A
131 STR \9\1
R
751iVP
137 STR\96 1
75SBVC A
191 STA2026
230 - - - - - - - - . ,
7HH CONT-
PI=ICK 1 TEHP
r--------------------?~5~
209VT
.----------------- 232 ----~--~
•1tLC~\6~ 6~dz
6
a1
n
2499VT 6119VN
2\0STR539 19JSTA2151
13HB RELAY
L PACK CLOSE 2 1 ~5 1-01
l - - - - 2 3 • - - - - - - jII •s t------,
zq1vc-t"R I
21-51-03~
235~ oc1 .,t£Cf~Os_ 6~fq 6
209VT
6721VN .
l91STAI961
9S VU SHE L F
121 STA-195
~' -i=
17-1 E 239 - - ' 6023
2-19 H 237
v 236 zqt sozo
27HH CQNT- 2 I OVT zqsvc r A 1939VC A
P~CK 2 TEHP 131 STA\911
75 17VP IIHB VALV(·
3QVU AIR [QNO PNL i 31 STRJ961 FLOW CTL
2 \0STR'\80 191 smzoeq
S \ Wire Specified Wire Size NOTE : UNLESS OTHERWISE SPEC IFIED PREFIX ALL WIRE IOENTIFICIHION WITH FHA 2 151
EFFECTIVITY . . UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED !=ILL WIRES RRECFZq GRUGE
21 51 04 ~ :ge
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPEC IF I EO !=ILL ROU TES RRE IH
~~~~~------
INDICATING
01 19 J
Each wire is identified by an 8 digit number composed follows : 2151 Circuit identification prefix corresponding to ATA 100 numbering
Example: 2151 - 0080 (Chapter, Section).
0080 Wire number in circuit (different for each segment).
.1---
83
9102-
7595·22RO
II
II
7595-22BL
P 1-473 RS-l73
G
RS0-24069 PI0-24069 Pl-1934 93-34
lo4AR SHELF 2 R L ~R NOSE: R HYO IENP SE:ItSOR. SYS 3
l113
I
Barrel section: - - - - - - - - - - - f - - l
B - Fuselage nose
C - Fuselage forward
E - Fuselage center c
G - Fuselage aft
J - Tail aft body 9
N - Wing complete
W - Cabin
Wire number
Wire gage
N /
Annex code:
RD - Red N- Ground wire
f§;>~
BL - Blue AL- Aluminium
YE - Ye 11 ow A- Phase A
GR - Green B- Phase B The wire identification details· are;
WH - White C- Phase C barr~l setion, wire number, wir~ gaqe. annexcode
I
Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA P;art-66
Copyright by SR Technics ---- For training purposes DI)IY Cat: 81 6.11-18
I~ Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f)
(,
Training Manual 'i 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
YctfMJf~
~tt(
· HEATING SYSTEM
MARKING UNIT
I
• q' ~ - -__ ; L E
~ o o'!/)_ CABLE GUIDE
There is a vast range of terminations availabl many of which are colour coded,
and suitable for use only with specific types aircraft cable. It is, therefore , vital
that the appropriate manufacturer's instructio regarding the use of cables and
As~~~~
terminations are followed .
I
I
. hai&J·· ~)&W
I
~~~~II).jf~--w ·<'l-' ~>r.J-ii;-·~2f\)1'.!tf. -<,'"--,~, ~,; ;;,,. , <
ur.I;Yre,ims~Iat~~~!liro:~ 'e'IW.!!liil!..q;!-?~e, ~se'€i ,®mjig!.I ~:.M\!Irle.~ connected to termmal
.
strips. The insulation is stripped from the end otl the wire, which is inserted into the
terminal until the insulation butts,up against the sleeve of the terminal and the end
of the wire sticks out slightly beyond the end 9f the sleeve . When the terminal is Col ou r code of splices iiu:)~ terminal - Indicate wire sizes tha it can fit
crimped with a special crimping) tool , the terminal sleeve · grips the wire tightly 1
yellow fits oil wire gages 26 through 22 (small)
enough to make a joint that is a~ strong as the !wire itself.
red \tits on wires from 20 through 18
The insulation around the sleeve is crimped at the same time, so it is forced tightly blu~ fits on wires from 16 through 14
against the insulation on the wir,e and helps rdmove some ot'the strain from the yell.ow terminal fits wire gages 12 through 10 (large)
wire strands when the wire is subjected to mov;ement and vibration . blank meta II fits on larger wires <1 0
II
~
~
~ > > > nJH:'>Y~
General
Where frequent disconnection 9f aircraft wiring is necessary for maintenance,
plugs and receptacles are used. Mating of ele~trical wires between plugs and re-
ceptacles is via contacts (pins and sockets). I
~
(~,
• Plug: the moveable part of ;:1 connection a1ttached to cable and fits into the
*** Receptacle: the fixed part of
Thread coupling.
,
a connectior\I
found on panels, supports, computer, boxes, instruments, sensors, actuators
~. I
I
Mating connection between plugs and receptacles is either through,
MS3100
BULKHEAD RECEPTACLE
It) r
MS3102
BOX f1ECEPT /\Cl E
Sl
If several connectors are on the same location, make sure, that always the
correct plug is fitted to its receptacle.
A B c D E F G H
/r::le
Sept10 I Technical Training
~
£ 10/U%1/
Corresponding with EASA Part-66
P=Pins
S=Sockets
Backs hells At t~e end of the connec;tor housing a "follower" will give an interfacial seal, as well
as sealing at the wire emds.
The backshell of the connector is designedf.
wire bundle .
t
I
1 \-
.1
d~l~l~
J N-1 llUT MOUNTED
Ut:GilEE BACKSII£LL T HREADED RECEPTACLE
STRJ\111 RI::Lll::f CLAHP
-~ THR£1\DED \ PLUG
-~
'·
90 DI::GREE BACKSJ!t:LJ.
STRAIN RELIEf CLAI-IP
.j -f-~--
STRA I GifT . BACKSH£LL
5 TRA Ill RELIEf CLN-IP
I
fLANGE MOUNTED
THR£1\DED RECEPTACLE
~~ STRAIGHT BI\CKSIIELL
STRAIN RELIEf C LAJ-IP
r-
BI\YOHET COUPLED PLUG
Sock NuT
.j 0
_j l
I fLJI.NG~ HOUNTED
BI>.YOHET COUPLED
RECEPT.>-CLE
tion , si::ioriiY the 'd5mputer which fits to this system can be installed.
POLARIZING
POSTS OR KEYS
cotJ\Pu\€-R u~'"
,e\..p...cv..eo'f..) €.·u~'"
\..\~€. R€.?\..p...c€-P...e\..
RECEPTACTLE
(Computer)
Connector Contacts Pins and contacts may be of the soldered type, but more commonly are of the
crimped type, to attach them to individual wires. Contacts are normally round in
Pins and Sockets sha
To facilitate maintenance wher~ frequent disccpnnection of wires is required, con-
nectors are used. Connectors in construction can be broken into two parts, Plugs The wire size its wire barrel can accommodate.
and Receptacles . Each wire in a connector is ! terminated in a contact. A contact The contact size it will mate with .
may be a Pin (male) or a Socket (female).
Contacts are inserted and extracted from their terminating device, by special in-
sertion and extraction tools.
I
Figure 22: Electrical Contacts. I
I
II
I
(FRONT RE LEAS.E CONTACTS)
CREAR RELEASE CONTACT)
LOCKING CLIP ENGAGING SHOULDER \
\I /SOCKET
SOCKET7
~
RECEPTACLE
0 r::.rr==:J PIN CONTACTS
?LUG
~ INSPECTION HOLES
r?IN
~
I I
~
?LUG
2U-Jl.J= PIN CONTACTS
! I
LL
I
. ~ I
I
II
I
Crimped Contacts Figure 23: Connector detailed with soldering or crimping contacts
Most modern quick-disconnect plugs use crimped-on tapered terminals that are
pressed into tapered holes in the ends of the pins· or sockets . A tapered pin is
crimped onto the end of each wire to be inserted into the plug, and all necessary ~Insert barrel
rings and clamps are slipped over the wires. Most of the connectors are crimped.
Soldered Contacts
Wires are attached to most of the older quick-disconnect plugs by soldering .
Today only connecters of installations inside passenger cabin may be soldered Insert retaining ring
After all of the wires are soldered into the connector, transparent PVC sleeving is Coupling ring
slipped over the end of each wire and the pot into which the wire is soldered . These
wires are then tied together with a spot tie of waxed linen or nylon cord .
CONNECTOR
Crimped contacts
Solder
&:'i=e
- ,
/b /(n~/
Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 -27
Basi.c Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training 'Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
j
The connection between a piece of electronic equipment and its antenna is often
made with coaxial cable .
ll ' I
S"fRAIGHT PLUG CORE CAP FERRULE HEAT SHRINKABLE
I
felt;
There are a number of sizes and types of coa ial cable used for electronic instal- -
-a 1-=t
I F TYPE SLEIEVE
~=r®
lation. Each type must be treated in the way s~ecified by the manufacturer of the
connectors. \
Different sizes and constructions of coaxial connectors are available:
' 1 FOR FOS
Solder able \ BODY I
Crimp able I
I PANEL JACK! - SQUARE FLANGE -BI
Plugs (male)
Ef
TC TYPE
Receptacles (female)
BNC connectors are the most widely used typ c:=::d:(jJ -EE - I
. FOR ·TC06 I
I
Figure 24: Coaxial connectors soldering
RIGHT ANGLE PLUG
I
FC TYPE
DIELECTRIC ' WIRE ,. INNER ADAPTER COUPLING
SEPARATOR, BRAID (slides under RING I
rned back for wire braid &
soLDER H : - . o E s ~~t~;)er innev
\
'l r ~nc~:;;~~~o
assembly)
II I t:=B----~J
1 I
~ - · ··
\ :
CONTACT
. / '
I I INNER
I I
INNER PLUG CONDUCTOR
ASSEMBLY
-~
BRAZED BRAID PANEL JACK - ROUND FlANGE
CONTACT SUPPORT WASHER CAP TR TYPE
I II ISLE,EVE
~ · 1111-runmrrnrR
c.-Efj--J
.EJlUl!UJlJff ~
+==
11 I ·~ "111°0
_ _ _ ____..()~·/J~fC.._.:;;Q
( •
! 1 r) k 1/UWV ..
-.------------~----~~--~------T------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Terminal Strips, Blocks and Grounding Modules Figure 27: Terminal block and grounding module (Airbus)
Wires which are installed when the aircraft is built and are disconnected only dur-
ing a major repair or alteraJion are connected to terminal strips or blocks . COVER -;/"
/- RAIL
~
. · ~,
~~ "'" """
CONTACT
BARREL
I
I
I REMOVAL TIP TERMINAL BLOCK
I GUIDE HOLE
'>,::: ~
I CONTACT TOOL
LOCKING SPRING
REMOVAL TIP
CONTACT REMOVAL
INSULATION SHROUD INSULATION
COMPLETED TERMINAL
BLOCK INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION TIP
l!l [tJ ..
--
.. ..... :
TERMINAL BLOCK
CONTACT
~JIJ~
.. , USE CONTACT
TOOL FOR FINAL
INSTALLATION
START INSTALLATION OF CONTACT
OF CONTACT BY HAND
Basic Maintenance
--
/,-......,
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f)
v
Training Manual Study Questions
Study Questions
6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous 7. Explain the main differences betWeen the brinell-, rockwell- and vickers hard-
ness system. _________________________
1. Most welded steel ~ircraft structure is made of SAE steel /fff:;{f&J.J___
2. Identify the SAE series numbers for steels that have the following major al- ~~~i-~eil:::f3.~ttfi{i§$9.({in:;§:iJPEdia.me~[)$ mea~bred.: ~-Of
-::jl.;l:~il~ .-:.tU.•"(.tc..,-, :-..;-~-- •. 1,~:;._ . ·.:..c.;· -t .. ~'"-"--~t._f "~ .. ·..,, • •.. , •··. ·-·~ I.J ~ ·-··- •• • ,,. ·••• ,-. • "
loys:
t@~~1~¥~~~;~~~~L-------------------------------------------------------
tt.~p~Y~~~~Rei~~i(i,
..;;:,-;£lc~~---·k' -'---------------------
'·'f
-~~~®l?fFI?iff.f~Jft~~ilfrl1~6~i~.~
.:;~'~---------------
3. A medium carbon steel has a carbon content of .f'@:$~ to .--
~~~~~~f~ti~~~~
~~~~~L--------~--------------
' \ '!!i
12. applied to a 7075-T6 aluminium al- . 18. p~~cribe the characteristics of epoxy resin.
.~ - ~- :.. : ";;·> .
13. ' .
19. ~hich curing ~ystems . ar~ .well known?
:r,
6.3 Com
, ·., ,
posit. ~,. and
. ,. ,'
N()n :- M
;' ' 'I ·. ···· ::. . :_," ' . , - .
6.3.2 Wooden Structures 25. What is the maximum permissible grain deviation (slope of grain) for Douglas
fir?
• .,
,,,'5·jr
~-,· .
-,.il
'··· 1'·.,.
5•· ·r~e
. ,~,.
.....,.·:'/
·'·'
22.
<&tr:J17i."Wlftt#...qtTalit9ffJI~oCI.u;~t~~~
~~~·~:..... ~~~t0;~:1J,::~'l:~ "· ~:'·<>:,..Y"':.~~~~.::~ ·~ :.1
...
'
29. Which is the method of joining for sparsl lohgerons and stringers? 34. IThe moisture content of wood will have to be how many percent to sustain fun-
I 'gus growth?
'a) 6-8%
b) 10-12%
"'
a)lt·tcl'e
'~;;;e~
~U tiJ:i IV$ ~·~
t~
33. When the moisture cont~n.t of ~he , wood js lowered,..it's dir:n~n§ions decrease. ,.~...:-_-:.-::..:::..c-.- - - , - - . , - - - - - - , . , . , - - , - - - - - - - - - - - ' - ' - 7 - = - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·"'!
What kind. of damage could
I
be caused?
'
::
·:
.) I·
r....
. ,. I
~-
\
..-'"'
;:.___
(
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) Training ·Manual Study Questions
,~~-~
~~~copee.R_
~r"'i~ '"~
~~ ... ~~:fil':,~ ~~~-------------------------------------
41 . What are the methods to shrink the different kind of fabrics? ;;-·
45. Corrosion that forms in riveted joints where there is a slight relative movement
is called "ilJ!t/riS,?'~
~~~;..!=-=-
corrosion.
steps prior apply a doped-on-patch? 47. One of the primary causes for intergranular corrosion i s - - - - - - -
... :sc,.e ......
'!7~-=c
48. Which type of . corrosion is often found on structural members like seat-
rails(tracks)?
43. How much should a patch or a tape over a sewed repair overlap the damage?
~~:'"'07 "1 ·=~t.-
~••KtRJ1e.'i!!~.Pli~Fr;@$!O:n;-f
49. Two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in the presence of an electro-
lyte. This is called a~!Ef{q'[{QJ!ii.,~
,;,;;,;,
~·:?:____________
~::.
-------------------------------------- ..
:s $ loads only.
51 . In the UNF/UNC thread system: B 1/4 inch diameter the nominal sizes 59. The threads for machine screws normally have a class- f"' .• fit.
are given as ....
60. IThe diameter of a ri~et is standardised in fWij''<:'· ~
1
I ._.. .~ -
inch. The rivet
length is graduated by .. inch increments.
52. A self-locking nut should never be used Jon a bolt if the fastener is subject to (A, AD, D, DO)
f.,
62. :What denotes the first and the second dash number in a rivet code?
53. The threads for most aircraft structural have a class- ~7 fit.
· ,__ ,
64·. :when itis ..n~cessary to provide a threaded hole in a piece of thin sheet
imeial·, ::~ :· :. '~utdt!r-1[! may be used.
55. :A bolt whose . ~~j~ .~~ -,~~~e~f=th al ' asterisk enclosed in a triangle is a
~-+-----------bolt. 65.}! High-$hear pin rivets ~~~ (may or may not) be used to
I . . · t -
replace steel aircraft bolts. on a size-for-size basis.
~
,r '\
Basic Maintenance " Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) '/
Training Manual Study Questions
What means the temper designation "T31" of a rivet. 72. An AN818-8 nut will fit a tube with an outside diameter of inch.
i:i'f:)i7"~
73. f.N fittings made of steel are coloured
0
~!fil~~l~,.:;r
::.. ________ .
74. The flare-type fitting that has a short unthreaded section between the flare
.cone and the beginning of the threads is an rr;r;(f;Jjff.fJ
~ril!>--•-· ·
(AC or AN) fitting.
.....
76. Name a few applications of "Charge Valves".
'&' r.J-(•" •" ' ~ ,- "'', ·· =~~,., .. ~·-;;;r·~,··r.-·"'::-:-ii
¥!t...~lY¥,~~fi!i!Jlh<t_."f..~f.)~f!~,q_PllJHl~2fJi.-~f4LQllJlll»!-2L~fl~Jt:r
'
80. Where are flexible hoses· installed? 6.T Springs (N/A)
84. Name the most commonly used types of springs.
... .
82.
83.
·, '
•.. ·
I
. '.1
i
I ...... .
·I:. ....
_
·:
I
;. $!
~
·\
~
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) "0/
Training Manual Study Questions
86. One disadvantage of the helical compression spring is a condition called 6.8 Bearings
"float". Describe this condition and how to overcome this problem.
(see Title "Compression Spring" on page 3) 89. A bearing generally consists of which elements?
' •
91. There are many variants of bearings, but the main types are as follows:
87. Springs: Which are the most common ends?
,J!l~&l<#&fg}f0"ID!fa~e:biis;·i"
.... ~'i!<~.. ~~:~~
93. When shafts are supported with two or more bearings, only one bearing gives
the axial ouidance to the shaft (thrust or locating bearing). Why?
I
1OO.iWhat load is·usually taken by a roller type bearing?
i.
I
lt~
I
99. Wh~.re are Partnumb~rs
---- ~ . :and
I ldentificati6n
I .Marks normally printed/stamped?
,._
··.;.: I
6.9 Transmission
i.
r· -~-- ..
122.Why do large all metal aircraft need a tension regulator?
1
:~
.' :';: . . . . ,-:>., ..;
...... :-:.
119.-r,/:f,;.~&
h,~~ength of a nico~ress thimble-e~e,
of the cable strength.
cable termin,,~l is ~ ·
120.A fairl~ad st.lould not defl,ect a controi ca ble more than ·. · t:i/fJ
1
degrees .
.. ·.. ' . . . .. . .·.1 ,. ·: . ·.·· ·:. . ·.. ·..· : ·: ·. ..
. I
125.Fairleads are used to ... 128.What does a high wire size number (e.g. 22) mean?
~indc-11# .
130. Where are the high vibration areas on the MD11 aircraft located?
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 131. Explain the construction of a shielded wire?
~ /" , .
132. What is a shielded wire used for? t1:S6.What'means the first letter of an MD11 w1re (E 206-1 00-20N)?
r/,Jo-vdkd /)!C#'[· \ .
r
~~4~~ - 137.)J\/hat does the colour code of the terminal isolation mean?
· 1~ )/aR
134. Which important information can be taken from the Identification Number
I
(Wire Coding System)?
3r;fi ~/r- I
138.Are all splices soldered? L
~ 2~/Jh{c~J
7---- ~ -
~JIS cw6 I
r/&e~ I
135.What means the second,: underlined nul ber of an Airbus wire (2151-00BO)?
·Cft0Y Ck? t:4 ~ .. . .
140.~her~ ~a? Y_?U ~nd the partn~m~er on a plug?
n
r
SRTechnics f; ' Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions
141. Name all requirements to electrical wires and cables. 146.Name the advance I disadvantage of wires with aluminium conductors:
d~ffY!L~
(
152. The colour code of a ter~inal- or spl~ce iJins.ulation means: 158.;How to prevenrthat a wrong ·computer is placed in to a shelf location?
I
I I
1
153. Where frequent disconnection of wiring i\s expected, 159.'How the wire is connected to pin or socket?
?i?'F
rY?
jv'; :-- (- 7 ri~Vt:;
~7,c 4/
!?'l'v- '-,. - ./'
fb&W440Y 1ifJ- 1
'•
~'· nltzt~
I ,
l '
SR Technics f; Basic Maintenance
Training Manual n.
·I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions
6.3.2 Wooden Structures 25. What is the maximum permissible grain deviation (slope of grain) for Douglas
fir?
21 . Why is spruce the wood of choice among aircraft builders? .
;/!pi~ ~Wfk_~nt~ 28 . Name the two basic types of joints used in aircraft carpentry?
29. Which is the method of joini,ng for spars, 1Jngerons and stringers? 34. The moisture content of wood will have to be how many percent to sustain fun-
~$ 5 Ct}jJA-Jk I
. gus growth?
a) 6-8%
. b) 10-12%
I
YrKJ above20%
V
30. The butt joint can only resist ~ke loads. 35. For a plywood skin repair, there is a simple test to determine which type of cur-
31 . Name the four types of spars commonly used in aircraft. vature exists. How does it work?
r-/ I I
htJi(?~
f/4-
f ~.,uuiatl S;Ht 36. i What is the minimum recommended bend radii for a piece of thoroughly soak
1
pl~ood. (~hich is used at goo to the face grain?
32. Name the most used rib types . I(M~
L
~fltk •
I /}
I
' l
33 . When the moisture content of the wood is lowered, it's dimensions decrease .
What i of damage could, be caused? I
. , , I 38. : After a repair has been done what is the last and final step of the job?
, I
c~ J
'Z
I
Sept10ffechnica/ Training Corresponding with EASA P1art-66 car~· 6.Study Questions - 4
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes OIJIY ~ }
SR Technics f) . r- Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions
c)
d)
41 . What are the methods to shrink the different kind of fabrics?
Cotton, linen: 45 . Corrosion that forms in riveted joints where there is a slight relative movement
is called _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ corrosion .
Polyester fabric:
42 . What are the preparation steps prior apply a doped-on-patch? 47. One of the primary causes for intergranular corrosion is ___,.....__ _ _ __
ldiJ ,)a 1:Lt
48 . Which type of corrosion is often found on structural members like seat-
rails(tracks )?
43 . How much should a patch or a tape over a sewed repair overlap the damage?
!~f'/1444
49 . Two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in the presence of an electro-
lyte. This is called a
6.5 Fasteners 57. The length of the unthreaded portion of a bolt shank is called the _ __
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of the bolt.
50. Which thread forms are used for axial drives, e.g. Flaps Screw Jacks?
I 58 . Clevis bolts are designed to be used for Shear loads only.
I
59. The threads for machine screws normally have a class- fit.
'
60. · The diameter of a rivet is standardised in inch . The rivet length
' is graduated by inch increments.
I
51' In th~ UNF/UNC thread system: Below 1/!4 inch diameter the nominal sizes
61. The Letter Code of a 2117 Rivet is · (A, AD, D, DO)
are g1ven as - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - -
1
\
62. What denotes the first and the second dash number in a rivet code?
52 . A self-locking nut should never be used 01a bolt if the fastener is subject to First dash number:
b) single dash: 65. · High-Shear pin rivets (may or may not) be used to re-
c) two dashes: I · place steel aircraft bolts on a size-for-size basis .
55 . A bolt whose head .is identified with an Jsterisk enclosed in a triangle is a 66. ' What means the temper designation "T31" of a rivet.
, I
I bolt.
67 . Explain the difference between the "Friction Cherrylock Rivet" and the 74. The flare-type fitting that has a short unthreaded section between the flare
"Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet".
cone and the beginning of the threads is an _ _ _ _ (AC or AN) fitting.
6.6 Pipes and Unions 77 . What are pipes and unions generally made of?
69. Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing . These
days, aluminium-alloy and corrosion-resistant steel lines have replaced cop-
per in most applications . Explain why:
Helical:
83. How can a metal seal fitting equipped with a-ring and backup ring be identi-
1
fied?
1
I
Sept10rTechnical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes o~/y Ca 6.Study Questions - 8
SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials &-Hardware
Study Questions
86. One disadvantage of the helical compression spring is a condition called 6.8 Bearings
"float". Describe this condition and how to overcome this problem. (see title
"Compression Spring" 89. A bearing generally consists of which elements?
91. There are many variants of bearings, but the main types are as follows:
87. Springs: Which are the most common ends?
93. When shafts are supported with two or more bearings, only one bearing gives
the axial guidance to the shaft (thrust or locating bearing). Why?
94 . What's the difference between non-rubbinb and rubbing bearing seals? 99. ' What load is usually taken by a roller type bearing?
I .
I
95. Describe the main objectives of bearing lt rication: 100.There are two types of bearing seals:
I •
b)
c)
109.Pianetary gears can be used to ...
d)
113. Where are non-flexible cables used? 120.Describe the purpose of a witness hole.
7 X 19:
117.What method is often used 'these days to brevent turn barrels from turning?
i
I
12~.Nicopress oval sleeves are used ...
119.A fairlead should not deflect a control cable more than degrees.
Sept10flechnical Training
Copyright by SR Technics
Corresponding with EASA Part-66
For training purposes ot;~IY cr 6.Study Questions - 12
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual Study Questions
124. Fairleads are used to ... 127.What does a high wire size number (e.g . 22) mean?
129.Where are the high vibration areas on the MD11 aircraft located?
131. What is a shielded wire used for? 136.What means the first letter of an MD11 wire (E 206-1 00-20N)?
I
' I
132.Where do we need Chromel and Alumel , ires?
136. What does the colour code of the terminal isolation mean?
I
I I
'
Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Sept10!Technical Training
Copyright by SR Ter;hnics For training purposes ·on.fy Ca' 6.Study Questions- 14
(- , Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) Training Manual Study Questions
140.Name all requirements to electrical wires and cables. 145.Name the advance I disadvantage of wires with aluminium conductors:
I
151.The colour code of a terminal- or splice indulation means: 157'. How to prevent that a wrong computer is placed in to a shelf location?
I I
'
152.Where frequent disconnecti~n of wiring is l xpected, 158•.How the wire is connected to pin or socket?
________ and
. I
1 are used
I
156. How to prevent that a plug is connected tol a wrong receptacle?
Sept10/Technica/ Training
Copyright by SR Technics
Corresponding with EASA P~rt-66
For training purposes on,fy car 6.Study Questions - 16
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materiqls & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual Study Questions