CARBOHYDRATES GLUCONEOGENESIS – Process where protein is

- Energy macronutrients converted to glucose

Are organic compound of 2. Fructose (levulose)

The sweets of simple sugars

 CARBON
 HYDROGEN
 HONEY
 OXYGEN  FRUITS
 VEGETABLES
C6H12O6
Converted to glucose in the body
Classified into 3 groups
3. Galactose
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides Not found free in foods it is produced from
3. Polysaccharides LACTOSE by DIGESTION and is converted to
GLUCOSE in the body.
Monosaccharide (SIMPLE SUGAR) GALACTOSEMIA – Inability to metabolize
galactose.
- Simplest form of carbohydrates sweet.
- Through HYDROLYSIS can be absorbed DISACCHARIDES (Double Sugars)
directly into the bloodstream from the
small intestine. Made up of 2 monosaccharides they are
sweet and they must be changed to simple
They include: sugars by HYDROLYSIS before they can be
absorbed.
 GLUCOSE
 FRUCTOSE  SUCROSE
 GALACTOSE  LACTOSE
 MALTOSE
1. Glucose (DEXTROSE)

The principal form in which carbohydrates is 1. SUCROSE (Ordinary table sugar

used by the body. granulated) Glucose + Fructose =
Sucrose
Abundant in
Processed from:
- FRUITS
- SWEETCORN  CANE
- CORN SYRUP  BEET SUGAR

Only glucose can provide energy for the BRAIN

other NERVE CELLS and developing RBC.
Found in:
 Legumes

 FRUITS
 VEGETABLES
2. Dextrins

Are not found free in foods. They are

2. LACTOSE (Milk Sugar) Glucose + formed as intermediate. Products in the
Galactose = Lactose intermediate. Product in the breakdown of
starch.
Found in:
3. Cellulose
 MILK
Forms the framework of plants They lower
 MILK PRODUCTS
blood glucose level of people with DM.

found on

 unrefined grains
 vegetables
3. MALTOSE
 fruits
Not found in free foods it is produced by
Classified into
HYDROLYSIS of STARCH and is converted to
glucose in digestion. SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE

Soluble

POLYSACCHARIDES – Are composed of Delays GI transit, Delay Glucose absorption

many molecules of simple sugar. Found in

 Fruits
 legumes
1. STARCH  barley
- The most significant polysaccharide in  oats
human nutrition.
- Converted entirely to glucose upon
Insoluble
digestion, and are more complex than
sugars and require a longer time to - . Increase fecal weight, slow down
digest, thus they supply energy for a starch hydrolysis and delay Glucose
longer period of time. absorption And lower blood
cholesterol. Accelerates GI transit

FOOD SOURCES Found in

 Cereal Grains  Wheat

 Potatoes  Bean
 Root Vegetables
  corn, reducing post meal rises in blood
 whole grains glucose level,
 breads
 cereals preventing constipation
 vegetables
decreasing fat and cholesterol
absorption.
4. PECTINS
non digestible, colloidal polysaccharides FOOD SOURCES:
having a gel quality
Used in the treatment of DIARRHEA it - Psyllium
absorbs TOXINS and bacteria in the - Pectin
intestine. They bind cholesterol - Gels
reducing the amount the blood can - Seed
absorb. - plant gums

5. GLYCOGEN (Animal Starch) Dietary fiber

Formed from glucose and stored in the liver and  consists of nondigestible carbohydrates
muscle tissue found in plant foods.

FOOD SOURCES  > Naturally occuring, intact forms of

nondigestible carbohydrates in plants
 Meat and “woody” plant cell walls.
 Seafood converted to glucose upon
digestion. FOOD SOURCES

 Oat
Glucagon – Help the liver convert glycogen to
 wheat bran
glucose whenever the body needs it.
 raffinose
 dried beans

TYPES OF FIBER Total fiber

1. Functional Fiber - The sum of functional and dietary fiber.

2. Dietary fiber
3. Total Fiber
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Functional Fiber
MOUTH
- Perform specific Beneficial functional in
the body, 1. Enzyme – amylase - Acts on starch to
begin its breakdown to dextrin and
including decreasing food intake by maltose.
providing a felling of fullness,
 2. Action – It is conveyed into stomach
mostly in starch form.
STOMACH
1. Enzyme – none for carbo
2. Action – None action of ptyalin may
continue to a minor degree.
SMALL INTESTINE
1. Enzyme – Pancreatic enzyme –
Amylopsin converts starch to dextrins
and maltose
2. Intestinal Juice – Contains 3
disaccharides – Sucrose, Lactose,
Maltose ( Which act on their respective
disaccharide to produce
monosaccharides – Glucose, Galactose,
and Fructose)
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. To serve as a major source of energy for
the body.
2. A protein sparing Action. If sufficient
carbs are available in the diet the body
will convert protein to glucose to supply
energy
3. Necessary for normal fat metabolism. If
carbo is insufficient larger amount of
fats are used for energy. The amount of
carbo present determines how much fat
will be broken down. So it affects the
Formation and the disposal rates of
ketones (intermediate products of fat
metabolism) – which are broken down
into fatty acids).
4. Cellulose and related insoluble,
indigestible carbo aid in normal
elimination. They stimulate The
peristaltic movement of the GIT and
absorbs water to give bulk to the
intestinal contents.
5. They also supply significant quantities
of proteins, minerals and B vitamins.
6. Lactose remains in the intestine longer
then other disaccharides, and this
encourages the growth of the beneficial
bacteria, resulting in a laxative action.
7. Glucose has specific influence; it is
Indispensable for maintenance of the
functional integrity of the nerve tissue
and it is the sole energy for the brain.
SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Whole grains rich in iron, Thiamine,
niacin and other nutrients.
2. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes are
important contributors to carbo intake
from the vegetable and fruit group.
Some Fruits such as bananas and dried
fruits and some vegetables such as
corns and lima beans are high in carbo
content
3. Milk is the only dietary source of
lactose. Each cup contains 12gm.
Cheese contain only traces of lactose.
4. Sugars and sweets are important
sources of carbo next to bread and
cereals; cane and beet sugars, honey,
maple syrup, jelly, jams and candies.
Empty calories – are foods which do not
contain any amount of other nutrients
aside from carbo
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF STARCH AND
FIBERS
1. Weight control – Fiber rich in complex
carbo tend to be low in fat and added
sugars and can promote weight loss.
2. Heart disease. High carbo diets, rich in
whole, grains, may protect against
heart disease and stroke.
3. Cancer. High carbo diet protects against
many types of cancer.
4. Diabetes. High carbo, low fat diets help
control weight.
5. GI health. Dietary fibers enhance the
health of the large intestines.
GYCEMIC INDEX
 The Glycemic Index of food indicates
the relative rate of increase in blood
glucose levels following ingestion of
carbohydrate food compared with a
standard.
 Low Glycemic Index foods help in the
management of hyperglycemia,
Hypercholesterolemia and obesity
CARBOHYDRATE CONSUMPTION IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Filipino diet has maintained a high
carbohydrate, low fat and low protein pattern
of energy distribution.
Carbohydrates make up ¾ (74%) of the total
calorie intake (RENI) 2002.
Cereals mainly rice, which are eaten in greatest
bulk, are the major contributors of energy and
carbohydrates in the Filipino diet.
PROTEINS
Came from the Greek word
“Protos” – meaning “primary” or “holding first
place”
Since it is the first substance recognized as a
vital part of living tissue. It contains
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
Are arranged into amino acids, which are linked
into chains to form proteins.
Protein Functions
1. Repairing or replacing worn-out tissues
2. Supplying material for growth and
tissue building
3. Providing some energy (4kcal/g)
4. Constructing and properly maintaining
important body compounds (enzymes,
Hormones, Hemoglobin, Antibodies,
other blood proteins and glandular
secretions)
5. Helping to prevent edema through its
role in maintaining vascular osmotic
pressure.
Types of Protein
Complete Protein – Contain all of the essential
amino acids.
Incomplete Protein – Has some of the essential
amino acids but is lacking others.
 quantities of complex polyssacharides
A. Simple Proteins
such as mucin found in secretion from
gastric mucous membranes.
Those which yields only amino acids upon 3. Lipoproteins - are compounds of a
hydrolysis. protein and a triglyceride or other lipid
AGGPAH such as phospholipids or cholesterol
found in cell and organelle membranes.
4. Phosphoproteins - are compounds of
1. Albumins – soluble in water, coagulated
phosphoric acid joined in ester linkage
by heat.
to protein found in casein of milk.
2. Globulins – Insoluble in water, soluble
5. Chromoproteins - are compounds of
in dilute salt solution and coagulated by
proteins and non-protein pigment
heat.
found in flavoproteins, hemoglobin and
3. Glutelins – Insoluble In neutral solvents
cytochromes.
but soluble in weak acids and alkalis,
6. Metalloprotein - are compounds or
coagulated by heat.
metals (Cu, Mg, Zn and Fe) attached to
4. Prolamines – which are soluble in 70%
protein found in ferritin, hemosiderin,
to 80% alcohol, onsoluble in absolute
and transferin.
alcohol, water and salt solutions.
5. Albuminoids – which are insoluble in all
neutral solvents and in dilute acids and
alkalis. C. Derived Proteins
6. Histones and protamines – which are
basic polypeptides, soluble in water,
not coagulated by heat. They are found are products formed in the various stages of
hydrolysis of a protein molecule.
in nuclei of cells.
High-biologic value protein
B. Compound Protein, Conjugated
Proteins or Proteids food sources that are complete proteins

are combinations of simple proteins and some  Amino acids – building blocks of
other non-protein substance called a prostethic proteins, they are the foundation for
group, attached to a molecule. They perform the synthesis of a large number of
functions, which neither constituent could proteins.
properly perform by itself
 There are 20 common amino acids:
These include:
 9 Essential amino acids – supplied
through the diet
1. Nucleoproteins – are combination of
simple proteins and nucleic acid.
1. Histidine
Deoxyrilbonucleic nucleoproteins are
necessary for the synthesis of proteins 2. Isoleucine
in the cytoplasm.
2. Mucoproteins and glycoproteins- are 3. Leucine
combination of a protein and large 4. Lysine
 5. Methionione  Tryptophan

6. Phenylalanine  – a precursor of the vitamin niacin

7. Threonine

8. Tryptophan
 Tyrosine
9. Valine
 – precursor of melanin, the pigment
that colors hair and skin
11 Nonessential amino acids

Cells can make them as needed through

the process of transamination.
CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE
1. Alanine

2. Arginine When carbohydrate intake is inadequate and

glycogen reserves are exhausted, the body
3. Asparagine
resorts to converting glucogenic amino acids
4. Aspartic acid into glucose.

5. Cystine (cysteine)

6. Glutamic acid
BURNED FOR ENERGY
7. Glutamine
If insufficient carbohydrate and fat are available
8. Glycine for energy use or if protein is consumed in
amounts greater than those needed for protein
9. Proline
synthesis, amino acids are broken down for
10. Serine energy.

11. Tyrosine

All 20 amino acids must be available for the CONVERTED TO FAT

body to make proteins.
 Amino acids that have not been used
Taurine for specific protein functions have been
is one of the brain’s most abundant deaminated, leaving a carbon fragment
amino acid. ready to be burned for energy.

 Protein is converted to fat only when it

Other uses of amino acid:
is consumed in excess of need.
> May be converted to glucose, burned
for energy, or converted to fat

> Some amino acids have specific

functions within the body. E.g.

PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY
 Refers to how well a protein is digested
to make amino acids available for
protein synthesis.
 The protein with the highest
digestibility is egg.
DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
 A. Mouth
1. Enzyme – none
2. Action – only mechanical
mastication
 B. Stomach
1. Enzyme – pepsin, produced first
as inactive precursor to pepsinogen,
then activated by the hydrochloric acid
2. Action – converts protein to
proteases and peptones
3. In infants, enzyme rennin
converts casein to coagulated curd.
 C. Small Intestine (Alkaline)
1. Pancreas
a. Trypsin (produced first as
inactive precursor trypsinogen and then
activated by enterokinase) converts
protein, proteases and peptones to
polypeptides and peptides.
b. Chrymotrypsin (produced first as
inactive precursor chrytrysigen and
then activated by active trypsin)
converts proteases and peptones to
polypeptides and dipeptides; also
coagulates milk.
c. Carboxypeptidase – converts
polypeptides to simpler peptides,
dipeptides and amino acids.
 2. Intestine
a. Aminopeptidase converts
polypeptides to peptides and amino
acids.
b. Dipeptidase converts dipeptides to
amino acids
 Sources of Proteins
1. Complete protein foods – meat,
fish, poultry, egg, milk, cheese
2. Legumes, nuts
3. Breads and cereals
 Requirement for Human Nutrition
A. Quality of protein fundamental to
health and life
B. General daily recommendation of
Food and Nutrition Board
1. Adult – 0.9g/kg BW
2. Children – Growth needs vary
according to age and growth patterns.
3. Pregnancy – Rapid growth requires
an increase of 30 gms over that of the
non-pregnant woman.
 4. Lactation – requires an increase of 20
gms.
ABSORPTION OF PROTEIN
 Amino acids and a few dipeptides or
larger peptides, are absorbed through
the mucosa of the small intestine by
active transport with the aid of vit B6.
 Intestinal cells release amino acids into
the bloodstream for transport to the
liver via the portal vein.
METABOLISM OF PROTEIN
 The liver acts as a clearinghouse for the
amino acids it needs, releases those
needed elsewhere, and handle the
extra.
 > the liver retains amino acids to
make liver cellls, nonesssential amino
acids, and plasma proteins such as
heparin, prothrombin, and albumin.
 > the liver regulates the release of
amino acids into the bloodstream and
removes excess amino acids from the
circulation
 > as enzymes are needed, the liver
synthesizes specific enzymes to degrade
excess amino acids.
 > the liver removes the nitrogen from
amino acids to be burned for energy
and it converts amino acids to glucose
or fat as appropriate
 > the liver coordinates amino acid
metabolism.
Measures of Protein Quality
 A. Biologic Value (BV) – measures its
effectiveness in supporting the body’s
needs.
 B. Net Protein Utilization (NPU) – also
measures how capably a protein is used
by the body. The difference is that NPU
measures retention of food nitrogen
consumed while BV measures food
nitrogen absorbed.
 C. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) –
measures the increase in weight of a
growing animal and compares it with
the intake.
HEALTH EFFECTS OF PROTEIN:
1. Heart Disease – foods rich in animal
protein tends to be in saturated fats.
2. Cancer – studies suggest a relationship
between high intakes of animal protein
and some types of cancer like cancer of
the prostate gland, pancreas, kidneys,
breast and colon.
3. Osteoporosis – calcium excretion rises
as protein intake increase.
4. 4. Weight Control – protein rich foods
are also rich in fat which can lead to
obesity with associated health risks.
5. 5. Kidney Diseases – excretion of end
products of protein metabolism
depends on a sufficient fluid intake and
healthy kidneys. A high protein diet
increases the work of the kidneys.
Protein-Energy Malnutrition (pem)
 Protein-energy malnutrition is a
condition resulting from insufficiency of
protein, energy or both in the diet.
 Acute PEM occurs in children who are
thin for their height.
Vegetarian Diets
 Chronic PEM occurs in children who are
short for their age.  Vegetarianism – abstinence from
animal products
Two Forms of PEM:
 Pure Vegetarians or Vegans – people
who eat only plants
 1. Marasmus – severe deprivation of
food over a long period of time caused  Lacto-Vegetarians – vegetarians whose
by insufficiency of protein and energy diets include milk and milk products
intake.  Lacto-Ovo Vegetarians – vegetarians
 2. Kwashiorkor – reflects an abrupt and whose diets include both milk products
recent deprivation of food which and egg
develops rapidly as a consequence of  Vegetarian diets are not automatically
protein deficiency or caused by an healthier than nonvegetarian diets
illness like measles.
 Poorly planned vegetarian diets diets
may lack certain essential nutrients,
Protein in health promotion
which endangers health.
The American Heart Association and the
 Vegetarian diets can be excessive in fat
Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada
and cholesterol if whole milk cheeses,
recommend a balanced diet with an
eggs, and high fat desserts are used
emphasis on grains, fruit, and
extensively.
vegetables.
 Whether a vegetarian diet is healthy or
Lifestyle practices – regular exercise,
detrimental to health depends on the
abstaining from tobacco, using alcohol
actual food choices made over time.
moderately

Protein in health promotion

 Vegetarians have lower incidence of

obesity, cardiovascular disease, HPN,
type 2 DM, cancer and dementia

 Vegetarians may also be at lower risk

for renal disease, gallstones, and
diverticular disease