CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The conventional energy sources obtained from our environment tend to exhaust with relative
rapidity due to its irrational utilization by the humanity. This uncontrolled extraction of the
natural energies, certainly will lead the harmony of our ecological system to the instability. It
is important to point out, that if it occurs the recuperation of this system will be practically
impossible. As a consequence of this possibility, the apprehension for a diminution of the
petroleum sources, natural gas and natural resources of coal has been intensified. For this
reason, the effort to find new sources of energy, to permit reduction in the utilization of the
natural resources of fuel, became a challenge for all scientific and technological areas in the
world, and especially for the electrical engineering area. Within this content, the solar energy
appears as an important alternative to the increase of the energetic consumption of the planet,
once that, the quantity of the energy from the sun that arrives on the earth surface in a day is
ten times more than the total energy consumed for all the people of our planet during a year.
Through the photovoltaic effect the energy contained in the sunlight can be converted directly
into electrical energy. This Method of energy conversion presents some advantages, such as:
1. Simplicity;
2. Does not exist any moving mechanical part;
3. Its modular characteristic offers large flexibility in the
4. design and application of this kind of energy
5. generator;
6. Short time of installation and operation;
7. High reliability and low maintenance.

Besides, Photovoltaic solar systems represent a silent. Safe, not polluted, and renewable
source of electrical energy hardly appropriated for the integration in the urban area. Reducing
almost completely the energy transmission losses, due to the proximity between the
generation and the consumption .This kind of energy source, traditionally attractive in rural
areas, begins now to be economically viable in applications interconnected to the mains
power supply. In that case, the photovoltaic panel’s arc incorporated in the roofs or facades of
commercial buildings and residential houses, delivering electric energy to the mains.

1
This project proposes the design of converter, to synchronize the solar photovoltaic energy
with the grid. Generally, the output from the renewable energy sources is always variable in
nature. This necessitates the inclusion of an interface like the grid synchronized inverters in
order to synchronize and control the renewable energy source to the grid. To achieve grid
synchronization, a feedback synchronizing circuit is used. The PSIM Software is used for the
simulation of single phase and three phase inverter to synchronize it with the grid, in terms of
voltage, frequency and phase.
The renewable resources are the energy sources that are renewable in. Due to the mounting
energy demand, grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems have become widely accepted.
These resource is not only free from emissions but also abundantly available at free of cost.
The project aims at the design of a power electronic interface to make the inconsistent output
of renewable energy sources into a form that is suitable for grid. In order to accomplish the
grid synchronization, a feedback synchronizing circuit is employed. At the same time, while
synchronizing the renewable energy source to the grid, the various power quality issues like
instability, harmonics and impact to the power factor needs to be taken care. The
synchronization along with the controlling strategy would not only improve the performance
of the renewable energy system but also increases the power quality of the system. The
output of the renewable energy system should be in a sinusoidal manner, A LCL filter is used
to fulfill this functionality. The LCL filter has an excellent current ripple reduction with
lower inductance values. The system has been designed in such a way to reduce the
harmonics and the distortions in the voltage which is injected to Grid. The system requires an
intermediate interface between the renewable energy system and the inverter.

1.2. HISTORY OF SOLAR POWER IN INDIA

Solar power in India is a fast-growing industry. As of 6 April 2017, the country's solar grid
had a cumulative capacity of 12.28 GW compared to 6.76 GW at the end of March 2016. In
January 2015, the Indian government expanded its solar plans, targeting US$100 billion of
investment and 100 GW of solar capacity, including 40 GW from rooftop solar, by 2022.
Commenting on the key importance India attaches to solar power, India’s Prime Minister
Narendra Modi said at the historic COP21 climate conference in Paris in 2015, “The world
must turn to (the) sun to power our future. As the developing world lifts billions of people
into prosperity, our hope for a sustainable planet rests on a bold, global initiative.”

2
India's initiative of 100 GW of solar energy by 2022 is an ambitious target given the world’s
installed solar power capacity in 2014 was 181 GW. India quadrupled its solar power
generation capacity from 2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to 12,288.83 MW on 10 March 2017.
The country added 3.01 GW of solar power capacity in 2015-2016, and 5.525 GW in 2016-
2017, the highest of any year. In addition to the large-scale grid connected solar PV initiative,
India is continuing to develop the use of off-grid solar power for localized energy needs.
India has a poor electrification rate in rural areas. In 2015, only 55% of all rural households
had access to electricity, and 85% of rural households depended on solid fuel for cooking.
Solar products have increasingly helped to meet rural needs, and by the end of 2015, a
cumulative total of just under 1 million solar lanterns had been sold in the country, reducing
the need for expensive kerosene. During 2015 alone, 118,700 solar home lighting systems
were installed, and 46,655 solar street lighting installations were provided under a national
program. The same year saw just over 1.4 million solar cookers distributed or sold in India.

In January 2016, the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, and the President of France,
Mr. François Hollande laid the foundation stone for the headquarters of the International
Solar Alliance (ISA) in Gwalpahari, Gurgaon. The ISA will focus on promoting and
developing solar energy and solar products for countries lying wholly or partially between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The alliance of over 120 countries was
announced at the Paris COP21 climate summit. One of the hopes of the ISA is that wider
deployment will reduce production and development costs, and thus facilitate increased
deployment of solar technologies, including in poor and remote regions. India is one of the
countries with the higher solar electricity production per watt installed, with an insulation of
1700 to 1900 kilowatt hours per kilowatt peak (kWh/KWp). On 16 May 2011, India’s
first solar power project (with a capacity of 5 MW) was registered under the Clean
Development Mechanism. The project is in Sivagangai Village, Sivaganga district, Tamil
Nadu. India saw a sudden rise in use of solar electricity in 2010, when 25.1 MW was added
to the grid, and the trend accelerated when 468.3 MW was added in 2011. Recent growth has
been over 3,000 MW per year and is set to increase yet further.

3
1.3. LITERATURE SURVEY

[1] Sunil Salvi1, Hardik P Desai1, “Two Stage Grid Connected PV System”
“International Journal of Innovative and Emerging Research in Engineering” Volume 3, Issue
5, 2016
This paper, starting from the need for solar power technology describes principle
advantages of solar energy along with the worldwide electricity generation from solar energy.
It describes need for interconnection of solar system with grid. It also describes different
components of grid interconnected system, the magnitude of induced emf and the power
generated.

[2] A.Kavitha, Dr. N. Senthil Kumar, N.Vanaja, “Design and Control of Grid
Synchronization of Renewable Energy Sources” International Conference on Circuit, Power
and Computing Technologies, 2016.
This paper describes the increasing trend of integration of renewable and non-renewable
resources. It proposes the design of converter, to synchronize the renewable energy with the
grid. This necessitates the inclusion of an interface like the grid synchronized inverters in
order to synchronize and control the renewable energy source to the grid. It describes various
methods to achieve grid synchronization in terms of voltage, frequency and phase.
[3] Shazia Afroze, Udaykumar R.Y, Anant Naik“A Systematic Approach to Grid Connected
PV System” IEEE, 2012.
This paper describes a detailed mathematical model of Photovoltaic (PV) array and a control
scheme of a single-phase grid-connected system. It also describes basic circuit equations of
the photovoltaic (PV) solar cells including the effects of solar irradiation and temperature
changes. It also gives details about the power sharing between PV and the Grid for any given
load.

[4] V Senthil Kumar, S Arun Jees, Dr.V Gomathi,“Control Techniques for Single Phase
Inverter to Interface Renewable Energy Sources with the Micro grid” International Journal of
Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Vol. 3,
Special Issue 2, April 2014.

4
This paper mainly presents novel current control technique is proposed to control both active
and reactive power flow from a micro grid system fed by a renewable energy source through
a single phase parallel-connected inverter. The parallel connected inverter ensures active and
reactive power flow from grid with low total harmonic distortion even in the presence of
nonlinear load. It describes p-q theory based approach to find the reference current of the
parallel connected inverter to ensure desired operating conditions at the grid terminal.
[5] Amir Ahmed A. Radwan, Yasser Abdel-Rady “Power Synchronization Control for Grid-
Connected Current-Source Inverter-Based Photovoltaic Systems” IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, Vol. 31, No. 3, September 2016
This paper presents the power synchronization control (PSC) scheme for the single-stage
grid-connected CSC-based PV generator. It describes a detailed small-signal model for the
complete CSC-based PV system with the PSC strategy to investigate the system stability,
characterize the converter interactions with the electric grid, and design the controller
parameters.
[6] Denuar Cruz Martins, Rogers Deniont, “Interconnection of a Photovoltaic Panels Array
to a Single-phase Utility Line from a Static Conversion System”IEEE2000.
This paper presents the analysis of a static conversion system for treatment of the solar
energy from photovoltaic panels. It also gives principle of operation, design procedure and
experimental results of the system.

[7] A. Chaitanakulwat, V. Kinnares, N. Thungsuk,”Single-Phase Grid-Connected

Photovoltaic System with Active Power Filter Functionality” IEEE 2012.
This paper presents a single-phase grid connected photovoltaic (PV) system with active
power filter functionality for nonlinear load. It also describes current control based on
adaptive PWM method.

[8] Maheswar Prasad Behera, Pravat Kumar Ray “Single-phase Grid Integrated Photovoltaic
Inverter for Harmonic and Reactive Power Compensation”
IEEE INDICON 2015.
This paper presents a single phase grid integration of a shunt connected Photovoltaic (PV)
generator. It describes system to provide uninterrupted power supply to the load during both
strong sunlight as well as at night or at cloudy conditions by using interface between the grid
and the PV through a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), eliminating the current harmonics and
compensating the load reactive power.
5
1.4. PROBLEM FORMULATION
The conventional energy sources obtained from our environment tends to exhaust with
relative rapidity due to its irrational utilization by the humanity. This uncontrolled extraction
of the natural energies, certainly will lead the harmony of our ecological system to the
instability. It is important to point out, that if it occurs the recuperation of this system will be
practically impossible.
As a consequence of this possibility, the apprehension for a diminution of the petroleum
sources, natural gas and natural resources of coal has been intensified. For this reason, the
effort to find new sources of energy, to permit reduction in the utilization of the natural
resources of fuel, became a challenge for all scientific and technological areas in the world,
and especially for the electrical engineering area.
Within this content, the solar energy appears as an important alternative to the increase of the
energetic consumption of the planet, once that, the quantity of the energy from the sun that
arrives on the earth surface in a day is ten times more than the total energy consumed for all
the people of our planet during a year. Through the photovoltaic effect the energy contained
in the sunlight can be converted directly into electrical energy. This method of energy
conversion presents some advantages, such as:
1) Simplicity.
2) Does not exist any moving mechanical part.
3) Its modular characteristic offers large flexibility in the Design and application of this kind
of energy generator.
4) Short time of installation and operation.
5) High reliability, and low maintenance.
Besides photovoltaic solar systems represent a silent, safe, not polluted, and renewable
source of electrical energy hardly appropriated for the integration in the urban area. Reducing
almost completely the energy transmission losses, due to the proximity between the
generation and the consumption. This kind of energy source is now beginning to be
economically viable in applications interconnected to the power grid.
Thus from the above stated problem formulation and the references [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8] mentioned, the disadvantages of conventional energy sources can be overcome by
designing a solar photovoltaic system synchronized with power grid.

6
1.5. AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1. To harness the environment friendly energy and enhance its contribution to the socio-
economic development.
2. To meet and supplement rural energy needs.
3. To provide clean and sustainable energy supply to agriculture, industry, commercial
and household sector.
4. To supplement efforts in bridging the gap between demand and supply of power, with
solar energy as renewable energy source.
5. To extract free clean energy with reduction in utility cost and also contribute to the
“Green Energy” awareness.

7
PSIM SOFTWARE
PSIM is an Electronic circuit simulation software package, designed specifically for
use in power electronics and motor drive simulations but can be used to simulate
any electronic circuit. Developed by Powersim, PSIM uses nodal analysis and the trapezoidal
rule integration as the basis of its simulation algorithm. PSIM provides a schematic capture
interface and a waveform viewer Sim view. PSIM has several modules that extend its
functionality into specific areas of circuit simulation and design including: control
theory, electric motors, photovoltaic and wind turbines . PSIM is used by industry for
research and product development and it is used by educational institutions for research and
teaching

Modules:-

PSIM has various add on modules, the full list and their descriptions can be found on
the Powersim website. There are modules that enable motor drive simulation, digital control,
and the calculation of thermal losses due to switching and conduction. There is a renewable
energy module which allows for the simulation of photovoltaic (including temperature
effects), batteries, supercapacitor, and wind turbines. Additionally there are several modules
which allow co-simulation with other platforms to verify VHDL or Verilog code or to co
simulate with an FEA program. The programs that PSIM currently co-simulates with
are: Simulink, JMAG, and ModelSim.

In addition, PSIM’s Processor-In-Loop simulation or PIL Module was added in

version 10.0.4. The Module allows users to control a PSIM simulation with code that is
executing on a TI DSP or MCU

Comparison with SPICE:-

PSIM has a much faster simulation speed than SPICE based simulators based on its
usage of the ideal switch. With the additional Digital and SimCoupler Modules almost any
kind of logic algorithm can be simulated. Since PSIM uses ideal switches the simulated
waveforms will reflect this, making PSIM more suited for system level studies rather than
switching transition studies. Additionally, PSIM has a simplified interface compared to other
simulators and as a result has a more intuitive interface.

MOSFET and Diode Level 2 models were added in the version 10 release. These
models allow the simulation of the switch transition, reverse recovery effects, and gate drive
circuitry. A comparison with a PSIM & SPICE model of the same device showed similar

8
resulting waveforms with a comparable simulation speed given identical operating
conditions. PowerSim recently partnered with CoolCAD Electronics to add CoolSPICE,
a SPICE based integrated circuit modeling and design tool, as a bundle option for the PSIM
software package. The advantage being that PSIM would then have the flexibility to be able
to run SPICE based models and net-lists.

Licensing:-

There are various licensing options available for PSIM. There is a free demo
version which does not expire but is limited in component count and allowed circuit
complexity. The standard/student version allows for the simulation of less complex circuits
for a reduced cost. PowerSim does have educational licensing options, some are free, for
institutions to address simulation requirements for research and for teaching.

Developer Powersim
Initial release June 1994, 22 years ago
Stable release August 2015
Development status Active
Operating System Microsoft Windows
Type Simulation software
License Proprietary
Website www.powersimtech.com

9
 CHAPTER NO. 2

GRID SYNCHRINIZATION WITH PV SOURCE

Generalized Block Diagram:-

Fig no. 01

Above diagram shows the general schematic representation of Grid

connected PV system. It shows the different physical parameter required to
synchronization of Distribution Grid Network with the PV source system. It
consists of

1) Solar Panel
2) Zener diode
3) Inverter with Gate drive circuit
10
4) L-C filter
5) Micro Power Grid
6) ZCD
7) V & I Sensor

SIMULATION OF GRID SYNCHRONIZATION WITH PV SOURCE

11
1) SOLAR ENERGY:-
Solar power is arguably the cleanest, most reliable renewable energy available, and it
can be used in several forms to help power your home or business. Solar-powered
photovoltaic (PV) panels convert the sun's rays into electricity by exciting electrons in
silicon cells using the photons of light from the sun.

Solar panel:-

Solar panels are a great way of cutting your electricity bills. Solar panels are made of
photovoltaic (PV) cells, which turn sunlight into electricity. This electricity can be fed into
your home’s mains electricity supply or synchronized with Distribution Grid network.

 How do solar panels work?

Solar panels are an environmentally friendly way of producing electricity. It is the

technology relies on PV cells to turns sunlight into electricity.

A PV panel is composed of many solar cells, which are connected in series and
parallel so the output current and voltage of the PV panel are high enough to the requirements
of the grid or equipment. Taking into account the simplification mentioned above, the output
current-voltage characteristic of a PV panel is expressed by equation, where np and ns are the
number of solar cells in parallel and series respectively. This electricity produce is fed to
inverter for further operation

SOLAR PANEL:-
A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged; connect assembly of typically 6×10
photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of
a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts. The efficiency of a module
determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 watt
module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few
commercially available solar modules that exceed 22% efficiency and reportedly also
exceeding 24%. A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most
installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of
photovoltaic modules, an inverter, interconnection wiring.

Theory and Construction:-

12
 Fig no. 04:- Photovoltaic system

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline
silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either
be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and
moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film
cells. The cells must be connected electrically in series, one to another. Externally, most of
photovoltaic modules use MC4 connector’s type to facilitate easy weatherproof connections
to the rest of the system.
Modules electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage
or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the
current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive
transition metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial
module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Advantages of PV source:-

1. It is the pollution free source of energy.

2. It doesn’t require fuel cost as the solar energy is freely available in nature.
3. It requires less maintenance cost.
4. Optimal use of solar energy will results in saving in fossil fuels.
5. The system can be used to fulfill load demand of individual consumer and also it
helps to reduce load shading.

13
2) ZENER DIODE:- ZENER DIODE as a voltage regulator:-
A Zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. A voltage regulator
circuit can be designed using a Zener diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across
the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the load current.

Zener diodes are widely used as shunt voltage regulators to regulate voltage across
small loads. Zener diodes have sharp reverse breakdown voltage and breakdown voltage will
be constant for wide range of currents. Thus we will connect the Zener diode parallel to the
load such that the applied voltage will reverse bias it. Thus if the reverse bias voltage across
the Zener diode exceeds the knee voltage, the voltage across the load will be constant. The
circuit symbol of Zener diode is shown in figure.

Fig no. 05:- Zener diode

Circuit Diagram:-

14
 Fig no. 06:- Zener diode as voltage regulator

In the above circuit diagram excess voltage (Vin-Vz) will drop across Rs thus by
limiting the current through Zener. For the proper designing of the regulator,

1. Unregulated input voltage range

2. Required output voltage
3. Maximum load current required

The value of resistance Rs should satisfy the following conditions:-

 The value of Rs must be small enough to keep the Zener diode in reverse
breakdown region. The minimum current required for a Zener diode to keep it in
reverse breakdown region will be given in datasheet. For ex., a 5.6V, 0.5W Zener
diode has a recommended reverse current of 5mA. If the reverse current is less
than this value, the output voltage Vo will be unregulated.
 The value of Rs must be large enough that the current through the Zener diode
should not destroy it. That is the maximum power dissipation Pmax should be less
than IzVz.

In this project we use Zener diode which is connected across solar panel having rating of to
regulate the output voltage at 230V.

A Zener diode allows current to flow from its anode to its cathode like a
normal semiconductor diode, but it also permits current to flow in the reverse direction when
its "Zener voltage" is reached. Zener diodes have a highly doped p-n junction. Normal diodes
will also break down with a reverse voltage but the voltage and sharpness of the knee are not
as well defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal diodes are not designed to operate in the
breakdown region, but Zener diodes can reliably operate in this region.

15
 Fig. circuit of voltage regulator

The device was named after Clarence Melvin Zener, who discovered the Zener effect.
Zener reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum tunneling caused by a high strength
electric field. However, many diodes described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche
breakdown. Both breakdown types are used in Zener diodes with the Zener effect
predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdown above.
Zener diodes are widely used in electronic equipment of all kinds and are one of the
basic building blocks of electronic circuits. They are used to generate low power stabilized
supply rails from a higher voltage and to provide reference voltages for circuits, especially
stabilized power supplies. They are also used to protect circuits from over-voltage,
especially electrostatic discharge

16
3) INVERTER:-
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC).
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical
effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use
moving parts in the conversion process.
The grid tie inverter is the power electronic converter that converts the DC into AC
but with the synchronizing qualifications. It is basically used in the applications of the
integration of renewable energy to the utility line. The basic properties of a grid tie inverter
are

• The magnitude and phase of the voltage should be as same as that of the grid

• Its output frequency should be equal to the grid frequency A single phase full bridge
inverter has been designed for this purpose.

The full-bridge inverter can produce an output power twice as that of the half-bridge inverter
with the same input voltage. As this being one of the distinct features, it is used at high power
levels since it requires less paralleling devices.

17
 Fig no. 02:- Single phase full bridge grid synchronized inverter

By providing a suitable switching sequence, an alternating voltage can be obtained. The

switches S1 & S2 are turned on to get an output voltage of +Vs and the switches S3 & S4 are
turned simultaneously to obtain an output of –Vs. INVERTER

An inverter is a circuit which converts a DC power into an AC power at desired

output voltage and frequency. The AC output voltage could be fixed or variable voltage and
frequency. This conversion can be achieved either by controlled turn on and turnoff devices
(e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, and MCT etc.) or by forced commutated thyristors, depending on
application. The output voltage waveform of an ideal inverter should be sinusoidal. The
voltage waveforms of practical inverter are however, non-sinusoidal and contain certain
harmonics. Square wave or quasi-square wave voltage maybe acceptable for low and medium
power application and for high power application low distorted, sinusoidal waveform are
required. The output frequency of an inverter is determined by the rate at which the
semiconductor devices are switched on and off by the inverter control circuitry and

18
consequently, an adjustable frequency AC output is readily provided. The harmonics content
of output voltage can be minimized or reduced significantly by switching technique of
variable high speed power semiconductor devices.

The DC power input to the inverter maybe battery, fuel cell, solar cell or other DC
source. But in most industrial applications, it is fed by a rectifier. This configuration of AC to
DC converter and DC to AC inverter is called a DC link at network frequency is rectified and
then filtered in the DC link before being inverter to AC at adjustable frequency. Rectification
is achieved by standard diode or thyristors converter circuits and inversion is achieved by the
circuit techniques

Power Circuit

The power circuit of Single Phase Unipolar inverter consists of four bidirectional
IGBT arranged in bridge form. The circuit diagram of the power circuit is shown in figure 1

Fig. circuit diagram of single phase inverter

The circuit diagram consists of four distinct IGBTs such that they are connected as the
bridge circuit. The input to the circuit is the 220v DC supply from the rectifier unit. The
IGBTs are triggered accordingly such that the AC output voltage is obtained at the output.
The operation of the circuit is as follows.

First the IGBT S1 and S4 are turned on by triggering the gate of the IGBT. During
this time the input supply is 220v DC and at the output the 220v is applied across the load.
The current starts from the supply positive, S1, S2, load and to the negative of the supply.
The conduction path for the first cycle of operation is shown in figure.

19
 Fig. switch S1 and S4 are ON

During the next phase or the cycle the IGBT S2 and S3 are turned on by giving trigger pulse
to the gate of the IGBTs. During this period the input voltage is applied at the output but in
the negative direction. The current conduction starts from the supply, S2, S3, load and to the
negative of the supply. The current conduction is showed in the figure.

Fig. switch S2 and S3 are ON

As the two cycles continue the positive and the negative voltage is applied at the load and the
current direction changes in the two cycles. As the current direction changes the alternative
voltage is obtained at the load thus converting Dc voltage to AC voltage.

Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation technique

The switches in the voltage source inverter can be turned on and off as required. In
the most straightforward implementation, generation of the desired output voltage is achieved
by comparing the desired reference waveform (modulating signal) with a high-frequency
triangular ‘carrier’ wave. Depending on whether the signal voltage is larger or smaller than
the carrier waveform, either the positive or negative dc bus voltage is applied at the output.
Note that over the period of one triangle wave, the average voltage applied to the load is

20
proportional to the amplitude of the signal (assumed constant) during this period. The
resulting chopped square waveform contains a replica of the desired waveform in its low
frequency components, with the higher frequency components being at frequencies of an
close to the carrier frequency. Notice that the root mean square value of the ac voltage
waveform is still equal to the dc bus voltage, and hence the total harmonic distortion is not
affected by the PWM process.

Fig. Sine-PWM method for 1ph inverter

When the modulating signal is a sinusoid of amplitude Am, and the amplitude of the
triangular carrier is Ac, the ratio m=Am/Ac is known as the modulation index. Note that
controlling the modulation index therefore controls the amplitude of the applied output
voltage. With a sufficiently high carrier frequency the high frequency components do not
propagate significantly in the ac network (or load).

Fig. over-modulation Sine PWM

21
Note that the process works well for m ≤1. For m > 1, there are periods of the triangle wave in
which there is no intersection of the carrier and the signal as in Fig. 4. However, a certain
amount of this over modulation is often allowed in the interest of obtaining a larger ac
voltage magnitude even though the spectral content of the voltage is rendered somewhat
poorer.

SIMULATION OF INVERTER

22
WAVEFORMS OF INVERTER

4) FILTER:-
Electronic filters are circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
Electronic filters can be:

 passive or active
 analog or digital
 high- pass, low-pass, band-pass, band-stop , or all-pass
 discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
 linear or non-linear
 infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)
The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects
of their design.

L-C Filter

23
 The output waveform of the inverter is square wave, we can use ac filter to obtain the
pure sine wave of 50 Hz. The filter consist of RC network. We have adjusted values of L, R
and C to obtain pure sine wave.

5) MICRO POWER GRID:-

Micro grid is a localized grouping of electricity sources and loads that normally
operate connected to and synchronous with the traditional centralized electrical
grid (macrogrid), but can disconnect and function autonomously as physical and/or economic
conditions dictate. By this way, it paves a way to effectively integrate various sources
of distributed generation (DG), especially Renewable Energy Sources (RES). It also provides
a good solution for supplying power in case of an emergency by having the ability to change
between islanded mode and grid-connected mode. On the other hand, control and protection
are big challenges in this type of network configuration, which is generally treated as a
hierarchical control.

24
7) V & I SENSOR:-
A sensor is an electronic component, module, or subsystem whose purpose is to detect
events or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronics, frequently
a computer processor. A sensor is always used with other electronics, whether as simple as
a light or as complex as a computer.

A voltage sensor is going to be able to determine and even monitor and measure the
voltage supply. It is then able to take those measurements and turn them into a signal that one
will then be able to read. The signal will often go into a specialized electronic device for
recording, but sometimes, an observer will be present to manually read the sensor output.

Measuring a voltage in any system is a “passive” activity as it can be done easily at

any point in the system without affecting the system performance. However, current
measurement is “intrusive” as it demands insertion of some type of sensor which introduces a
risk of affecting system performance.

A current sensor is a device that detects and converts current to an easily measured
output voltage, which is proportional to the current through the measured path.

VOLTAGE SENSOR CIRCUIT

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 WAVEFORMS OF SENSING UNIT

6) ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR:-

The Comparator is the zero crossing detector or sine wave to square wave converter.
A zero-crossing is a point where the sign of a mathematical function changes (e.g. from
positive to negative), represented by a crossing of the axis (zero value) in the graph of the
function. It is a commonly used term in electronics, mathematics, sound, and image
processing.
In alternating current, the zero-crossing is the instantaneous point at which there is
no voltage present. In a sine wave or other simple waveform, this normally occurs twice
during each cycle.

Zero crossing detector (ZCD) is a voltage comparator that switches the output
between +Vsat and –Vsat (Vsat: Saturation voltage almost equal to 14V) when the input
crosses zero reference voltage. Then what is a comparator? In simple words comparators are
basic operational amplifier circuits that compare two voltages simultaneously and switches
the output according to the comparison. We can say zero crossing detection circuit is a
comparator example. We will discuss in detail about comparator in our upcoming articles.
Inverting zero cross detector circuit schematic using op amp 741 IC is shown below along
with working, input output waveform.

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 Fig. zero crossing circuit diagram

Components required
1. Op amp
2. Power supplies
3. Function generator

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 Fig. zcd input and output waveform

 Working of ZCD can be easily understood if you know the working of a basic opamp
comparator.
 In ZCD, we are setting one of the inputs as zero i.e. zero reference voltage.
 The output is driven into –Vsat when the input signal passes through zero to positive
direction.
 Conversely, when input signal passes through zero to negative direction, the output
switches to +Vsat.

ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR APPLICATIONS:-

ZCD circuit can be used to check whether the op-amp is in good condition. Zero
crossing detectors can be used as frequency counters and for switching purposes in power
electronics circuits.ZCD is a basic op amp circuit.

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 Fig.simulation of zcd

Fig.waveforms of ZCD

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