WRITTEN REPORT ABOUT NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, ISAAC NEWTON AND

ARISTOTLE
Introduction
These notable persons contributed in the world in different branch of Science. Their theory,
observations, inventions and studies are still useful until now. Their contributions make the
individuals change their views in the world, from traditional to modern.

Discussion
First, notable person is Nicolaus Copernicus. Born on February 19, 1473 in Thorn, Poland.
After his father death he was raised by his mother’s brother, a bishop in a Catholic Church. He
never had a children or wife. He studied Mathematics and Astronomy at the University of Kratow,
and also, he studied law and medicine at the Bologna. Apart from being astronomer he also a
physician, polygot, classics, scholar, translator, governor and had a doctorate in Canon law. He
considered as one of the notable economist. He is the one who formulated the Quantity theory of
Money (QTM). As a tribute for him, an element has named after Copernicus and it is Copernacium
(Cn) with atomic number 112. He died more than fifty years before Galileo became the first person
with a telescope. Copernicus did not have tools to prove this theory. By 1600’s, astronomers such
as Galileo would develop physics that would prove he was correct. The major contribution of
Copernicus is the Heliocentric Theory or system. Between 1507 and 1515, he’s the first person
who circulated the principles of his heliocentric or sun-centered astronomy. The Copernican model
is the launching point of modern astronomy and scientific revolution. Copernicus felt that Ptolemy
was incorrect. There’s a book that published by Copernicus. It is the Revolution of the Heavenly
Bodres. The book was not published till 1543. His work is a worst seller. Arthur Koestler described
De Revolutionaus as “ The Book that nobody read.” His work launched the Scientific Revolution.
He got a glimpse of his book before he died. Despite of the initial reactions, the astronomers in the
modern world proven that Copernicus is correct in his heliocentric theory. His become the basis
of the modern astronomy. Because of the discovery of Copernicus the beliefs of people about the
universe were completely changed.

Second, notable person is Isaac Newton. Isaac Newton was born on Jan 4, 1643. An English
scientist and physicist, mathematician and philosopher. He specialized in the branch of science
known as physics. The Principa- published revolutionary book of Newton
Newton’s major contributions are Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. The law states that any
2 bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the square of
the distance. Created the Modern Telescope. First model which is Built in 1668 and donated to
England’s Royal Society. refracting telescope, they used lenses that changed the direction of
different colors at different angle that caused “chromatic aberrations”, or fuzzy, out-of-focus areas
around the subjects being viewed through the telescope. Telescopes in his time broke light into
unwanted colours, causing an obscure view of objects. Infact, Newton’s simple design is still used
today by both backyard astronomers and NASA scientists. Help to develop spectral analysis –
helps us understand and identify the seven colors of rainbow even before creating reflecting
telescope. He proved that white light and sunlight actually a combination of all the colors of the
rainbow. He used PRISM to show that light was made of colours of the rainbow. PHILOSOPHIAE
NATURALIS PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA commonly known as the Principa –In 1687, he
Published one of the most important scientific books in history . about motion of the planets and
gravity. Fluxions or Calculus – Newton helped to create a new, specialized form of mathematics
to explain his theories of gravity and motion. In 1672, he become a member of the royal society
(group of scientist who believed in experimental method). There are facts about Newton.
Newton’s life got off to a rough start. He never knew his father Isaac and he was born premature
and sickly infant that some thought would not live long. He was very religious since he was a
child. He had an uncanny obsession with Bible and studied it at great depths and wrote more on
religion. In fact he predicted that Christ was crucified exactly on April 3, AD 33 and predicted
also that the world would end no sooner than 2060. His famous line is “Gravity explains the
motions of the planets but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things
and knows that is or can be done.”

And last, the notable person is Aristotle. Aristotle introduced the concept of Scientific
method. In this method involved the both observation and deduction for conducting scientific
studies. Aristotle believed that nature’s principles can be discovered with careful observation and
reasoning within the nature itself. Also He set the basic standards for this method. All observations
must include the composition and motion or change, shape or form and the end result or purpose
of examination. This method exists even today. One of the major discovery of Aristotle Earth is
spherical. Aristotle was the first person to firmly suggest that Earth is spherical along with relevant
arguments. He also observed stars in Egypt and Cyprus, which were not seen in northerly regions.
Physical and observational arguments supporting spherical Earth are..
• Travelers heading towards south saw southern constellations rise above the horizon
• Earth’s shadow on moon during lunar eclipse is round
• Every portion of the Earth tends towards the centre By observing the effects of gravity, directional
variations and behavior of shadows during eclipse, Aristotle concluded that Earth was spherical.
This also explained that planets and stars were spherical.
Second, Classification of Living Beings. On his book, Historia Animalium or History of
Animals, Aristotle was the first person in human history to venture into the classification of
different animals. He used traits that are common among certain animals to classify them into
similar groups. For example, based on the presence of blood, he created two different groups such
as animals with blood and animals without blood. Similarly, based on their habitat, he classified
animals as ones that live in water and ones that live on land. In his perspective, life had a
hierarchical make-up and all living beings could be grouped in this hierarchy based on their
position from lowest to highest. He placed the human species highest in this hierarchy.
 He also devised the binomial nomenclature. Using this system, all living organisms now could
be given two different sets of names defined as the organism’s “genus” and “difference.” Aristotle
meant the genus of a living being to represent its collective family/group as a whole. The difference
is what makes the living organism different to other members of the family it falls within.
Third, Founder of Zoology. Aristotle is also known as the Father of Zoology. As evident
from his classification of living beings, all his classification procedures and several other treatises
primarily involved different species of the animal kingdom only. However, he wrote a number of
treatises that revolved around different aspects of zoology as well. Some of his popular treatises
such as History of Animals, Movement of Animals, Progression of Animals and others were based
on the study of different land, water, and aerial animals. Unlike his predecessors who merely
documented their routine observations of nature, Aristotle worked on outlining specific techniques
that he would use to make specific observations.
He used these empirical methods to carry out what we could call in the modern age
“designation,” several proto-scientific tests and experiments to study the flora and fauna around
him. One of his early observational experiments included dissecting birds’ eggs during the
different stages of embryonic development inside the egg. Using his observations, he was able to
study the detailed growth of different organs as the embryo developed into a fully-hatched
youngling.
Fourth, Contributions in Physics. It is true that while Aristotle established new frontiers in
the field of life sciences, his ventures into physics fall short by comparison. His studies in physics
seem to have been highly influenced by pre-established ideas of contemporary and earlier Greek
thinkers. For instance, in his treatises On Generation and Corruption and On the Heavens, the
world set-up he described had many similarities with propositions made by some pre-Socratic era
theorists. He embraced Empedocles’ view on the make-up of the universe that everything was
created from different compositions of the four fundamental elements: earth, water, air, and fire.
Similarly, Aristotle believed that any kind of change meant something was in motion. In a
rather self-contradicting way (at least the initial interpreters found it to be so), he defined the
motion of anything as the actuality of a potentiality. In its entirety, Aristotle understood physics as
a part of theoretical science that was in sync with natural philosophy. Perhaps a more synonymous
term to attach to Aristotle’s interpretation would be “physis” or simply the study of nature.
Fifth, Influences in the History of Psychology. Aristotle was the first to write a book that dealt
with the specifics of psychology: De Anima or On the Soul. In this book, he proposes the idea of
abstraction that reigns over the body and mind of a human being. The body and mind exist within
the same being and are intertwined in such a way that the mind is one of the many basic functions
of the body.
In a more detailed psychological analysis, he divides the human intellect into two essential
categories: the passive intellect and the active intellect. According to Aristotle, it is in human
nature to imitate something that, even if on a mere superficial level, provides us with a sense of
happiness and satisfaction. Perhaps the highlight of his psychological observations has been the
delicate connection that binds human psychology with human physiology. His contributions were
a giant leap forward from the pre-scientific era psychology that went before him and led us into an
age of far more precise qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Sixth, Advances in Meteorology. For his time and age, Aristotle was able to put forth a very
detailed analysis of the world around him. At present, the term “meteorology” specifically
encompasses the interdisciplinary scientific study of atmosphere and weather. But Aristotle had a
far more generalized approach wherein he also covered the different aspects and phenomena of
air, water, and earth within his treatise Meteorologica.
In this treatise, in his own words, he lays out details of “different affections” that are common
between air and water, as well as the different parts of the earth, and the affections that bind those
parts together. The highlights of his Meteorologica treatise are his accounts of water evaporation,
earthquakes, and other common weather phenomena. His analysis of these different
meteorological occurrences is one of the earliest representations of such phenomena, although that
doesn’t say much about the accuracy of his meteorological studies. Aristotle believed in the
existence of “underground winds” and that the winds and earthquakes were caused by them.
Similarly, he categorized thunder, lightning, rainbows, meteors, and comets as different
atmospheric phenomena.
In conclusion, these notable persons did a great job in making the world more
understandable and less complicated. Their studies taught us the truth and lies the world. Their
studies serves as the eye opener for us in branch of science.
GALILEO GALILEI
Galileo, in full Galileo Galilei, (born February 15, 1564, Pisa Italy died January 8,
1642, Arcetri, near Florence), Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician
who made fundamental contributions to the sciences of motion, astronomy, and strength
of materials and to the development of the scientific method. His formulation of
(circular) inertia, the law of falling bodies, and parabolic trajectories marked the
beginning of a fundamental change in the study of motion. His insistence that the book
of nature was written in the language of mathematics changed natural philosophy from
a verbal, qualitative account to a mathematical one in which experimentation became a
recognized method for discovering the facts of nature. Finally, his discoveries with
the telescope revolutionized astronomy and paved the way for the acceptance of
the Copernican heliocentric system, but his advocacy of that system eventually resulted
in an Inquisition process against him.
Galileo Galilei's Invention & Contributions
Few individuals have had as profound an impact on science as Italian physicist
and astronomer Galileo Galilei, whose groundbreaking inventions and discoveries
earned him the title "father of modern science.'' With contributions in math, physics,
and astronomy, Galileo's innovative, experiment-driven approach to science made him
a key figure of the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Experiments in Motion

The law of falling bodies is one of Galileo's key contributions to physics. It states
that objects fall at the same speed regardless of weight or shape. Through his
experiments, Galileo countered the pervasive Aristotelian view, which held that heavier
objects fall faster than lighter objects. The distance an object travels, he calculated, is
proportional to the square of the time it takes the object to reach the ground. Galileo
also first developed the concept of inertia — the idea that an object remains in rest or
in motion until acted on by another force — which became the basis for one of Isaac
Newton's laws of motion.

Geometric and Military Compass

In 1598, Galileo began

selling a geometric and military
compass of his own design, though
the profits were minimal. Consisting
of two rulers attached at right
angles with a third, curved ruler
between them, Galileo's compass —
known as a sector — had multiple functions. Soldiers in the military used it to measure
the elevation of a cannon's barrel, while merchants employed it to calculate currency
exchange rates.

Thermometer Galileo

Telescope
The invention of the telescope played an important role in advancing our
understanding of Earth's place in the cosmos. While there is evidence that the principals
of telescopes were known in the late 16th century, the first telescopes were created in
the Netherlands in 1608. Spectacle makers Hans Lippershey & Zacharias Janssen and
Jacob Metius independently created telescopes. The telescope emerged from a tradition
of craftsmanship and technical innovation around spectacles and developments in the
science of optics traced back through Roger Bacon and a series of Islamic scientists, in
particular Al-Kindi (c. 801–873), Ibn Sahl (c. 940-1000) and Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040).

Phases of the Moon drawn by Galileo.

Galileo's Telescopes

The basic tool that Galileo used was a crude refracting telescope. His initial version
only magnified 8x but was soon refined to the 20x magnification he used for his
observations for Sidereus nuncius. It had a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece
in a long tube. The main problem with his telescopes was their very narrow field of view,
typically about half the width of the Moon.

Galileo's drawing of the optical path of his telescope

The earliest known sketch of a telescope, August 1609.

 One of Galileo’s telescopes. The focal length is 1330 mm with a 26 mm aperture,
it magnifies 14x. It has an objective bi-convex lens and a plano-concave eyepiece.
PTOLEMY
Claudius Ptolemy 100 A.D. – 170 A.D. was
a mathematician, astronomer, geographer and astrologer. He lived in the city
of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, under the rule of the Roman Empire, had
a Latin name, which several historians have taken to imply he was also a Roman
citizen, cited Greek philosophers, and used Babylonian observations and Babylonian lunar
theory. The 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes gave his birthplace as the
prominent Greek city Ptolemais Hermiou This attestation is quite late, however, and there
is no other evidence to confirm or contradict it. He died in Alexandria around AD 168.
Ptolemy wrote that interpretation of the heaven is based on two scientific branches on
astronomy teaches about the movement of the sun, moon and stars, their position at any
given movement both in regard to each other and to the earth. The other one is astrology
observes the influences caused ny the heavenly bodies depending on their inner powers
and the influence of their respective position.
Ptolemy’s Discovery
Geocentric Theory
  The Earth was the center of the universe according to Claudius Ptolemy, whose
view of the cosmos persisted for 1400 years until it was overturned with
controversy by findings from Copernicus, Galileo and Newton.
 Ptolemy thought that all celestial objects — including the planets, Sun, Moon, and
stars — orbited Earth. Earth, in the center of the universe, did not move at all.
 Based on the observations he made with his naked eye, Ptolemy saw the universe
as a set of nested, transparent spheres with Earth in the center.
 He posited that the Moon, Mercury, Venus and the Sun all revolved around the
Earth.
 Beyond the Sun, he thought, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, the only other planets
known at that tie.
 Beyond Saturn lay a final sphere with all the stars fixed to it that revolved around
the other spheres.

Almagest
Almagest, astronomical manual written about AD 150 by Ptolemy (Claudius
Ptolemaeus of Alexandria). It served as the basic guide for Islamic and European
astronomers until about the beginning of the 17th century. Its original name
was Mathematike Syntaxis (“The Mathematical Arrangement”); Almagest arose as an
Arabic corruption of the Greek word for greatest (megiste). It was translated into Arabic
about 827 and then from Arabic to Latin in the last half of the 12th century. Subsequently,
the Greek text circulated widely in Europe, although the Latin translations from Arabic
continued to be more influential.
The Almagest is divided into 13 books. Book 1 gives arguments for a geocentric,
spherical cosmos and introduces the necessary trigonometry, along with a trigonometry
table, that allowed Ptolemy in subsequent books to explain and predict the motions of
the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars. Book 2 uses spherical trigonometry to
explain cartography and astronomical phenomena (such as the length of the longest day)
characteristic of various localities. Book 3 deals with the motion of the Sun and how to
predict its position in the zodiac at any given time, and Books 4 and 5 treat the more
difficult problem of the Moon’s motion. Book 5 also describes the construction of
instruments to aid in these investigations. The theory developed to this point is applied
to solar and lunar eclipses in Book 6.
Books 7 and 8 mainly concern the fixed stars, giving ecliptic coordinates and
magnitudes for 1,022 stars. This star catalog relies heavily on that
of Hipparchus (129 BC), and in the majority of cases Ptolemy simply converted
Hipparchus’s description of the location of each star to ecliptic coordinates and then
shifted these values by a constant to account for precession over the intervening
centuries. These two books also discuss the construction of a star globe that adjusts for
precession. The remaining five books, the most original, set forth in detail geometric
models for the motion of the five planets visible to the naked eye, together with tables
for predicting their positions at any given time.
What is Ptolemy best known for?

Ptolemy was an astronomer and mathematician. He believed that the Earth was
the center of the Universe. The word for earth in Greek is geo, so we call this idea a
"geocentric" theory

What was the major contribution of Ptolemy?

It gives in detail the mathematical theory of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and
planets. Ptolemy made his most original contribution by presenting details for the
motions of each of the planets. His theories were not superseded until a century after
Copernicus presented his heliocentric theory in 1543.

What were Ptolemy accomplishments?

A polymath of enormous repute with influences across the sciences, Ptolemy is

identified varyingly as an astronomer, a mathematician, a geographer and cartographer.
His most notable accomplishments were in astronomy, with his advancement of the
theory of epicycles, and as a geographer

When did Ptolemy create his theory?

He made astronomical observations from Alexandria in Egypt during the years AD

127-41. In fact the first observation which we can date exactly was made by Ptolemy
on 26 March 127 while the last was made on 2 February 141.

Why did Ptolemy believe in the geocentric model?

Ptolemy believed that the heavenly bodies' circular motions were caused by
their being attached to unseen revolving solid spheres. For example, an epicycle would
be the “equator” of a spinning sphere lodged in the space between two spherical shells
surrounding the Earth.

What did Ptolemy do geography?

Ptolemy's Theories and Scholarly Works on Geography

Ptolemy is known for his three scholarly works: the Almagest—which focused on
astronomy and geometry, the Tetrabiblos—which focused on astrology, and, most
importantly, Geography—which advanced geographic knowledge. Geography
consisted of eight volumes
JOHANNES KEPLER
Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)
A German mathematician and astronomer who was a key figure of the Scientific
Revolution. His most famous accomplishment are his three laws of planetary
motion which laid the foundation of celestial mechanics. Kepler discovered that planets
move in elliptical orbits and at different speeds at different times, according to their
distance from the sun. Apart from his contributions to astronomy, Kepler laid
the foundation of modern optics. Among other things, he formulated the inverse-square
law governing the intensity of light; invented an improved refracting
telescope; and correctly explained the working of a human eye. As founder of celestial
mechanics and optics, Johannes Kepler is considered one of the most influential scientists
in history. Know more about his accomplishments in astronomy, optics and other fields
of physics.

KEPLER’S CONTRIBUTIONS
 MODERN OPTICS
1. Inverse Square Law

Johannes Kepler began his investigation of the laws of optics in 1600, and
in 1604, his work Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) was
published. Among other things, the book contains Kepler’s formulation of the
law that the intensity of light decreases with the square of distance.
2. Improved Refracting Telescope

He went on to describe an improved refracting telescope which would

use two convex lenses to produce higher magnification than Galileo’s
combination of convex and concave lenses. Keplerian telescope could
achieve considerably higher magnifications than Galilean telescope.

3. Explained the Working of Human Eye

Kepler extended his study to the human eye and recognized that an image
is reversed by the eye’s lens; and is formed on the retina; and that it is
inverted. Thus Kepler laid the foundation for the field of ophthalmologic optics.
His discovery later helped explain physical phenomena like central visual acuity,
visual field, dark adaptation and errors of refraction.
  ASTRONOMY
THE 3 LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

1. The Law of Ellipses

Kepler’s first law sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses, explains that
planets are orbiting the sun in a path.

2. The Law of Equal Areas

Tells that a line segment joining planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas
during equal intervals of time.

3. The Law of Harmonies

The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of
the semi-major axis of its orbits
 Questions :
1. Who is the first inventor of telescope?
2. What is Ptolemy best known for?
3. Give one of the three laws of planetary motions by Kepler?
4. How many books are in the Almagest?
5. How did their contributions help our generation?

Charles Robert Darwin

(February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882)
- Declared as the Father of Evolution (November 24, 1859).
- British naturalist and biologist known for his theory of evolution and his understanding
on the process of natural selection. His views and social Darwinism remain controversial.
He embarked on five years of voyage around the world on the HMS Beagle and here, his
studies various of plants and animals which led him to his theories.
I. Biography
- Born in Shrewsbury, England.
- Son of Dr. Robert Waring Darwin, a medical doctor and Sussana. His grandfather was
Dr. Erasmus Darwin, a Botanist. He marry Emma, his cousin and they had four children.
II. Education
- C. Darwin enrolled at University of Edinburgh (Oct. 1825) along w/ his brother, Erasmus
to become a doctor.
- He transfers at Christ's College (1827) in Cambridge to be Clergy. C. Darwin graduated
here a bachelor’s degree in Arts (1831).
III. HMS Beagle Voyage (Dec. 27, 1931).
- Commanded by Cap. Robert FitzRoy, a scientist.
- Darwin was tasked by his mentor, Steven Henslow to join the voyage as the naturalist.
- On their journey, he collected a variety of natural specimens.
-In Argentina, he discovers a giant fossil of armadillo and giant sloth.
III. The Island of Galapagos (Sept. 15, 1835)
- through this time, he collects several Galapagos species for use in his own research.
Charles Darwin discovered several species of finches that varied from island to island,
which helped him to develop his theory of natural selection.
October 2, 1836, the voyage ended.
Theories/Discoveries:
1. Fossils in Argentina
2. His study of embryo to Tree of life.
3. The natural selection or Darwinism. Theory of Evolution. - each animal evolved to
blend, adapt, survive with its surroundings, changes were involved. e.g. Birds in
Galapagos with different beaks.
- Over production
- Variation.
- Competition - Survival of the fittest by Herbert Spencer, a sociologist.
- Selection - a process in w/c environmental or genetic influences determine which types
of organism thrive better than others, regarded as a factor in evolution.
4. Social Darwinism - 1800s, explain social and economic issues.
IV. Famous Works/Books
1. HMS Beagle Voyage (1839), also known as Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle. Vol.
III.
2. The Origin of Species (November 24, 1859)
3. The Descent of Man (1871)

Tycho Brahe (December 14, 1546 - October 24, 1601)

I. Biography
Tycho Brahe
 Was an astronomer and a writer, known for his accurate and comprehensive
astronomical and planetary observations.
 An alchemist whose meticulous observations (without the use of telescope)
are considered some of the most accurate of this time.
Born: December 14, 1546 “Sweden”
Died: October 24, 1601 “Prague”
Known for: Tychonic system; Rudolphine Tables
Education: Martin-Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg

II. Invention
Tychonian Quadrant
 A large brass (a yellow alloy of copper and zinc) quadrant affixed to a wall
 Its radius measured almost two meters and was graduated in tens of
seconds

III. Theory

Tycho Brahe proposed a theory of the solar system, Geoheliocentric

Theory which knows as Tychonic system. Tychonic system is a theory that
 combines Geocentric model (Ptolemaic system) and heliocentric model
(Copernican system)
BIOGRAPHY

Sigmund Schlomo Freud was born on the 6th day of May 1856 in Freiberg,
Morvia. He was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, he also
built an entirely new approach to the understanding of human personality.
In 1873, Freud launch to study medicine at the University of Vienna. After
obtaining his degree on medicine in March 1881, he worked at Vienna General
Hospital. He collaborated with Josef Breur in treating hysteria by the recall of
painful experiences under hypnosis. In 1885, Freud went to Paris as a student of
the neurologist Jean Charcot. The following year (1886), upon returning in Vienna,
Freud set up in private practice, specializing in nervous and brain disorders.
Moreover, with the same year, he married Martha Bernays, with whom he had six
children.
Freud developed the theory that humans have an unconscious in which
sexual and aggressive impulses are in perpetual conflict for supremacy with the
defences against them. In 1897, he began an intensive analysis of himself. In
1900, his major work 'The Interpretation of Dreams' was published in which Freud
analysed dreams in terms of unconscious desires and experiences. However,
medical establishment disagreed with many of his theories.
After World War One, Freud spent less time in clinical observation and
concentrated on the application of his theories to history, art, literature and
anthropology. In 1923, he published 'The Ego and the Id', which suggested a new
structural model of the mind, divided into the 'id, the 'ego' and the 'superego'.
Freud was nominated for Nobel Prize in Literature and he is regarded as one
of the most influential - and controversial - minds of the 20th century.
On top of those remarkable works of Freud, he had been diagnosed with cancer
of the jaw in 1923, and underwent more than 30 operations. Freud didn’t manage
to escape this horrible circumstances, he died of cancer on 23rd day of September
1939.

INFLUENTIAL BOOKS OF SIGMUND FREUD

 Sigmund Freud is one of the most famous figures of the twentieth century.
His often controversial ideas had a major impact on the growing field of
psychology, and his influence continues to be felt today. In addition to his grand
theories of human psychology, he was also a prolific writer, publishing more than
320 different books, articles, and essays.
One of his famous and influential book is the “Studies On Hysteria (1895)”It was
co-authored by Freud and his colleague Josef Bruer. The book described their work
and study of a number of individuals suffering from hysteria. The book also
introduced the use of psychoanalysis as a treatment for mental illness.
Another book that often identified as Freud’s personal favorite is “The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900)”. This book has gone on to become a perennial
classic in the history of psychology. Moreover, the book lays out Freud's theory
that dreams represent unconscious wishes disguised by symbolism.
The book of Freud called “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901)” is also
one of the most influential book of Sigmund Freud it is considered as one of the
major texts that outlines Freud's psychoanalytic theory. The book takes a closer
look at a number of deviations that occur during everyday life, including forgetting
names, slips of the tongue and errors in speech and concealed memories. He then
analyzes the underlying psychopathology that he believed led to such errors.

THEORIES

Theory of Personality According to Freud

Freud proposed a theory that the human psyche
could be divided into three parts: Id, Ego, and Super-
Ego. He developed it as an alternative to his previous
topographic schema (conscious, unconscious and
preconscious).This concept is usually represented by
the "Iceberg Model". This model represents the roles
the id, ego, and super- ego play in relation to conscious
and unconscious thought.
The Id is the completely unconscious system of the personality, which
contains impulsiveness, childlike portion of the psyche that operates on the
"pleasure principle" and is the source of basic impulses and drives; it seeks
immediate pleasure and gratification.
The Super-Ego is the “moral component” of the psyche, which takes into
account with no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be
right for a given situation. In which it consists of the conscience and the ego ideal.
The Ego is the rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the
impractical hedonism of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-
ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's
actions. It is largely part of conscious system of the personality which operates
according to “reality principle”. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it
may employ “Defense Mechanisms” or the unconscious psychological
mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful
stimuli. These Defense Mechanisms includes Denial, which our mind refuse to
accept reality. Displacement, this is where our mind channel a feelings from its
actual source to less threatening person or object. Sublimation, which our mind
redirect the impulse to more productive and acceptable behavior.
Rationalization, in which our mind justify unwanted feelings. Regression, in
which it reverts to earlier age or less mature way of handling stress or anxiety.
Projection, it is the misattribution of undesirable thoughts or feelings onto
another person. Lastly, the Reaction Formation in which our mind act in the
opposite way to disturbing thoughts or feelings.

Psychosexual Theory of Development by Sigmund Freud

In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of
the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an
instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the
oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the
erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. However, Sigmund Freud
proposed that if the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to any
psychosexual developmental stage, they would experience anxiety that would
persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder.
In the first stage of personality development or the Oral Stage ranging
from Birth to 1 year of age, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets
much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido,
and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated,
such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. Freud said oral stimulation could lead
to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage
in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.
The second stage is the Anal Stage ranging from 1 to 3 years of age,
the libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure
from defecating; also known as the Toilet raining stage. The child is now fully
aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring
them into conflict with the demands of the outside world.
The third stage is the Phallic Stage ranging from 3 to 6 years of age, the
child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the
conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which
Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
 In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises
because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He
wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable
him to do so.
 For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly,
the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This
leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.

The fourth stage is the Latency Stage ranging from 6 years to Puberty,
to further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means
hidden). The libido is dormant. According to Freud, much of the child's energy is
channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play
becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
The fifth or the last stage is the Genital Stage (Puberty to Adult), this is
the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and
begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful
resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another
person in our 20's. Additionally, sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure,
rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.

Eratosthenes
(276 BC-194 BC)
 A scholar, Chief Librarian of Alexandria, Poet and Inventor.
 Known as “Father of Geography”
 Greek polymath and geographer
 Coined the term “Geography”
 Longitudes and latitudes
 Created the first map of the world (parallels and meridians)
 Have accurate calculation of distance from the Earth to the sun.
 Invented the leap day.
 Used geometry to estimate the circumference of the Earth to be about 25,000 miles
(24,901 miles)
 Calculated the tilt of the Earth axis (23.5)
 Introduced the “Siege of Eratosthenes”
 Used the word “stadia”
 Invented the “Armillary Sphere”
 Founder of Science Chronology
 Compiled a star catalog that included 675 stars.
 First person who explained why the river of Nile flooded every year- i.e. heavy, seasonal
rainfalls near the source of the river causing of annual flood in Egypt.
ARISTARTHUS OF SAMOS
 Was born in Samos island, Greece, around 310 B.C.
 Was Died in Alexandria, Egypt on 230 B.C.
 Was an ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer
 Presented the first known “Heliocentric Model”
 “Heliocentric model” is one of the model of the universe that assumes the sun is to be
the center of the universe.
 He is the one who first started to formulate the model of the sun being the center of the
universe with the earth revolving around it.
 He did this by observing the moon during a lunar eclipse and by estimating the angle and
the size of the earth.
 He understood that the sun, the moon, and the earth form a near right angle during the last
and the first quarter of the moon
 Based on this, he calculated that the sun was nineteen times further away from earth than
the moon.
 However, he made a mistake in his calculations: he took the angle as 87 degrees while the
correct angle is 89°50’.
 Thus, the actual distance is 390 times and not nineteen times.
 Although the geometric theory is current, the calculation were wrong due to lack of precise
instruments rather than logic.
 His theory that the diameters of the moon and the sun should be proportional to their
distance from the earth is also logical but gave wrong results.
 His only surviving work is entitled On the Sizes and Distance of the Sun and Moon.

GREGOR MENDEL
 Born on July 20, 1822 in Heinzen dorf bei Odrau, Silesia,Austrian Empire (Now
Hynciece Czech Republic)
 Died January 6, 1884
 Was a scientist, Augustinian friar and abbot St.Thomas’s abbey in Brno Margaviate of
Moravia
 Founder of Modern Science of Genetics
 He worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and color,
seed shape and color, flower position and color.
 He use the terms “ recessive “ and “ dominant “ in reference to certain traits
 He published his work in 1866 demonstrating the actions of invisible “ Factors “ now
called “Genes “ in predictably determined the traits of an Organism
 He was the son of Anton and Rosine ( Schwirthlich ) Mendel and had one older sister
Veronica and younger sister Theresia
 As a child, Mendel worked as a gardener and beekeeper.
 In 1840-1843 he studied practical and theoretical philosophy and physics at the
philosophical institute of the University of Olomouc, taking another year off because of
illness, he also struggled financially to pay for his studies and Theresia gave him her
dowry in return Mendel supported her 3 sons , two of them became doctors.
When Mendel entered the faculty of philosophy, the department of Natural History and
Agriculture was headed by Johann karl Nesther who conducted extensive research of
heredity traits of plants and animals, especially sheep.
 Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrick Franz he enter the Augustinian St.
Thomas’s abbey in Brno as a priest.
 Mendel worked as a substitute high school teacher. In 1850 he failed the oral part and last
of 3 parts of his exam to become a certified high school teacher
 1851 – He was sent to University of Veinna to study more formal education
  1853 – He returned to the abbey to become a teacher , principally in physics
 1856 – He failed again the oral part exam of being a certified teacher.
 1868 – He replaced Napp as abbot of the monastery
 After being elevated as abbot , his scientific work largely ended due to overburned with
administrative responsibilities especially a despute w/ civil government over its attempt
to impose special taxes on religious institution
 January 6, 1884 – He died at the age of 61 from chronic nephritis and his works has been
burned by the succeeding abbots to mark an end to the disputes over taxation

MENDELIAN PARADOX
Parents 1. White x Red
W W r r

Offspring 2. Wr Wr Wr Wr
( Pink ) ( Pink ) ( Pink ) ( Pink )

Recessive and Dominant traits

3.

GENED
rr – Pure Red ( Pure breed ) = dominant traits
rW – pink ( mixed breed )
WW – pure white (Recessive)

Full Name : GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL

Mathematical Equation = (𝐴 + 𝑎)2 = 𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝑎+𝑎2
Note: where “A“ represents the dominant characteristics and “ a “ the recessive characteristics the
“Aa” is a hybrid

Law of Independent Assortment

(yellow) (green) PARENTAL

(round) X (wrinkled) GENERATION
AABB aabb

Self-pollinated (yellow) First Generation offspring

AaBb (round)
Where: ”A” stands for the gene for yellow seed
“a” stands for the gene for green seed
“B” stands for the gene for smooth seed
“b” stands for the gene for wrinkled seed

Pollen
male
AB Ab aB ab
Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
AB Round Round Round Round Second generation
(AABB) (AABb) (AaBb) (AbBb) offspring
Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
female

Ab Round Wrinkled Round Wrinkled

Ovules

(AABb) (AAbb) (AaBb) (Aabb)

Yellow Yellow Green Green
aB Round Round Round Round
(AaBb) (AaBb) (aaBB) (aaBb)
Yellow Yellow Green Green
Ab Round Wrinkled Round Wrinkled
(AaBb) (Aabb) (aaBb) (aabb)
Law of Segregation

PURPLE X WHITE Parental Generation (P)

RR rr (pure breed)

PURPLE First Generation Offspring (F1)

Rr (hybrid)

Pollen (male)
R r
Purple Purple Second Generation
R RR Rr Offspring (F2)
(pure breed) (hybrid)
Purple White
r Rr rr
(hybrid) (pure breed)

Where: “R” stands for the gene for purple flower

“r” stands for the gene for white flower