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ME – 362
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Part 1.1
Muhammad Ilyas
INTRODUCTION
Instructor
Muhammad Ilyas
PhD (ISAE-SUPAERO)
Assistant Professor
Office: G15 at FME
Ext. 2228
ilyas@giki.edu.pk
Availability:
Monday to Thursday: 1500-1700 Hrs.
System modelling,
Optimisation and
Reliability
Application of industrial design codes
COURSE/REFERENCE BOOKS
Total 100%
CASE STUDIES & COURSE PROJECT
Assessment
Report
Presentation
Viva…
CASE STUDIES & COURSE PROJECT
Proposed Projects
Split Hopkinson’s Pressure Bar Apparatus
Drop Tower Test Apparatus
Bring your ideas / project
Title Submission : Next week!
Projects should have two phases:
Before mid term phase
Until final term
The 1st phase of project should include all steps / design
studies, covered before mid term
The 2nd phase of project should cover methodologies
covered till final term
COURSE TOPICS
The Product Design Process
Need Identification and Problem Definition
Gather Information (as assignment)
Concept Generation and Evaluation
Embodiment Design
Modeling and Simulation
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Materials Processing and Design
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Robust and Quality Design
Cost Evaluation
Detailed Design
Communicating the Design (as assignment)
COURSE TOPICS
Chapter 1 to 6 are related to general steps
involved in design process planning
Chapter 7 to 14 are related to the application of
knowledge already gained above
Chapter 16 is concerned with filling in the
details to ensure that a proven and tested
design can be manufactured
Chapter 17 is most important because as a
Design Engineer you must be able to
communicate your peers, your subordinates,
and your superiors as a successful Project
manager
COURSE TOPICS
Mechanical Engineering Design by G E Dieter
and L C Schmidt
TODAY’S LECTURE
But sometimes;
– It is possible to create a need!!
“I like it, I want it … now, what is it?”
seymour powell
????
????
DESIGN AND SOCIETY
NOT JUST
something we do to things!!
Christopher Frayling,
Chairman of the Design Council
DESIGN AND SOCIETY
NOT JUST
something we do to things!!
DESIGN
graphic engineering
Society, Culture
Environment,
Economy
It also pays attention to
the
Problems,
Requirements,
Needs, Desires
Strive to Improve
~ Quality of Life ~
Innovation ~ Performance ~
Evolution
Variant
Redesign
Original Adaptive
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Examples…
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Ability to Design is both a Science and an Art
Science : can be learned by techniques and methods
(covered in textbook)
Art : is best learned by performing the activities (design)
Discovery : is getting the first sight of, or first knowledge of
something (e.g. North America, Graphene)
We can discover what has already existed but has not been
known before
“Design should not be confused with Discovery”
Design is the product of “Planning and Work”
Invention:
“Design may or may not involve invention”
(e.g Patent – one step beyond limits of existing knowledge)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Conclusion
“Engineering Design extends beyond the boundaries of
Science”
Why??
Because…
As a Design Engineer during professional career, you may
have the opportunity”
• To create dozens of designs
• Have satisfaction of seeing them become working reality
As a Scientist during professional career, you may have the
opportunity:
• To make one creative addition to human knowledge in your
whole life and many never do so
• Can discover a new star but can not make one
• Have to ask an Engineer to do it (e.g CERN)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Industrial
Manufacture Product
(Process Planner and Production Engineer)
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS
Any product development involves
Planning
Design
Manufacturing & QC
Marketing
It is important to devote due time to all of the above
The quality of a product is dependent on all of the phases
involved in the development
Design process is one of the major contributors towards
achieving the quality products!
Although, the cost of design may be smaller compared to
manufacturing costs… the decisions made during design
stage affects 70 to 80% of manufacturing cost of the product
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS
In the early 80s,
US companies start to feel pressure of quality products from
overseas
Response: emphasis is placed on reducing the
manufacturing costs
US NRC study (1991)
Companies realize: the key to world-competitive products
lies in high-quality product design
The competitiveness of product based on design can be
seen through the following three parameters:
Cost
Quality
Product cycle time
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS–DESIGN COST
Product cost commitment during phases of design process
manufacturing
70~80% = for Design commitment decisions are
25% = for manufacture responsible for about
~ 25% cost of the
product
Original design
Redesign
Selective design
Industrial
design
TYPES OF DESIGN
Original design: Original and Innovative concept to achieve a
need e.g. the design of the microprocessor was an original
design
Adaptive design: The design team adapts a known solution to
satisfy a different need, aim: to produce a novel application.
e.g. adapting the ink-jet printing concept to spray binder/glue to
hold particles in place in a rapid prototyping machine
Redesign: Improve an existing design. The task may be to redesign
a component in a product that is failing in service, or redesign
a component to reduce its cost of manufacture e.g. the change
in the shape of a part to reduce a stress concentration, or a new
material substituted to reduce weight or cost
TYPES OF DESIGN
Muhammad Ilyas
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Examples…
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Ability to Design is both a Science and an Art
Science : can be learned by techniques and methods
(covered in textbook)
Art : is best learned by performing the activities (design)
Discovery : is getting the first sight of, or first knowledge of
something (e.g. North America, Graphene)
We can discover what has already existed but has not been
known before
“Design should not be confused with Discovery”
Design is the product of “Planning and Work”
Invention:
“Design may or may not involve invention”
(e.g Patent – one step beyond limits of existing knowledge)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Conclusion
“Engineering Design extends beyond the boundaries of
Science”
Why??
Because…
As a Design Engineer during professional career, you may
have the opportunity”
• To create dozens of designs
• Have satisfaction of seeing them become working reality
As a Scientist during professional career, you may have the
opportunity:
• To make one creative addition to human knowledge in your
whole life and many never do so
• Can discover a new star but can not make one
• Have to ask an Engineer to do it (e.g CERN)
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Industrial
Manufacture Product
(Process Planner and Production Engineer)
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS
Any product development involves
Planning
Design
Manufacturing & QC
Marketing
It is important to devote due time to all of the above
The quality of a product is dependent on all of the phases
involved in the development
Design process is one of the major contributors towards
achieving the quality products!
Although, the cost of design may be smaller compared to
manufacturing costs… the decisions made during design
stage affects 70 to 80% of manufacturing cost of the product
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS
In the early 80s,
US companies start to feel pressure of quality products from
overseas
Response: emphasis is placed on reducing the
manufacturing costs
US NRC study (1991)
Companies realize: the key to world-competitive products
lies in high-quality product design
The competitiveness of product based on design can be
seen through the following three parameters:
Cost
Quality
Product cycle time
IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN PROCESS–DESIGN COST
Product cost commitment during phases of design process
manufacturing
70~80% = for Design commitment decisions are
25% = for manufacture responsible for about
~ 25% cost of the
product
Original Design
Redesign
Selective
Design
Industrial
Design
TYPES OF DESIGN
Original design: Original and Innovative concept to achieve a
need e.g. the design of the microprocessor was an original
design
Adaptive design: The design team adapts a known solution to
satisfy a different need, aim: to produce a novel application.
e.g. adapting the ink-jet printing concept to spray binder/glue to
hold particles in place in a rapid prototyping machine
Redesign: Improve an existing design. The task may be to redesign
a component in a product that is failing in service, or redesign
a component to reduce its cost of manufacture e.g. the change
in the shape of a part to reduce a stress concentration, or a new
material substituted to reduce weight or cost
TYPES OF DESIGN
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
DESIGN PROCESS
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY IN DESIGN
PROCESS
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
PROBLEM DEFINITION
• Most critical step in the solution of a problem
• True Problem is not always as it seems at first glance
• As this step takes a very small time as compared to total time
for finding a solution, this step is normally overlooked
• Example
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Different solutions (or final design) of a problem based on
individual who defines the problem…
PROBLEM DEFINITION
• The Formulation of a problem should start by writing
down ‘problem statement’
o This document should express as specifically as
possible what the problem is
o Should include objectives and goals
o The current state of affairs and the desired state
o Any constraint placed on solution of the problem
o Definition of any special technical terms
DESIGN PROCESS
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY IN DESIGN
PROCESS
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
GATHERING INFORMATION
• Most frustrating for solving the problem
• Problem may be of the technical area not related to your
previous background or you may not have even a single
basic reference on the subject
• You may get a mountain of reports of previous work
• So whatever the situation is, the immediate action is to
identify needed pieces of information and find or develop
that information
GATHERING INFORMATION
• The important thing in gathering information for design is that
• Textbooks and articles published in the scholarly technical
journals usually are of lesser importance
• The need often is for more specific and current information
such as
➢ Technical reports published as a result of government-sponsored
R&D,
➢ Company reports
➢ Trade Journals / Patents
➢ Catalogs / handbooks and literature published by vendors and
suppliers of material and equipment
➢ Internet search or a telephone call or an e-mail to a key supplier
➢ Discussions with in-house experts and outside consultants
GATHERING INFORMATION
• Questions concerned with obtaining information
• What do I need to find out?
• Where can I find it and how can I get it?
• How credible and accurate is the information?
• How should the information be interpreted for my specific
need?
• When do I have enough information?
• What decisions result from the information?
DESIGN PROCESS
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY IN DESIGN
PROCESS
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
GENERATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
➢ The ability to generate high-quality alternative solutions is vital
to a successful design
➢ Generating alternative solutions or design concepts involves
• Use of creativity
• Application of physical principles and qualitative reasoning
• Ability to find and use information
DESIGN PROCESS
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY IN DESIGN
PROCESS
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES
• The evaluation of alternatives involves systematic methods for
selecting the best among several designs, often in the face of
incomplete information
• Evaluation basis involve
• Engineering analysis (about service
performance)
• Cost estimation (cost comparison)
• Design for manufacture (life cycle)
• Simulation and simulated service testing
• Experimental testing of full sized
prototypes
DESIGN PROCESS
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY IN DESIGN
PROCESS
• Problem Definition
• Gathering Information
• Generation of Alternative Solution
• Evaluation of Alternatives
• Communication of Results
COMMUNICATION OF RESULTS
• Purpose of design is to satisfy the needs of a customer / client
• Final design must be communicated properly
• Communication is usually oral or in written design report form
• Typically design engineers spend their time:
• 60% in discussing designs and preparing written
documentation of designs
• 40% in analyzing / testing design and doing designs (detailed
drawings, 3D models etc)
• Deliverables: detailed engineering drawings, computer programs,
working models
• Not only one time occurrence but a continual oral and written
dialogue
ME – 362
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Part 1.3
Muhammad Ilyas
WEEK 1
Concurrent engineering
Concurrent engineering
High Low
Low High
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION
Each individual has only one boss
All Research and Engineering reports to single vice
president
As everyone has common professional background,
they have
opportunities to develop deep expertise, and clear career paths
for specialists
Organizational links are between people of similar
functions
Interactions are forced at level of unit manager
Acceptable for a business with a narrow and slowly
changing set of product line
Can be a problem for a dynamic product situation
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
Functional links
project links
functional organizations)
• Works well in stable
business environment
where product pre-
dominates in market due
to technical excellence
HYBRID/MATRIX ORGANIZATION – LIGHTWEIGHT PROJECTS
Functional links
project links
Scheduling Budget
Coordination Personnel
Arranging matters
meetings Performance
evaluation
HYBRID ORGANIZATION – HEAVYWEIGHT PROJECTS
Functional links
decisions. project links
Concurrent engineering
Instructions to supplier:
“Design a set of brakes that can stop a 2200
pound car from 60 miles per hour in 200 feet
ten times in succession without fading. The
brakes should fit into a space 6” x 8” x 10” at
the end of each axle and be delivered to the
assembly plant for $40 a set.”
Supplier submits design specifications and
prepares a prototype for testing.
THE TRADITIONAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS (SERIAL DESIGN PROCESS)
All functions carried out serially in distinct and separate departments with
little interaction between them
Easy to see how design teams will make decisions
Cost for serial design process is high (large percentage cost is committed at
conceptual and embodiment stage when changes become necessary)
The use of serial design process means that as changes become necessary,
there is a repetition of works
Detailed design
Customer requirements Conceptual design
and analysis
(sales and marketing) (Industrial designers)
(engineering)
Serial
design
process Distribution Support and
Manufacturing and Sales Service
Disposal
CONCURRENT PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
(SYSTEMATIC INTEGRATED PRODUCT DESIGN APPROACH)
Simultaneous decision making by design teams
Integrates product design & process planning
Details of design more decentralized
Needs careful scheduling - tasks done in parallel
Design
Support Engineering
Customer
Sales Manufacturing
BREAKING DOWN BARRIERS
SEQUENTIAL VS. CONCURRENT PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Activity A
Sequential Activity B
Activity C
Time to market
Concurrent
Competitive
Advantage!
ROLE OF DESIGN ENGINEER (CONCURRENT
ENGINEERING)
Concurrent engineering
Cross-functional teams
• A heavy weight project organization is used most frequently
with Concurrent Engineering
Communication Communication
– fax, telephone, mail
face-to-face discussion,
memos, telephone, – email, discussion groups,
shared whiteboard,
whiteboard, bulletin
videoconferencing
board, wall charts, etc.
Collaboration
Collaboration
– application sharing, shared
meetings, side by side network workspace (files in
workgroup shared directories)
Knowledge management Knowledge management
notebooks, binders, – Product data management
printed reports, system, document
photocopies, drawings, management system,
distributed databases
forms, data files
GEOGRAPHICALLY DISTRIBUTED TEAMS
CONVENTIONAL
COLLABORATION
Company A Company B
VIRTUAL
COLLABORATION
Enterprise data Transparent
and information global network
Company A Company B
ME – 362
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Part 2.1
Muhammad Ilyas
COURSE PROJECT
Assignment No.1 (submission: 20.01.17, 2000hrs)
Differentiate between
Functional organization
Project organization
Matrix organization
Draw a block diagram for each type of
organization
Describe Advantages and Disadvantages of each
type of organization
Submit to your respective TA/GA
Section – A : jalal@giki.edu.pk
Section – B : gme1624@giki.edu.pk
Late submissions = No Marks!
COURSE PROJECT
Objectives:
To enable you to understand the various steps of the
design process
To apply these steps in the design process of a project
What is desired from you?
Not a hi-fi design project (design of space shuttle etc.)
Any reasonable project – apply all the stages of the
design process
COURSE PROJECT
Project may include
Theoretical stuff
Experimental work (Manufacturing)
Both
Deliverables for assessment
Report
Presentation
Viva…
Marks will be awarded to proper report
writing and presentations
GUIDELINES
Examples…
Design of a test rig for tension and compression testing of
automobile connecting rod
Design of a solar motorcycle
Design of a robotic tea / coffee trolley for FME
Design of a manipulator for handling waste drums at GIKI
Design and manufacturing of a water / crash proof case for a
laptop / camera / cell phone
Design and manufacturing of a solar charger for cell phones
Design of an automated Dak system within FME and
administration block of GIKI
Design and manufacturing of a prototype impact testing machine
Design of a snow blower machine for Murree Municipal
Corporation
Design of an orange crate filling process for an orange farm
Design and manufacturing of a lead shielding for a camera to be
installed in X-Ray room
GUIDELINES
Typical Steps…
Need Identification and Problem Definition
Gather Information
Concept Generation and Evaluation
Embodiment Design
Modeling and Simulation
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Materials Processing and Design
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Cost Evaluation
Detail Design
Communicating the Design
GUIDELINES
Example…Design of solar motorcycle
Need Identification and Problem Definition
Objectives, need analysis, problem statement
Gather Information
Preliminaries of solar panel, how much current /
voltage? How it stores? Company / vendor specifications
Concept Generation and Evaluation
Preliminary sketch, Size, availability, Where the panel
should be located? How to charge in the evening?
Embodiment Design
Product architecture, placement of links, manufacturing
possibilities, assembly etc.
Modeling and Simulation
modeling of parts, thermal loading, output requirement
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
GUIDELINES
Design definition
Design and society
Product growth
Design – science or art?
Good design practices – analysis and synthesis
Design process
Importance of design process
Cost, quality, product cycle time
Static product vs dynamic product
Types of design
Original, adaptive, redesign, selective, industrial
PREVIOUS TOPICS
Product cost commitment during phases of design process
manufacturing
70~80% = for Design commitment decisions are
25% = for manufacture responsible for about
~ 25% cost of the
product
common professional
Interactions background
Organizational links
between people of
similar functions
Functional links
Interactions at level of
unit manager
for a business with a
narrow and slowly
changing set of product
line
Can be a problem for a
dynamic product
situation
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION
All decisions/ budgets,
personnel evaluation
with the functional
Interactions
manager
Usually the position of
the project manager
does not exist in this
type of organization
Functional links
structure
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION
Advantages
Employees similar background/ work getting skills/
expertise, good performance
responsibilities fixed easy accountability of work
Clear hierarchy employees don’t have to report to multiple
bosses
no duplication of work
Disadvantages
monotonous, repeated type of work employees may become
bore/ lazy
The departments have a self-centered mentality functional
manager pays more attention to only his department
not good among the department decreases flexibility and
innovation, lack of team work
functional structure is rigid, and therefore is slow to adapt to
changes
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
People with different
functional expertise
grouped together for
product development
Interactions Each development group
reports to a project
manager (Overall
responsible)
Often project
organization is time
limited
People are reassigned
Interactions
back to the functional
units after the goal is
Example: GIKI faculties, each Dean may take achieved
some specialists for the development / R&D
work e.g a collaboration of mat. / mech.
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
Advantages
team members directly report to project manager decision
making faster, project goals achievable
sense of urgency, milestones, good communication, and
cooperation the learning curve is faster for any new
member
Team members become versatile and flexible due to
experience in different kinds of projects
Disadvantages
project manager has full authority may become arrogant
and a lack of power could be a problem within functional
people
In projects, there is always a deadline and usually a tight
schedule, which makes the work environment stressful
sense of insecurity in team members, they feel that they may
lose their jobs after project completion less loyal towards
the organization
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
Combination of
functional and project
organization
For example, we can
have a functional
structure and then
assign a manager for
each product
Each person is linked
according to the function
and project he works on
The authority of a Some employees will
functional manager flows have two managers:
vertically downwards, functional manager and
and the authority of the product manager
project manager flows
sideways
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
Advantages
Resources can be shared between the functional units and
projects
More dynamic because it allows employees to communicate
more readily across the boundaries
Provides a good environment for professionals to learn and
grow their career
Disadvantages
Report to two bosses, which adds confusion
Competition for limited resources
Employees have to do their regular work along with the
additional project related work
PREVIOUS TOPICS
Concurrent engineering
Cross-functional teams
• A heavy weight project organization is used most frequently
with Concurrent Engineering
Communication Communication
face-to-face discussion, – fax, telephone, mail
memos, telephone, – email, discussion groups,
whiteboard, bulletin shared whiteboard,
board, wall charts, etc. videoconferencing
Collaboration
Collaboration
– application sharing, shared
meetings, side by side network workspace (files in
workgroup shared directories)
Knowledge management Knowledge management
notebooks, binders, – Product data management
printed reports, system, document
photocopies, drawings, management system,
forms, data files distributed databases
GEOGRAPHICALLY DISTRIBUTED TEAMS
CONVENTIONAL
COLLABORATION
Company A Company B
VIRTUAL
COLLABORATION
Enterprise data Transparent
and information global network
Company A Company B
NEED IDENTIFICATION
Whose my Neighbor?
NEED IDENTIFICATION
The objectives and constraints of the problem should
be identified.
Objective: summary of the needs that the design is to
satisfy e.g what is to be maximized or minimized?
Constraint: the design must satisfy (takes logical values,
0 or 1, helps to decide acceptable or not) e.g what non-
negotiable conditions must be met?
Or what negotiable but desirable conditions ...?
Constraints…
NEED IDENTIFICATION (…HOW??)
needs to
Fast
Good performance
for beginners
Accurate
Guitar Tuner
Inexpensive
Marketable Portability
Convenience
(ease of operation)
Maintanence
EXAMPLE PROBLEM – 3
Technical Background:
❖ At the tanker terminal the LNG is transferred to
double-walled storage tanks with insulation between the
walls.
❖ The pressure must be regulated to minimize
vaporization, for both economic and environmental
reasons.
❖ The next step in the process is to pump the LNG to the
vaporizer units, where it is heated under controlled
conditions and introduced into the gas transmission
pipeline.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM – 3
Technical Issues:
▪ Design of Transfer Piping System.
▪ Design of Storage Vessels.
▪ Design of Vaporizer unit.
▪ Balance between safety and cost.
Societal Issues:
▪ Becomes flammable when exposed to 5 – 15% air
▪ US safety standard 49-CFR-193, 33-CFR Part 127 and
NFPA-59A
▪ Result: Highly constrained by codes, regulations and
standards.
▪ Natural gas – global warming???
ME – 362
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Part 2.2
Muhammad Ilyas
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Design a better mousetrap
▪ Is the statement adequate or vague?
▪ Research : existing mousetraps don't provide protection
from the deadly Hantavirus carried by mice.
A Better Mousetrap:
Certain rodents such as the common mouse are carriers
and transmitters of an often fatal virus, the Hantavirus.
Conventional mousetraps expose people to this virus as
they handle the trap and dispose of the mouse.
Design a mousetrap that allows a person to trap and
dispose of a mouse without being exposed to any
bacterial or viral agents being carried on the mouse.
© Seyyed Khandani
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
There is a need of building block (4x6x12 in)
making machine in the country from highly
compacted soil. Your assignment is to design
a block-making machine with the capacity for
producing 600 blocks per day at a capital cost
of less than Rs30,000. Develop a need
analysis, a problem statement and a plan for
the information that will be needed to
complete the design.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Need Analysis:
• Total cost should be less than Rs30,000
• Must be capable of being constructed with local
recourses.
• Should be easily transportable to different locations
• Must be powered with human labor (Why?).
• Hydraulic components must be avoided (Why?).
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISE
Need Analysis:
Need Analysis:
Must Wants
1. Cost less than Rs30,000 1. Able to make block 2x6x12 in
2. Weight less than 60 kg 2. Easily maintained
3. Human powered 3. Easy and Safe operation
4. Made from local resources 4. Should handle different types
of soil and cement mixture
5. Easily manufactured
6. Produce 4x6x12 in blocks
7. Produce 600 blocks/day
9. Compressive strength at least
2 MPa
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISE
Problem statement:
The objective of the project is the design and construction of
a prototype block making machine. The blocks are to be
made of soil cement and are 4x6x12 inches. The machine
must be human powered, weigh less than 60kg, cost less
than Rs30,000 to build and capable of producing 600
blocks/day with 5 person crew.
Blocks must have a compressive strength of 2Mpa when
cured. The machine should be constructed from local
recourses. The machine also should be adaptable to a verity
of soil cement mixtures, and to making blocks 2x6x12 in. A
crew of 3 persons should be capable of operating the machine
to produce 600 block per day.
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISE
Information to be gathered:
1. Determination of the processing condition
• What pressure must be generated?
• Curing temperature and time
• Effect of different soil cement mixtures on pressure
2. Mechanism for generating pressure
3. Human factors
• Magnitude of force that can be produced by a human
• Human fatigue
4. Materials handling
5. Materials for the machine, availability and their properties
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 3.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• Concurrent engineering is
a team-based approach in
which all aspects of the
product development
process are represented on
a closely communicating
team
• Team members perform
their jobs in an
overlapping and
concurrent manner so as to
minimize the time for
product development
Concurrent Engineering
• Concurrent engineering
uses the following three
main elements for the
development of a
product:
• Cross-functional teams
• Parallel design
• Vendor partnering
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) in Design
One of the major contributor to concurrent engineering is CAE
• CAE is the use of computers / software in engineering
• As a matter of fact, engineers were the first professional group to
use computer
• (FORTRAN since 1950 Numeric computations, FEA, CFD etc.)
Sketching
Modeling
Stress calculations
Thermal analysis
Optimization
Mechanical testing software
Image analysis
Metallographic studies
Statistical calculations
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) in Design
CAE Examples?
• 2D Drafting (AutoCad)
• 3D Modeling (Solidworks)
• CAD/CAM (ProE-Siemens/Fanuc)
• Use of dedicated software (e.g, for meshing PATRAN)
• FEA: simulations of engineering problems (ANSYS)
• Mathematical tools (Maple/ MATLAB)
• Spreadsheets (MS Excel)
• Curvefitting (DataFit, CurveExpert)
• Mechanical design of process equipment (PV Elite, Autopipe)
• Fracture mechanics (NASGRO)
• …
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) in Design
• CADCAM
• Interfacing and communication between various computer devices
and manufacturing machines (Example: m/c codes)
• National Institute of Standards. Technology (NIST) has worked for
the development of
• Initial graphics Exchange Specifications (IGES) and Product
Data Exchange Specification (PDES)
• IGES and PDES represent a ‘Neutral Data Format’ for
transferring geometric data between equipment from different
CAD systems
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 3.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• Design Review
• Re-Design
• Technology innovation
➢ Outcome of review
• Each review of the product design may have two outcomes
• Technical aspect
• Business aspect
Design review – Technical aspect
Product Design Specification (PDS)
• PDS is the basic reference document for both product
design and design review
• Essence of Technical Review of design is to compare the
finding against detailed PDS formulated at the product
definition stage of the project
• PDS is a detailed document that describes what the
design must be in terms of
• performance requirements,
• environment in which it must operate,
• product life, cost,
• reliability
• …..
Re-design
• A common situation in Design
Process
• The task may be to improve an Original design
Engineering design
existing design.
• Or it may be due to reason that a Adaptive design
component in a product is failing
in service e.g., the change in the Redesign
shape of a part to reduce a stress
concentration
Selective design
• Sometimes, we redesign a
component to reduce its cost of
Industrial design
manufacture.
• Sometimes, a new material is
substituted to reduce weight
and/or cost
Re-design
• Categories of Re-design
• Fixes
• Updates
Re-design – categories
o Fixes
• A fix is a design modification that is required due to less than
acceptable performance (after the product has been introduced
into the market) unplanned activity!
o Updates
• Usually planned as part of the product’s life cycle before the
product is introduced to the market
• An update may add capacity and improve performance or
incorporate its appearance to keep it competitive
• The most common situation in re-design is the modification of
an existing product to meet new requirements e.g. banning of
the use of fluorinated hydrocarbon refrigerants because of
Ozone-hole problem, required the extensive re-design of
refrigeration system
• Often re-design results from the failure of the product in service
Re-design
• Worldwide collaborations
• Pakistan: Ghandhara Industries
Re-design
• Case study: GM ignition switch
• GM began developing new small cars in
the late 1990s
• Chevrolet Cobalt
• Saturn Ion
Commercial
Sometimes, Product ideas • Time and
development
market need must be management
is stronger checked for • about 35 to Generally, the technical
than their fit with 50% of new problems comprise the
technological the ongoing products fails smallest category of
research technology due to above failure during the
opportunity development
Key factors for the success of the product
1. Product planning and research:
• It is important that adequate time is spent on problem
definition, concept generation and evaluation, market research
and assessment, technical assessment, business and financial
reviews before embodiment and detail design stages
2. Product superiority:
• Product should be such that it delivers real value to customer
i.e. meeting customer needs (e.g. LEDs to save energy)
3. Quality marketing:
• Better marketing activities to be executed from concept of idea
to launch of product in market
4. Proper organizational design:
• Successful products are most often developed by cross
functional teams, led by strong product champion, supported
by top management and accountable (responsible!) for the
entire project from beginning to end
Key factors for the success of the product
sales
investments
Product Design Specifications (PDS)
Document:
▪ Requirements for successful product / process
▪ Groundwork for engineering design activities
Typically includes requirements:
▪ Size and weight
▪ Operational
▪ Service environment
▪ Safety
▪ ….
Product Design Specifications (PDS)
Design
Support Engineering
Customer
Sales Manufacturing
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 4.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• Example: Brainstorming
• Customer Survey
• QFD…
2
3
Problem Definition
• Thorough understanding of problem
→ outstanding solution
• Required for all kinds of problem
solving:
• math problems
• production problems
• design problems
• …
• Always question original Problem
Statement
• Major step of PDP (product
development process)
4
Problem Definition
• Product development begins
by determining the
requirements that a product
must meet e.g.
• Functional
• Durability
• Reliability
• Cost
• Aesthetics
• …
Product design : ultimate test of a solution is meeting
management’s goal related to the marketplace, i.e.
The product to meet customer requirements!
5
Total Quality Management
Problem Customer’s
Product
definition satisfaction
6
QA / QC
Quality
• Quality of a product : fitness of the product to do the job as required
by its user
• Quality : conformance to requirements, not “goodness”
Quality Control
• Controls applied at each manufacturing stage to consistently produce
a quality product
• Observation techniques and activities used to fulfill requirements for
quality
Quality Assurance
• A way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products
• Avoiding problems when delivering solutions or services to customers
• Focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be
fulfilled
7
8
Customer Focus in Design Process
Who is customer?
• TQM : Customer is anyone who receives or uses
what an individual or organization provides
• Internal and External customers
➢ External customer :
➢ purchases an organization’s / company's products or services
➢ is not an employee or part of the organization / company
➢ Internal customer :
➢ within the organization
➢ e.g. the design engineer who receives information on the
properties of three potential materials for his / her design : an
internal customer of the materials specialist
9
Customer Focus in Design Process
• Identifying customer’s needs
• By answering the following types of questions :
Who are my customers?
What does the customer want?
How can the product satisfy the customer while generating a profit?
…
10
Customer Requirements (Kano Model)
Expected Quality : I assume it meets all federal, state, and local building codes.
Normal Quality—Spokens : Three-car garage, three bedrooms, two baths …
Normal Quality—Unspokens : I'll know it when I see it!
Exciting Quality : Wow!! A lifetime warranty on the roof!
Source: www.asq.org
11
Customer Focus in Design Process
• Gathering information from customer
Interviews with customers
Focus groups
Customer complaints
Warranty data
Customer surveys
12
Problem Definition
• Brain storming : natural idea generation tool that can be used at
the problem definition stage in the design process
Example:
It was desired from a student design team to
select the familiar “jewel case” (that protects
compact discs in storage) as a product needing
improvement.
What are the brainstorming activities in this
case?
As a first step, the team brainstormed to
develop ideas for possible improvements to the
CD case. The following ideas (next slides) were
generated in response to the question: What
improvements to the current CD case would
customers want?
13
Problem definition
Brainstorming:
14
Problem definition
Improvements:
1. Case more resistant to cracking
2. Easier to open
3. Add color
4. Better waterproofing
5. Make it lighter
6. More scratch-resistant
7. Easier extraction of CD from the circular fastener
8. Streamlined look
9. Case should fit the hand better
10. Easier to take out leaflet describing the CD
11. Use recyclable plastic
12. Make interlocking cases so they stack on top of each other without
slipping
13. Better locking case
14. Hinge that doesn’t come apart
15
Problem definition
Grouping ideas
1. Case more resistant to cracking (Stronger)
2. Easier to open (Opening / Extraction)
3. Add color (Aesthetics)
4. Better waterproofing (Environment)
5. Make it lighter (Aesthetics)
6. More scratch-resistant (Stronger)
7. Easier extraction of CD from the circular fastener (Opening / Extraction)
8. Streamlined look (Aesthetics)
9. Case should fit the hand better (Aesthetics)
10. Easier to take out leaflet describing the CD (Opening / Extraction)
11. Use recyclable plastic (Environment)
12. Make interlocking cases so they stack on top of each other without slipping
(Other)
13. Better locking case (Opening / Extraction)
14. Hinge that doesn’t come apart (Stronger)
16
Affinity diagram:
• tool used to organize ideas and
data
• placing data into groups based on
natural relationships
17
Outcome of brain storming in above
example:
This information helps to focus the team’s
design scope.
It also aids the team in determining areas
of particular interest for more research
from direct interaction with customers and
from the team’s own testing processes.
18
Customer’s survey
19
20
21
CTQ CRs
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• QFD – HOQ
• QFD Example
2
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
+
Customer
3
QFD
4
QFD – History
Toyota
• was able to reduce 60% of cost to bring a new car model to
market
• and decreased development time by 1/3 for new models
QFD Target
6
QFD Process
Complete QFD process :
7
QFD Process
Complete QFD process consists of four phases :
o Product planning phase
Customer requirements
Engineering characteristics
o Part deployment / assembly
Selected engineering characteristics
Part characteristics
o Process planning
Part characteristics
Manufacturing process requirements
o Production planning
Manufacturing process requirements
Production requirements
8
House of Quality (HOQ)
• Product Planning house is called the “House of Quality”
9
House of Quality (HOQ)
10
House of Quality (HOQ)
11
HOQ – Basic Configuration
Interrelationship
between
Technical Descriptors
Technical Descriptors
(Voice of the organization)
Requirements
Requirements
(Voice of the
Prioritized
Customer)
Customer
Customer
Relationship between
Requirements and
Descriptors
Prioritized Technical
Descriptors
12
HOQ – Detailed Configuration
13
HOQ – Layout
1. Customer requirements
2. Competitive assessment: how
the top two or three products
rank w.r.t CRs on the scale of
1 to 5.
3. Importance Rating: Customer
Importance x Improvement
ratio x Sales point
4. Engineering Characteristics:
the characteristics of the
product which can be
controled to meet CRs.
14
HOQ – Layout
15
HOQ – Layout
9. Competitive Assessment:
Benchmark your company
performance against two or
three top competitors for
each EC on the scale of 1 to 5.
10. Technical Difficulty: The
level of difficulty to achieve
an EC.
11. Target Value: To show which
are the most important ECs.
16
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 4.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• QFD – HOQ
• QFD Examples
2
Customer Requirements (CRs)
• From a design team’s point of view the CRs
could be
• Product Performance
• Time to Market
• Cost Garvin’s 8 basic dimensions of quality
• Quality
Performance
• … Features
Reliability
Durability
Serviceability
Conformance
Aesthetics
Perceived Quality (Reputation)
3
CRs
4
• The 1st thing in competitive assessment is to scale the
importance of CRs
5
• The 2nd thing is to rank the available competitor products
(product A, B etc.) and the proposed product on a scale 1-5
6
Importance ratio
Importance ratio
= customer importance ×
improvement ratio × sales
point
7
Importance ratio
8
Importance ratio
9
Engineering Characteristics (ECs)
• Aluminum components
• Auto focus
• Auto exposure
• Paint pallet
• Ergonomic design
10
Engineering Characteristics (ECs)
CD cover/ casing
11
Correlation matrix
• Often referred to as roof of
the HOQ
• Matrix between engineering
characteristics
Aluminum components
Matrix
Ergonomic design
High relationship
Medium relationship
Auto exposure
Low relationship
Paint pallet
Auto focus
12
Correlation matrix
13
Correlation matrix
• Change in hinge design : recheck
force necessary to open the case
• Determination of strength of
correlations among ECs requires
knowledge of the use of the
product being designed and
engineering experience
• Not necessary to have exact
correlation data at this stage
• Rating : a visual reminder for the
design team for use in future
phases of the design process (e.g.
embodiment design)
14
Relationship matrix
Aluminum components
• Main room of the HOQ
Ergonomic design
High relationship
Auto exposure
Paint pallet
Medium relationship
Auto focus
Low relationship
Lightweight
Easy to use
Reliable
Easy to hold steady
Color corrections
Relationship matrix
15
Relationship matrix
• Other conventions for
Technical strong, medium, week
Descriptors relationship are also
Primary used
Secondary
Secondary
Primary
Relationship between
Customer
Requirements and
Requirements
Technical Descriptors
Customer
+9 Strong
+3 Medium
+1 Weak
16
Absolute importance
17
Relative importance
18
Technical Competitive Assessment
• Scale your planned product with the products of
competitors
19
Direction of improvement
20
Technical Difficulty
21
Target values
22
Target values
23
BENEFITS OF ADOPTING QFD
Some of the benefits of adopting QFD are
• Improves quality
24
BENEFITS OF ADOPTING QFD
… continued
25
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 5.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Today’s topics
• QFD
• PDS
2
QFD
3
CRs for gas oven
4
ECs for gas oven
Excel
sheet
5
Conclusions: QFD Gas oven
• Rotary mechanism Motor rpm
• Proper Design / Selection Temperature gauge and timer
of burner Door designing
• position of burner
• number of burners
• type of burner (flame or
induction heating)
• Cost of manufacture
• Inner case design
• Selection of a better
material
6
Results of HOQ
7
Product Design Specification (PDS)
➢ Remember?
➢ We talked about the Product Design Specification
in previous lectures…
8
Product Design Specification (PDS)
9
Product Design Specification (PDS)
10
Major Features of PDS
Before going into details of PDS let us see a product and try
to answer some questions?
What is this product?
How will it work?
Does the company have resources for its production?
Which are the applicable rules & regulations for this product?
flexibility
reliability
user interaction
11
Major Features of PDS
The answers to questions can be found in the following –
which constitutes as major features of PDS
Product identification / definition
Functional requirements
Corporate / company constraints
Social, political and legal requirements
flexibility reliability
12
user interaction
Major Features of PDS
Product identification / definition
Product Title
▪ Product name (# of models or different versions, related in-house
product families)
▪ e.g. Solidworks Standard
▪ e.g. Design & Manufacturing of 50 T Gantry Crane
14
Major Features of PDS
15
Major Features of PDS
Functional Requirements
Based on
functional performance
physical dimensions
service environment
life cycle targets
requirements based on human factors
16
Major Features of PDS
17
Major Features of PDS
18
Major Features of PDS
19
Major Features of PDS
Life Cycle Targets
What targets should be set for the performance of the product over
time? (Related to product’s competition)
What are the most up-to-date recycling policies of the corporation and
how can this product’s design reflect those policies?
Useful life / shelf life
Cost of installation and operation (energy costs, crew size, etc.)
Maintenance schedule and location (user-performed or service
centered)
Reliability (mean time to failure): Identify critical parts and specify
their reliability targets
End-of-life strategy (% and type of recyclable components,
remanufacture of the product, company take back, upgrade policy)
20
Major Features of PDS
Life Cycle Targets / Issues Summary
Reliability (mean time to failure)
Robustness / strength
Reliability
Maintainability
Testability
Retirement Robustness
Reparability
Installation
Retirement Install ability Maintainability
Recycling
Testability
Reparability
21
Major Features of PDS
22
Major Features of PDS
Corporate constraints
What type of constraints, a company may face
during the product design
time to market: is there adequate time (keeping in
view the resources) to design a quality product
and its manufacturing process(es) ?
Manufacturing requirements (in-house, in-country
issues / capabilities) to produce cost effective /
economical product
23
Major Features of PDS
Corporate constraints
(example)
Residual stress monitoring
In FME, we want to monitor the
residual stresses (due to a
manufacturing process)
The corporate constraints could
be:
bonding of strain gauge
soldering of wires
measurement of strains from
multiple gauges
24
Major Features of PDS
Manufacturing Specifications
Which parts or systems will be
manufactured in-house?
Manufacturing requirements: Processes and
capacity necessary to manufacture final product
Suppliers: Identify key suppliers and procurement
strategy for purchased parts
25
Major Features of PDS
Market Identification
Description of target market and its size ➢ What is the need for
e.g. In case of HXs (like split ACs) the product will a new (or
be used in summer seasons within the country redesigned) product?
Financial Requirements
What are the assumptions of the firm about the economics
of the product and its development?
What are the corporate criteria on profitability?
Pricing policy over life cycle (target manufacturing cost, price,
estimated retail price, discounts)
Warranty policy
Expected financial performance or rate of return on investment
Level of capital investment required
27
Major Features of PDS
Social, Political, and Legal Requirements
Are there government agencies, societies, or regulation
boards that control the markets in which this product is to
be launched?
Are there opportunities to patent the product or some of its
subsystems?
Safety and environmental regulations: Applicable government
regulations for all intended markets.
Standards: Relevant product standards that may be applicable
(e.g. Underwriters Laboratories, OSHA)
Safety and product liability: Predictable unintended uses for the
product, safety label guidelines, applicable company safety
standards
Intellectual property: Patents related to product. Licensing
strategy for critical pieces of technology.
28
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
Product title
29
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
30
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
31
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
32
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
33
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
34
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
35
Example – PDS for CD jewel case
36
Group Assignment 03
Muhammad Ilyas
Gathering Information
Gathering Information
tweets
facebook
Growth of Data over time
mobile
amazon
Gathering Information
Raw : Red
Data, Information & Knowledge
• Under this schema
• Data :
• A component
• A specification
• Material data sheet
• Information :
• A catalog of bearings : dimensions, performance data …
• Knowledge :
• An article : calculation of failure life of bearings
Copyright and Copying
Muhammad Ilyas
Gathering Information
2
Sources of Information – Library
• Hierarchy of Library Information Sources
• Technical Dictionaries
• Encyclopedias
• Handbooks
• Textbooks
• Bibliographies
• Indexing and Abstracting Services
• Technical and Professional Journals
• Translations
• Technical reports
• Patents
• Catalogs and manufacturer’s brochures
3
Sources of Information – Library
4
Sources of Information – Library
Parameters describing the efficiency of
information search:
Number ofrrelevant
Numberof documents
elevant do cuments reretrieved
trieved
Precision
(positive predictive value) Total number
Total Numbretrieved
er retrieved
Number
Numberofofrelevant
relevantdocuments
documents retrieved
retrieved
Recall
(sensitivity) Number
Numberofofrelevant
relative documents
documentsinincollection
collecti on
A
precision
A B
A
recall
A D
5
Sources of Information – Library
Parameters describing the efficiency of
information search:
Number ofrrelevant
Numberof documents
elevant documents re retrieved
trieved
Precision
Total number
Total Numbretrieved
er retriev ed
Number
Numberofofrelevant documents
relevant documentsretrieved
retrieved
Recall
Number
Numberofofrelevant
relative documents
documentsinincollection
collecti on
“When conveying your search to
the librarian, better tact is to tell
the librarian what you do not
know about topic rather than
describe what you already know”
6
Sources of Information – Library
Class Assignment
7
Sources of Information – Library
Parameters describing the efficiency of information
search:
Numberof relevant
Number of relevant documents
documents retrieved
retrieved
Precision
Total
Total numberNumb er retriev ed
retrieved
Number
Number of relevant
of relevant documents
documents retrieved retrieved
Recall
Number
Number of relative
of relevant documents
documents in collecti on
in collection
18 7 17
P P P
35 7 21
18 7 17
R R R
18 18 18
8
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias
• Dictionaries : Provide illustrated definition of terms
used for any technical area, e.g. :
• ASM Materials Engineering Dictionary
• Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering
• Dictionary of Engineering
• Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms
• Encyclopedias : A good place to start for technically
trained person who is beginning to learn about a new
subject, e.g. :
• Encyclopedia of Materials Sciences and Engineering
• Encyclopedia of Science and Engineering
• Encyclopedia of Physics
• Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering
9
Handbooks
• Handbooks : compendia of useful technical
data
• Provide : technical description of theory and
its applications
• Good : refreshers once studied in greater
detail
• Technical topics : engineering fundamentals,
calculations, materials, manufacturing,
installation …
• Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 8th Ed
• Machinery’s Handbook, 29th Ed
• …
10
Textbooks and Monographs
• If you want to find what books are available in a
particular field of work : “Books in Print” or
Internet book selling services such as
• www.McGrawHill.com
• www.amazon.com
• www.johnwiley.com
11
Indexing and Abstracting services
• Indexing service : cites the articles by title, author and
bibliographic data
• Abstracting Service : provides a summary of the
contents of the articles
• Indexing and abstracting services : current information
on periodical literature, a way to retrieve published
literature
• Include books, conference proceedings, technical reports,
patents …
12
Indexing and Abstracting services
• Conducting a search for published literature :
• Like putting together a large puzzle
• Better strategy : start with the most recent subject
indexes and abstracts and try to find a current review
article or general technical paper
• The references cited in it : search back along the
“ancestor references” to find the research that led to the
current state of knowledge
• Identify key documents (Note : it takes 6~12 months for
a reference to be included in an index or abstract service,
so current research might not be picked up using this
strategy)
13
Indexing and Abstracting services
14
Translations
• Scientific & Technical Literature : mostly in English
• An experienced translator can complete 5 pages a day
• Translator Machines although not yet developed
properly can increase this to 15 pages a day
• Software : available to translate from one language to
another
15
Catalogues, Brochures & Business Information
• Catalogue: detailed specification of products of a
company
• Brochures : introduce a company or organization and
inform about products and / or services
16
Catalogues, Brochures & Business Information
• Technical libraries : business and
commercial information that is
important in design
• Obtained from trade literature, visits to
trade shows, Thomas Register of
American Manufacturers,
(www.thomasnet.com, www.alibaba.com),
Annual trade publications
17
Catalogues, Brochures & Business Information
• Information also available from Ministry of Commerce,
Industries and Production, Bureau of the Census Statistics,
etc
• Information : arranged by industry according to the North
American Industry Classification System (NAICS), e.g.
products in primary metal industry start with 33,
transportation equipment with 37, etc
Pakistan Standard Industrial Classification (PSIC) :
18
Catalogues, Brochures & Business Information
19
Information from the Internet
• Why general search engines (e.g Google, Yahoo) are not
enough?
• Do not check search results for quality and reliability
• Index less than half of the internet
• a lot of scientific information is available in restricted databases
that can only be accessed upon payment
• Make use of scientific sources of information
• Web of Science (bibliographic database and citation database)
• Google Scholar (bibliographic database and citation database)
• Business Source Complete (full text database and citation
database)
• ERIC (bibliographic database)
• …
20
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 6.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Gathering Information
2
Information from the Internet
3
4
Information from the Internet
5
Information from the Internet
6
Information from the Internet
• In our region, we need to compile a comprehensive
directory of suppliers / manufacturers
7
Intellectual Property (IP)
8
Intellectual Property (IP)
9
Copyright
• Legal right created by law of the country that grants the
creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use and
distribution, usually for a limited time, with the intention
of enabling the creator (e.g. the photographer of a
photograph or the author of a book) to receive
compensation for their intellectual work
BTW, can © be used without compensation?
Without
11
permission: Illegal Allowed Legal
©
Is there something like copyleft??
Copyleft : using copyright law to offer the right to
distribute copies and modified versions of a work and
requiring that the same rights be preserved in modified
versions of the work
e.g. computer software (source code), documents, art etc
13
Trade Secret
• Trade secret is any formula, pattern, device or
compilation of information which is used in a
business to create an opportunity over competitors
who do not have this information
• Sometimes trade secrets are information which could
be patented
• Since trade secret has no legal protection, it is
essential to maintain the information in secret
• e.g. : generally, the ingredients of a medicine is known to
everyone but how the medicine is produced (e.g. sequence
of chemical reactions) by a pharmaceutical company is a
trade secret!
14
Patent Literature
• PATENT
• The word originates from Latin “patere”, meaning "to lay open" i.e.
to make available for public inspection (www.dictionary.com)
• A patent : registering an invention or a novel work with an
organization owned by a state
• In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the right
granted to anyone who invents any new, useful, and non-obvious
process, machine, article of manufacture or composition of matter
In principle, the patent owner has the exclusive right to
prevent / stop others from commercially exploiting the
patented invention
In other words, patent protection means that the invention
cannot be commercially made, used, distributed, imported or
sold by others without the patent owner's consent
15
Patent Literature
16
Patent – US Law
17
Patent
18
Types of Patents
• Utility patent
• Most common type
• Issued for new and useful machines, processes,
articles of manufacture or composition of matter etc.
• Design patent
• Issued for new ornamental design (e.g. coke bottle)
• Plant patents
• Granted for new varieties of plants (e.g. roses)
19
Patent Law
20
Patent Law
21
Criteria for Awarding Patent
• It must be non-obvious to a
person skilled in the art
covered by the patent
22
Reading a Patent
• Patent is a legal document, hence its style is
different from the usual technical paper
• Some of the patent portions are the following:
• Claim(s) – generally at the end
• Inventor – listed on the top, may be different than assignee
• Assignee – the true owner, e.g. the company where inventor
works
• Title
• References Field of invention
• Abstract Summary
Detailed description
• Pictures / drawings
• Related application
• Background
23
Reading a Patent
Patent No., Date
Name!
Typical dwg
24
Reading a Patent
25
Reading a Patent: Compact Disc Case
26
Reading a Patent
27
Patent
28
Patent
29
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 6.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Expert Systems (ES)
2
Expert Systems – Applications
• Computer application : performs a task that would
otherwise be performed by human experts
• e.g. diagnose human illnesses, make financial
forecasts, schedule routes for delivery vehicles …
• ES : designed to take the place of humans or
designed to assist them
3
Expert Systems (ES)
• A typical expert system consists of following
elements :
• Knowledge Base
• Inference Engine
• Knowledge base : unique to particular domain / area
and stores facts / knowledge about the related area
• Inference engine : applies logical rules to the
knowledge base and deduced new knowledge / outcome
4
Expert Systems (ES)
5
Expert Systems (ES)
Prime Advantage of ES is that:
• They capture the knowledge of experts that may
otherwise be lost through death or retirement.
• They can contain the cumulative knowledge of several
experts, they are available any time of the day or night
and they can be distributed widely throughout an
organization
Disadvantage of ES
Lacks common sense
Cannot make creative
responses as humans
Errors may occur in
knowledge base
Cannot adopt to changing
6
environments
Expert Systems (ES)
Expert system – Examples
• Diagnostic applications, servicing:
• People
• Machinery
• Computer Games ( Chess ☺ )
• Make financial planning decisions
• Configure computers
• Monitor real time systems (weather, aero plane routing)
• Underwrite (signing & accepting )insurance policies
• …
7
Expert Systems (ES)
• Expert system – Examples in medical
• Example of a diagnosis rule-based expert system is
EMERGE designed to be used in an emergency room
• This system uses a form of production rules which
incorporates weighing factors which are determined by
a neural network
8 [www.rpi.edu/]
Expert Systems (ES)
• Benefits of Expert System in Design
• Capture valuable expertise and then to give it comfortably into the
hands of novice / beginner (e.g. PV Elite …)
• Improve the consistency of designs within an organization (e.g. for
similar jobs…)
• Minimize errors in problem solving
• Interface the ES with software for engineering analysis (e.g.
Autoplant by Bentley)
• Search large databases for optimal selection of concepts,
components and materials (e.g. material library, ANSI standards
in CAD software)
• Search design libraries for similar designs
• Reduce cost of design while at the same time improving quality
9
Concept Generation
10
Conceptual Design
11
Conceptual Design
12
Creativity and Problem Solving
13
Creativity and Problem Solving
14
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 7.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Generation
2
Creativity and Problem Solving
How to develop creative thinking?
Some steps one can take to enhance creative thinking :
Be persistent / determined
use
4
Creativity and Problem Solving
5
Psychological View of Problem Solving
3 1
4 2
8
Psychological View of Problem Solving
9
Brain Storming
Most common method used by design teams for
generating ideas
• Generates : a large number of diverse concepts / ideas by group / team
• Why team? It is likely that one person’s mental block will be different
from another’s, so that by acting together, the team’s combined idea
generation process flows well
• An approach might be
• Have a meeting with individuals (6-12 is good) related to the
design tasks
• Make it clear that criticism is not allowed and every idea is good
• Ask everyone to write ideas on separate pieces of paper
10
Conclusions: QFD Gas Oven
• Rotary mechanism
• Proper Design / Selection
of burner
• position of burner
• number of burners
• type of burner (flame or
induction heating)
• Cost of manufacture
• Inner case design
• Selection of a better
material
11
Brain Storming
Gas Oven : Concepts for Burner and Rotary Mechanism
Since the fuel is gas, following possible burners can be used:
12
Brain Storming
Gas Oven : Concepts for Burner Protection and Burner Door
13
Brain Storming
Gas Oven: Concepts for Shape
14
Brain Storming
Gas Oven: Concepts for Shape
15
Brain Storming
Think out of box
Join the DOTS with 4 (or less ) straight lines, without
removing pencil from the paper
https://www.mycoted.com/Nine_Dots
• • •
• • •
16
• • •
Systematic Methods for Designing
17
Conceptual Decomposition
A common tactic to solve a complex
problem is to decompose it
• Break the system such that the connections of the
elements within in the chunks are stronger
18
Conceptual Decomposition
Decomposition in physical domain
• When starting a design process, most engineers
unconsciously begin with physical decomposition
• Sketching a system, a subassembly, or a physical part is a
way to represent the product and begin accessing all the
relevant knowledge about the product
19
Decomposition in Physical Domain
• It starts with PDS (Product Design Specification)
• 1st step is to decompose the product into those
subassemblies and components that are essential
for the over all function of the product
• Care must be taken about the “Product
Architecture”
• There may be more than one ways to decompose a
product
• Consider the bicycle example:
The bicycle can be
decomposed into several
parts, like wheel, rim etc.
20
Decomposition in Physical Domain
Physical decomposition of a
bicycle with two levels of
decomposition detail on the
wheel subassembly
21
Decomposition in Physical Domain
Major steps involved in physical decomposition:
• Define the physical system in total and draw it like a tree diagram
(The decomposition diagram will be hierarchical)
• Identify and define the first major subassembly of the system and
draw it as a new block below the main root
• Identify and draw the physical connections between the
subassemblies and root
• Identify and draw the physical connections between the subassembly
and any other subassemblies on the same hierarchical level of the
diagram’s structure
• Examine the first subassembly block in the now complete level of the
diagram (If it can be decomposed into more than one distinct and
significant components, make a new sub assembly)
22
Decomposition in Physical Domain
Some conclusions (Physical Decomposition) :
• Physical decomposition is a top-down approach to understand the
physical nature of the product
• The decomposition diagram is not solution-neutral because it is based
on the physical parts of an existing design
• A physical decomposition will lead designers to think about
alternative parts already called out in the product
• It limits the number of alternative designs generated to a
neighborhood of the design space surrounding the existing solution
• Design of an air circulation system
• The case of a ceiling fan: fan motor, rotary parts, supports etc.
23
Functional Decomposition
24
Functional Decomposition
Functionality of some common devices
Other
Device Input Function Output
Effects
Increase Decrease
Nozzle Fluid flow
velocity pressure
Fluid Flow
Rot.
Electrical Thermal
Motor Energy
ElecMech
energy
Mechanical
Energy
Change
Mechanic Increase
Pump al Energy pressure?
flow Fluid flow
direction
25
Rules for Functional Decomposition
26
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Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 7.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Functional Decomposition
• Description of
functional
decomposition
requires the
relationship
between energy,
material and input /
output signals
• Examples of flow
classes:
2
Rules for Functional Decomposition
Break the main function into sub functions :
• Make sub function boxes that show how they work
• Create as many boxes as possible
• List alternates
• Make sure all applicable flows are included
• Consider sequences
• Use standard notations (see textbook Table )
• Use available documents, parts etc. to develop ideas
• Don’t be afraid to add new items not on the first diagram
3
Functional Decomposition
4
Improvements:
1. Case more resistant to cracking
2. Easier to open
3. Add color
4. Better waterproofing
5. Make it lighter
6. More scratch-resistant
7. Easier extraction of CD from the circular fastener
8. Streamlined look
9. Case should fit the hand better
10. Easier to take out leaflet describing the CD
11. Use recyclable plastic
12. Make interlocking cases so they stack on top of each other without
slipping
13. Better locking case
5
14. Hinge that doesn’t come apart
Functional Decomposition
Example of CD Casing:
6
Functional Decomposition
7
Functional Decomposition
Describing the overall function
Energy flow
Material flow
Information flow Overall function
Flows IN Flows OUT
8
Functional Decomposition
Description of sub-functions generated from overall
function involving movement of human hand
9
Functional Decomposition
Description of FUNCTIONS IN LOGICAL ORDER
10
Functional Decomposition
Some steps for Functional Decomposition:
• Identify the overall function that needs to be accomplished ( Identify
the energy, material, and signal flows that will be input / output to
the device )
• Using everyday language, write a description of the individual
functions that are required to accomplish the overall task
• Identify more precise functions necessary to fulfill the more detailed
description of the product’s function
• Arrange the function blocks in the order that they must take place
for the desired functions
• Add the energy, material, and signal flows between the function
blocks
11
Functional Decomposition
12
Functional Decomposition
Some conclusions (Functional Decomposition):
• Functional decomposition results in a solution-neutral
representation of a product
• Functional decomposition is not easy to implement in all situations
• Function structures are not necessarily unique ( Another designer or
design team can create a slightly different set of descriptive function
blocks )
Functional or Physical Decomposition?
Experts suggest that a compromise approach may be used
➢ Start with physical decomposition and then identify the functions that
each subassembly and component fulfills
➢ Focus on ways of fulfilling the identified functions and look for ways to
separate and combine functions
13
Morphological Charts
14
Morphological Charts
15
Morphological Charts
16
Morphological Charts
17
Morphological Charts
18
Morphological Charts
19
Morphological Charts
20
Morphological Charts
21
Morphological Charts
22
Combining Concepts
• You have different possibilities and you combine them to get a
best solution
• There could be is quite large possible combinations
• For the given example we have
5 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 5 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 162000
23
Combining Concepts
Example: in the CD Casing example, we can see about 5
different combinations:
Shape Lock Opening CD securing Leaflet/
Others
Square box Inclined plane Slide out CD securing Leaflet is
lock match box for with rosette secured with
hinge tabs
Stream lined Friction lock Conventional CD securing CD casing
Curved box hinge Padded elastic design to
cradle stack flat
Grooved box Magnetic lock Conventional CD securing: For leaflet:
to the shape of hinge lift/lock slot in the top
fingers system of casing
Square box Magnetic lock Conventional CD securing Leaflet: Velcro
hinge Padded elastic straps
cradle
Curved box Inclined plane Slide out box CD securing: Leaflet fits
24 lock rosette into slot
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 7.3
Muhammad Ilyas
TRIZ
• Russian language acronym : Teoriya Resheniya
Izobreatatelskikh Zadatch
• Translated into English : The Theory of Inventive
Problem Solving
• Genrich Altshuller : started his research in 1940s
• Objective of TRIZ : discover how inventors invent
2
TRIZ
• Aimed : inventions that solved difficult engineering
problems in novel ways
• Difficult : containing one or more technical contradictions
and a situation where compromise was no longer an
acceptable solution
• Technical Contradiction : a system contains two
important attributes related such that an improvement in
the first attribute degrades the other, e.g. :
• speed vs. precision
• aircraft design a technical contradiction is the inherent trade-off
between improving an aircraft’s crashworthiness by increasing the
fuselage wall thickness and minimizing its weight
3
TRIZ
Strategies for generating an innovative solution to a design
problem
• Increase the ideality of a product or system
• Ideality : the ratio of the useful effects of a system to its harmful
effects
• Identify the product’s place in its evolution to ideality and
force the next step
• Identify key physical or technological contradictions in
the product and revise the design to overcome them using
inventive principles
• Model a product or system using substance-field (Su-Field)
analysis and apply candidate modifications
4
5
6
TRIZ – Commonly used Principles
• Principle 1 : Segmentation
• Divide an object into independent parts
• Replace mainframe computer with personal computers
• Replace a large truck with a truck and trailer
• Use a work breakdown structure for a large project
• Principle 2 : Extraction
• Separate an interfering part or property from an object, or single out
the only necessary part (or property) of an object
• Locate a noisy compressor outside the building where the air is used
• Use the sound of a barking dog, without the dog, as a burglar alarm
7
TRIZ – Commonly used Principles
8
TRIZ – Commonly used Principles
9
TRIZ Process – Step by Step
10
TRIZ Process – Example
A metal pipe pneumatically transports plastic pellets. A change in the
process requires that metal powder now be used with the pipe instead of
plastic. The metal must also be delivered to the station at the end of the
transport pipe at a higher rate of speed. Changes in the transport system
must be done without requiring significant cost increases and suspending
the plant operation. The hard metal powder causes erosion of the inside
of the pipe at the elbow where the metal particles turn 90°
11
TRIZ Process – Example
12
13
TRIZ Process – Example
15
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 8.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Evaluation
2
Concept Evaluation
3
Concept Evaluation
4
Methods for Concept Evaluation
5
Pugh’s Concept Selection Method
6
Pugh’s Concept Selection Method
Steps:
1. Choose the criteria by which the concepts will be evaluated
(e.g. QFD, or ask the group members to write some criteria
for evaluation)
2. Formulate the decision matrix : the criteria and the concepts
are written in rows and column
3. Clarify the design concepts : all the team members should
have a common understanding about each concept
4. Choose the datum concept : one concept is selected by the
team as a reference
Steps :
5. Run the matrix : do comparative evaluation. If the concept is
Better give it (+), if Worse (–), for Same (S)
6. Evaluate the ratings : the sum of (+), (–) and (S) is determined for
each concept. Reject the concept with high (–)
SUM of + 3 2
SUM of – 2 1
8
Pugh’s Concept Selection Method
• e.g. : CD Casing – Evaluation / Comparison of 5 concepts against the
standard CD casing using Pugh’s method
9
Pugh’s Concept Selection Method
• e.g. : CD Casing – Evaluation / Comparison of 5 concepts against the
standard CD casing using Pugh’s method
10
Weighted Decision Matrix Method
In this method, the concepts are evaluated by ranking the design
criteria with weighted factors
12
Weighted Decision Matrix Method
Steps:
1. Identify the Design Selection
Criteria :
A. Material Cost
B. Manufacturing Cost
C. Repair Cost
D. Durability
E. Reliability
F. Time to produce
13
Weighted Decision Matrix Method
Steps :
2. Determine the weighting factor for each criteria:
• A good way to proceed is to construct the hierarchical objective tree
Note: 0.6+0.4 = 1
Note: 0.3+0.5+0.2 = 1
Note: 0.6+0.3+0.1 = 1
14
Weighted Decision Matrix Method
Steps :
2. Determine the weighting factor for each criteria:
• A good way to proceed is to construct the hierarchical objective tree
15
Weighted Decision Matrix Method
Steps :
3. Create the Weighted Decision Matrix
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Evaluation
2
Methods for Concept Evaluation
3
Methods for Concept Evaluation
4
Methods for Concept Evaluation
Evaluation Based on Measurement Scales
• Measurement : Rating a design parameter among several alternative
designs
• There are different scales which can be used for comparing various
design concepts :
• Nominal scale:
• Not very quantitative method
• Parameters are compared such that we identify the things /
parameters as “thick or thin,” “red or black” or “yes or no”
• Ordinal scale:
• Items are compared such that we say item A is better than item B
or item D is worse than item C
• However, this scale does not say that how much better or how
much worse
• e.g. : recall Pugh’s chart (plus, minus or same)
5
Methods for Concept Evaluation
• Ordinal scale (…contd.)
• Pairwise comparison : it is one of the ways an ordinal scale is used
Consider the case where there are five design alternatives : A, B, C, D
and E
In comparing A to B we consider A to be more important, and give it
a1
In comparing A to C we feel C ranks higher, and a 0 is recorded in the
A line and a 1 on the C line
This way, the table is completed
Comparison of A against B, C, D, E
This shows A is
better than B, but
worse than C
6
Methods for Concept Evaluation
7
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• One of the concept evaluation methods developed by Saaty
• AHP is well suited for evaluation problems whose objectives have a
hierarchical structure
Car CAM
design
8
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
9
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Identify the Design Criteria (e.g. cost, manufacturing process, time to
market etc.):
• Prepare the square matrix
• i.e. pair wise comparison
Material cost
Manufacturing cost
Reparability
Durability
Reliability
Time to produce
10
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• put 1 in the diagonal of the matrix (why?)
Material cost 1
Manufacturing cost 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
11
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• next we compare the items of the design criteria
• we take help from Saaty’s fundamental scale for pairwise comparison
12
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
e.g. compare mat cost with mfg cost, reparability, durability etc.
Material cost 1
Manufacturing cost 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
13
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• next we compare the items of the design criteria
• Suppose we compare the mfg cost with mat cost and suppose we say that
mfg cost has strong importance than mat cost
• That will mean that it has a score of 5 compare to 1 (Saaty’s table)
• Alternatively, mat cost will have a score of 1/5 compare to 1 of mfg cost
Manufacturing cost 5 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
14
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
Manufacturing cost 5 1
Reparability 1
Durability 1
Reliability 1
Time to produce 1
Mat cost Vs Mfg cost: mat cost less strongly imp than mfg cost (i.e., mfg cost is strongly imp)
Mat cost Vs Reparability: mat cost is moderately imp than reparability
Mat cost Vs Durability: mat cost is not moderately imp than Durability (i.e., Durability is imp)
15
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• By this way, we complete the rest of the square matrix (for scores of 1,3,7
see Saaty’s table)
Manufacturing cost 5 1 7 3 3 7
Durability 5 1/3 5 1 3 7
16
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• Next we sum up all the scores
• Criteria Comparison Matrix [C] looks like :
Manufacturing cost 5 1 7 3 3 7
Durability 5 1/3 5 1 3 7
17
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• Next we normalize the entries in each cell by dividing by the total
for each column
Reparability 1/3
0.33/11.8=0.028 1/7 1 1/5 1/3 5
Durability 5/11.8 = 5
0.423 1/3 5 1 3 7
Reliability 1/3
0.33/11.8=0.028 1/3 3 1/3 1 7
18
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• By this way we complete all the table
19
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Determine the weighting factors for each design criteria
• We calculate the sum of each row
• Divide it by total no. of design criteria (6 in this case) that will give the
average – which is the weight factor (W.F) for each design criteria!
• Normalized Criteria Comparison Matrix [Norm C] looks like :
Material cost 0.085 0.093 0.156 0.041 0.286 0.206 0.867 0.143
Manufacturing cost 0.424 0.467 0.364 0.616 0.286 0.206 2.363 0.393
Reparability 0.028 0.065 0.052 0.041 0.031 0.147 0.364 0.061
Durability 0.424 0.154 0.260 0.205 0.286 0.206 1.535 0.256
Reliability 0.028 0.154 0.156 0.068 0.095 0.206 0.707 0.118
Time to produce 0.012 0.065 0.010 0.029 0.013 0.029 0.158 0.027
Muhammad Ilyas
Concept Evaluation
2
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
AHP Process for Determining Criteria Weights
1. Complete Criteria Comparison Matrix [C] using 1-9 ratings
2. Normalize the [C] matrix to give [NormC]
3. Average row values. This is the Criteria Weights vector {W}
4. Perform a consistency check on [C]
1. Weighted Sum Vector {Ws} = [C]{W}
2. Calculate Consistency Vector, {Cons} = {Ws} / {W}
3. Estimate, λ as average of values in {Cons}
4. Evaluate Consistence Index, CI = (λ – n) / (n – 1)
5. Calculate Consistency ratio, CR = CI / RI
6. If CR < 0.1, {W} is considered valid, otherwise adjust [C] entries and
repeat
Note: RI values, given in the textbook, are CI values for randomly generated versions of [C]
3
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• Consistency Check Process
5
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
Determining Ratings for Design Alternatives with Respect to
a Criterion
1. Complete Criteria Comparison Matrix [C] using 1-9 ratings
7
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
4. Perform consistency check on [C]
8
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
9
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
10
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
• The decision matrix for the previous problem (crane hook design)
using EXPERT CHOICE 9.0 is the following
11
Exercise (Concept Generation & Evaluation)
Energy flow
Human force Human force
to open Trash-can to close
capable to open
Material flow
and close, to
Trash IN Trash Store
store trash,
absorb odor
Overall function
12
Exercise (Concept Generation & Evaluation)
• Sub functions / write in logical order
• Review / refine the sub functions
Resistance to
Store Trash denting or
Tipping (cap) breaking
Resistance
Tight Lid
Contain
Trash
Control Odor
Absorb Odor
13
Exercise
In search for more environmentally friendly design, paper
cups have replaced Styrofoam cups in some fast food
restaurants. These cups are not as good insulators, and the
paper cups often get too hot for the hands. A design team in
search of a better disposable coffee/tea cup. The designs to
be evaluated are:
1. The current paper cup
2. A standard Styrofoam cup
3. Injection molded cup with a handle
4. A double wall plastic cup
5. A paper cup with pull-out handle
6. A paper cup with a cellular wall
14
Exercise
15
Embodiment Design
16
Embodiment Design
• From the study of the previous chapter, “A single concept from many
alternatives, has been developed and evaluated”
• After conceptual design stage, at this point “Feasibility Design Review”
is usually held to determine whether the resources should be
committed to develop the design further
It is the stage where design concept is invested with physical form i.e. we
put “Meet on the bones”
• The embodiment process is the bridge between the conceptual stage of
the design process and the detail design stage
• A more detailed analysis of the selected concepts is undertaken in the
embodiment stage of the design process
17
Embodiment Design (ED)
18
Embodiment Design
Conceptual Product
Design Design
19
Embodiment Design
Product Architecture
Configuration Design
Parametric Design
20
Product Architecture
• Product Architecture (PA) is the arrangement of the physical
elements of a product to carry out its required functions
• A portion of product architecture begins to emerge even during the
conceptual design phase
• In that stage we can see things like:
• Diagrams of functions
• Rough sketches of concepts
• Identifying the fundamental and incidental interactions
• Sometimes a proof model of the concept
21
Product Architecture
22
Product Architecture
23
Product Architecture
Modular
Integral
24
Product Architecture
Types of product architecture
• Modular :
• In this case the major chunks implement only one or a few functions and
the interactions between chunks are well defined (e.g. is computer, printer,
scanner etc.)
• Modular design is easier to evolve / change over time, to adapt it to the
needs of different customers, to replace components as they wear out or are
used up, to reuse the product at the end of the life by manufacturer
• So concept of component standardization employs
• e.g. Rechargeable Battery used in many electrical hand held tools etc.
25
Product Architecture
26
Product Architecture
Types of product Architecture
• Integral :
• Components perform multiple functions
(products designed with high performance as
a paramount attribute)
• Integral designs are adopted when
constraints of weight, space or cost are
considered
• Where a single physical unit implements
multiple functions (e.g. : Car Engine)
Concluding
Products are rarely strictly modular or integral, but
they usually are a mixture of standard modules
and customized components
27
Product Architecture
Interfaces between Modules
• Interfaces should be designed so as to be as simple and stable as
possible
• The interfaces should be standard interfaces, which are well
understood by designers and part suppliers should be used, if
possible
• Examples are for PCs, as these can be customized module-by-
module, from parts supplied by many different suppliers.
28
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 9.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Embodiment Design
2
Steps for Product Architecture
• Some major steps for the development of Product
Architecture:
4
Steps for Product Architecture
• Other elements are described as functional elements that have not
been reduced to physical concepts or components like “provide inert
atmosphere” or “heat part surface”.
• Judgment should be used in deciding what level of details to show
on the schematic.
• Generally no more than 30 elements should be used to establish the
initial product architecture.
5
Steps for Product Architecture
Flow of energy
Flow of
material
Flow of signals
6
Steps for Product Architecture
2. Cluster the elements
Purpose of this step is to arrive at an
arrangement of chunks by assigning each
design element to a chunk
8
Steps for Product Architecture
Design elements of a
laser-fusing rapid
prototyping machine are
clustered into modules
9
Steps for Product Architecture
3. Create a Rough Geometric Layout
• Helps identify geometrical, thermal or
electrical interfaces between elements
and chunks Create a schematic diagram of the product
10
Steps for Product Architecture
11
Steps for Product Architecture
Geometric layout of the laser table, process chamber, and powder engine
modules (This is a vertical front view of the arrangement)
The control cabinet would be to the right side and the atmospheric control unit
would be behind
12
Steps for Product Architecture
13
Steps for Product Architecture
Types of interactions
• Fundamental interaction (See inert atmospheric protection)
• Given by lines on the schematic diagram between chunks
• Usually well understood and carefully designed for
• Incidental interactions
• Arise from geometric arrangement of the chunks or as a result
of the physical implementation of the functional elements
• Although these are not represented on the schematic diagram,
they should be identified by the team and allowed for in the
design
• For small number of interacting chunks this can be done
graphically by listing the chunks and showing the interactions
as arrows between each chunk
14
Embodiment Design
• Embodiment Design is a design stage after the design
concept has been studied and considered as feasible for
further development
• There are three stages of Embodiment design:
•Product Architecture
•Configuration Design
•Parametric Design
15
Product Architecture
• Product Architecture (PA) is the arrangement of the
physical elements of a product to carry out its required
functions
18
Product Architecture for Gas Oven
Inner We can make chunks of these parts…
Portion
Outer
Portion
Front Control
Portion
Panel
Control Panel
20
Configuration Design
Embodiment Design
• Product Architecture
• Configuration Design
• Parametric Design
21
Configuration Design
Embodiment Design
• Product Architecture
• Configuration Design
• Parametric Design
• Configuration Design
• Shape and general dimensions of the components are established
(e.g. in the case of a requirement of an agitator, we finalize the
shape, size of motor etc.)
• Exact dimensions are established in parametric design stage
22
Configuration Design
Embodiment Design
• Product Architecture
components?
parts? • Configuration Design
assembly?
• Parametric Design
23
Configuration Design
DEFINITIONS:
• Component:
This term is used in generic sense to include special purpose parts,
standard parts and standard assemblies or modules (like a motor, fan,
lifting device for a heavy equipment etc.)
• Part:
It is a designed object that has no assembly operations in its
manufacture (e.g. the cover of phone, lower portion of a connecting rod,
support of bush bearing etc.)
• Standard part:
It has a generic function and is manufactured routinely without regard
to a particular product (bolts, nuts, washers, rivets, I-beams etc.)
24
Configuration Design
• Subassembly:
An assembly that is included within another assembly or
subassembly
25
Configuration Design
26
Steps for Configuration Design
1. Review PDS and any specification developed for the
particular subassembly to which the component belongs
2. Establish the spatial / geometrical constraints that
pertain to the product or the subassembly being designed
(Most of these have been set by the product architecture)
Study PDS
Establish constraints
27
Steps for Configuration Design
28
Steps for Configuration Design
3. Create and refine the interferences or connections
between components (like the size of key and keyway for
locking purpose)
• Much design efforts occur at the connections between components
4. In carrying out design, it is important to maintain
functional independence in the design of an assembly or a
component
• This means that changing a critical dimension should effect only a
single function
Study PDS
Establish constraints
Create interferences
Maintain functional
independence
29
Steps for Configuration Design
• Before spending much time on design, answer the
following questions:
• Can the part be eliminated or combined with another part?
• Studies of DFA (design for assembly) show that it is almost
always less costly to make and assemble fewer, more complex
parts than it is to design with a higher part count
• Can a standard part or module be used?
• Because a standard part is generally less costly than a special
purpose part
Study PDS
Establish constraints
Create interferences
Maintain functional
independence
30
Steps for Configuration Design
31
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Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 9.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Steps for Configuration Design
2
Steps for Configuration Design
3D Computer Model
4
Example: Configuration Design
• Example: Images that come to a designer’s mind when
making a design of a bolted connection
5
Generating Alternative Configurations
• Example: Images that come to a designer’s mind when
making a design of a bolted connection
Generally the first attempt at a configuration design does not yield the
best that one can do,
6
Generating Alternative Configurations
7
Generating Alternative Configurations
8
Generating Alternative Configurations
9
Steps for Configuration Design
• The final part configuration must satisfy a large number of
considerations
• Some typical design functions and other critical design issues:
10
Steps for Configuration Design
• The final part configuration must satisfy a large number of
considerations as shown…
11
Steps for Configuration Design
• The final part configuration must satisfy a large number of
considerations as shown…
12
Steps for Configuration Design
• The final part configuration must satisfy a large number of
considerations as shown…
13
Steps for Configuration Design
14
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Starting from base
15
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Base with Burner
16
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Assembling inner cover
17
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Adding burner cover
18
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Rotary Mechanism
19
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Rotary Mechanism
20
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Rotary Mechanism
21
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• Assembling rotary mechanism & outer cover
22
Configuration Design for Gas Oven
• A complete Gas Oven
23
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Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 10.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Embodiment Design
Embodiment Design
• Product Architecture
• Configuration Design
• Parametric Design
2
Parametric Design
Parametric Design
• The emphasis of parametric design is to maximize quality and
performance and minimize cost
• Designing to maximize performance and quality involves the
following design procedures:
1. Failure Mode and Evaluation Analysis (FMEA)
2. Design for Reliability
3. Robust design
4. Tolerances
3
Parametric Design
Geometric Tolerances
• Engineering drawing of a product conveys many details
• Some detail is in the form of tolerances
• There are 4 basic types of geometric tolerances:
1. Size tolerance
2. Location tolerance
3. Form tolerance
4. Orientation tolerance
4
Parametric Design
Geometric Tolerances
• Size Tolerance: It controls the length and/or diameter of the part as
shown
It shows that how much variation is allowed in the sizes of lengths or diameters
5
Parametric Design
Geometric Tolerances
• Location Tolerance: It controls the position of the feature
• There are 2 types of location tolerance
• Position
• Concentricity
6
Parametric Design
Geometric Tolerances
• Form Tolerance: It controls the flatness, straightness etc.
• Orientation Tolerance: It controls the parallelism, perpendicularity,
angularity etc.
7
Parametric Design
8
Parametric Design
straightness
Orientation Tolerance
9
Parametric Design
Example
10
Parametric Design
0.002
11
Parametric Design
Tolerance on size
12
Reading Assignment
13
Exercise
Hook’s Eye
Ladle Hook
14
Exercise
15
Exercise
Problem Statement:
Design a hook for lifting and transporting hot-metal ladles
with a maximum weight of 150 kN. The hook should be
compatible with the details given in the drawing (sketch). The
hook should receive a 200-mm diameter pin for attaching to
the crane.
16
Exercise
Problem Analysis
• We first need to identify the critical regions
• There are three critical stress regions in the hook:
• the curved portion
• the eye portion
• With a little reasoning, we can say that the most critical
part would be the curved portion
17
Exercise
Problem Analysis
• The type of stresses at the curved portion could be:
• Tensile Stress
• Bending Stress
• From this analysis, the following could be established:
• thickness of the hook (e.g. from analysis of the curved portion)
• the width of hook (e.g. from the analysis of the shank portion)
• the details (dia., position) of the eye (from analysis of eye section)
18
Exercise
Material Selection
• The reliability and cost requirement suggests that the structure of
the hook should be obtained from steel plates (as compared to
casting – remember the weighted decision matrix)
• Look into the composition, strength and cost of different carbon
steel and low alloy steel plates, we can reach to material selection
• The following could be the possibility:
• Mild Steel
• Yield strength = 250 MPa
Stress Analysis
• Recommended at this stage
19
Exercise
Manufacturing Method
1. Clear the plate surface
2. Flame cut hook plates to size
3. Grind the flame cut edges
4. Repair (by welding) any gouges or cracking
5. Clamp the plates, drill and ream hole for 20 mm diameter rivets
6. Rivets the plates
20
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 10.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Material Selection
2
Material Selection
• Some of the materials are
• metals
• polymers
• elastomers (also polymers but
with some elasticity)
• ceramics
• glasses
• composites
3
Material Selection
4
Material Selection
Material selection (some FAQs)
Q. What might be the major problems if a wrong material is selected?
A. Part failure, so wastage of time, cost and efforts. Even material
properties can be changed during manufacturing which effect its
efficiency
Q. How are materials selected?
A. Sometimes based on previous experience… ( Is it good or applicable
now a days? If no why? )
The loadings and the design conditions make the contribution to
material selection!
Q. How much is the material cost contribution in manufacturing
process?
A. Sometimes 50~70%.
5
Material Selection
Material selection (Some FAQs)
6
Relation of Material selection to Design
• An incorrectly chosen material can lead to failure of a
component
• e.g., if an application demands high temperature resistance then
only correct material can withstand that
7
Relation of Material selection to Design
• Selection of material is not only based on the performance
( properties ) of material but also on the manufacturing
processing
8
Relation of Material selection to Design
9
Relation of Material selection to Design
• At the embodiment phase of design, the emphasis is on determining
the shape and size of a part using engineering analysis
• At this stage, generally the designer decides on a class of materials and
processes, such as a range of aluminum alloys ( and that whether it should
be wrought or cast )
• The material properties must be known to a greater level of precision, at
this stage
• At the parametric design step the alternatives will have narrowed to a
single material and only a few manufacturing processes
• Here the emphasis will be on deciding on critical tolerances, optimizing for
robust design, and selecting the best manufacturing process using quality
engineering and cost modeling methodologies
10
Relation of Material selection to Design
The journey of a product starts
from customer’s requirement
11
General Criteria for Material Selection
▪ Processing characteristics
• Process of forming the material in the required shape with a minimum of
defects at the least cost
12
General Criteria for Material Selection
▪ Environmental profile
• Predicting the impact of the material throughout its life cycle on the
environment
• Environmental considerations are growing in importance because of
dual pressure of greater consumer awareness and governmental
regulations
▪ Business considerations
• Consideration for both the purchase and process of material cost
• More logical basis is life-cycle cost, which includes cost of replaced
failed parts and the cost of disposing material at the end of its use
13
Performance Characteristics of Materials
▪ Performance or functional requirements of a material are usually
expressed in terms of physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical or
chemical properties
▪ Material properties are linked between the basic structure and
composition of the materials
Structure Service
Materials Materials Performance
• Atomic Bonding Science Engineering • Stress
• Crystal Material • Corrosion
Structure Properties • Temp
• Defect Structure • Radiation
• Microstructure • Vibration
• Macrostructure
14
Performance Characteristics of Materials
15
Performance Characteristics of Materials
• The major characteristics of metals, ceramics and
polymers are given below:
16
Performance Characteristics of Materials
Failure mode vs. Material property
Shear yield
Comp. yield
Elasticity
strength
strength
strength
Mod. of
Yield
Gross yielding
Buckling
17
Performance Characteristics of Materials
Failure mode vs. Material property (Guide for Selection of Material Based on
Possible Failure Modes, Types of Loads, Stresses, and Operating Temperature)
18
Performance Characteristics of Materials
Other factors to select a material are:
▪ Availability
▪ Size limitation and tolerances
▪ Environmental impact
▪ Cost
19
Material Selection - Example
20
Material Selection - Example
Consider the question of materials selection for an
automotive exhaust system
21
Material Selection - Example
The product design specification (PDS) states that it must
provide the following functions:
• Conduct engine exhaust gases away from the engine
• Prevent harmful fumes from entering the car
• Cool the exhaust gases
• Reduce the engine noise
• Reduce the exposure of automobile body parts to exhaust gases
• Affect the engine performance as little as possible
• Help control unwanted exhaust emissions
• Have an acceptably long service life
• Have a reasonable cost, both as original equipment and as a
replacement part
22
Material Selection - Example
• Material Requirements for an Automotive Exhaust
System
• Mechanical property requirements not overly severe
• Suitable rigidity to prevent excessive vibration
• Moderate fatigue resistance
• Good creep resistance in hot environment
• Limiting property:
• Corrosion resistance, especially in the cold end where gases
condense to form corrosive liquids
23
Material Selection - Example
Properties of unique interest:
• The requirements are so special that only a few materials meet them
regardless of cost.
• Pt-base catalysts in catalytic converter
• Special ceramic carrier that supports the
25
Material Selection - Example
Newer materials used:
• With greater emphasis on automotive quality, many producers have
moved to specially developed stainless steels with improved
corrosion and creep properties
• Ferritic 11% Cr alloys are used in the cold end components and 17 to 20%
Cr ferritic alloys and austenitic Cr-Ni alloys in the hot end of the system
26
The Material Selection Process
27
The Material Selection Process
Material selection for a new product:
1. Define the functions that the design must perform.
• Look for stiffness, strength, corrosion etc
2. Define the manufacturing parameters
• such as the number of parts, size and complexity, tolerances, surface
finish etc
3. Compare the needed properties with a large number of materials
property database to select the best one
4. Investigate the candidate material in more detail
• (e.g. based on performance, cost, ease / difficulty of fabriction, availability)
28
The Material Selection Process
Material substitution:
1. Characterize the current material in terms of performance,
manufacturing requirements and cost
2. Determine which characteristics must be improved.
3. Search for alternative materials
4. Compile a short list of the candidate materials
5. Evaluate the results of step 4 and make recommendations for
replacement
29
The Material Selection Process
Steps Involved In Material Selection
1. Analysis of the material requirement
• (Service conditions, Environment)
2. Screening of the candidate material
• (Selection of few promising materials for a specific application)
3. Selection of candidate material
• (Product performance, cost, feasibility, availability)
4. Development of design data
• Experimental determination of material properties to obtain statistically
reliable performance data under specific operating conditions
• Design data properties must be selected in its fabricated state with
confidence of its reliability
• Common design criterion is to minimize cost or weight
30
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 11.1
Muhammad Ilyas
The Material Selection Process
General Steps Involved In Material Selection
1. Analysis of the material requirement
• ( Service conditions, Environment )
2. Screening of the candidate material
• ( Selection of few promising materials for a specific application )
3. Selection of candidate material
• ( Product performance, cost, feasibility, availability )
4. Development of design data
• Experimental determination of material properties to obtain statistically
reliable performance data under specific operating conditions
• Design data properties must be selected in its fabricated state with
confidence of its reliability
• Common design criterion is to minimize cost or weight
2
Material Selection in Design Stages
3
The Material Selection Process
• Material Selection Charts by Ashby
Ashby has created useful material
charts for comparing large number
of materials at the concept design
stage metals
These charts are based on a large foams
computerized material property polymers
database
4
The Material Selection Process
How to use Material Selection Charts by Ashby
Depending on
geometry and the
type of loading,
lines of different
slope apply.
Start from lower
right-hand corner
and move it
towards upper left-
hand corner
5
The Material Selection Process
How to use Material Selection Charts by Ashby
6
The Material Selection Process
How to use Material Selection Charts by Ashby
7
The Material Selection Process
How to use Material Selection Charts by Ashby
8
The Material Selection Process
How to use Material Selection Charts by Ashby
9
The Material Selection Process
Tentative
Material Selection in choice of
Embodiment Design: materials
11
Source of Information on Material Properties
12
Source of Information on Material Properties
Sources of Information on Material Properties
• At Embodiment Design stage:
13
Source of Information on Material Properties
Source of Information on Material Properties
• At Embodiment Design stage:
14
Source of Information on Material Properties
15
Economics of Materials
Economics of Materials
• Ultimately the material-process decision on a particular design will
come down to a trade-off between performance and cost
• Examples where performance dominates?
• Aerospace
• Defense
• NPPs
• Examples where cost dominates?
• Household appliances
• Consumer electronics
16
Economics of Materials
Economics of Materials
• Products with major requirements – Performance
• Products with major requirements – Cost
• In products with major emphasis on cost, the manufacturer does not have
to provide the highest level of performance that is technically feasible
• Rather, the manufacturer must provide a value-to-cost ratio that is no
worse, and preferably better, than the competitors
17
Methods of Materials Selection
18
Methods of Materials Selection
• Expert system
• Value analysis
• Failure analysis
• Benefit cost analysis
19
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 11.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Methods of Materials Selection
2
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection with computer aided database:
• Example: www.matweb.com
3
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection with computer aided database:
• Example: www.matweb.com
4
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection with computer aided database:
• Example: www.matweb.com
Materials composition
5
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection with computer aided database:
• Example: www.matweb.com
Materials properties
6
Methods of Materials Selection
7
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection Method using Performance Indices:
• Example: Consider the tubular frame of a bicycle
• Design bicycle frame : light, strong tubular beam and fixed outer
diameter ( Strength )
8
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection Method using Performance Indices:
• Example: Consider the tubular frame of a bicycle
Function:
To carry load load will apply bending
moment
Objective:
Design the frame with minimum mass
Constraints:
Tube must be sufficiently strong against failure due to fatigue, buckling,
fracture and bending
Constant cross section
10
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection Method using Performance Indices:
• Example: Consider the tubular frame of a bicycle
12
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection Method using Performance Indices:
13
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection Method using Performance Indices:
Plate in bending
Beam in bending
Bar in tension
14
Methods of Materials Selection
Selection Method using Performance Indices:
15
Methods of Materials Selection
16
Methods of Materials Selection
Practice Assignment
• Solve Q 8.11
17
Methods of Materials Selection
• Expert system
• Value analysis
• Failure analysis
• Benefit cost analysis
18
Decision Matrices
• In many design applications, it is necessary that a selected material
satisfy more than one performance requirement (e.g. fatigue
strength, tensile strength, toughness)
• Thus a compromise is needed in materials selection (e.g. higher
tensile strength materials have low fracture toughness)
Fitting curves of
tensile and fatigue
strengths for 4340
steel
Ref. J.C. Pang et al, journal of
material science and engineering
19
Decision Matrices
20
Decision Matrices
The material selection requirements are divided into three
groups:
Material
selection
requirement
Non-
Go/no-Go Discriminating
discriminating
Parameters parameters
parameters
21
Decision Matrices
22
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 11.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Pugh Selection Method
Example:
• Use the Pugh decision method to select a replacement material
for a helical steel spring in a wind-up toy train. The alternatives
to the currently used ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire
are the same material in a different design geometry, ASTM
A228 music spring-quality steel wire, and ASTM A229 class I
steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
2
Pugh Selection Method
Example:
• Use the Pugh decision method to select a replacement material
for a helical steel spring in a wind-up toy train. The alternatives
to the currently used ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire
are the same material in a different design geometry, ASTM
A228 music spring-quality steel wire, and ASTM A229 class I
steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
• Notes:
• In the decision matrix, if an alternative is judged better than the
datum, it is given a +, if it is poorer it gets a –, and if it is about the
same it is awarded an S, for “same.”
• The +, –, and S responses are then totaled
3
Pugh Selection Method
Example:
• Use the Pugh decision method to select a replacement material for a helical
steel spring in a wind-up toy train. The alternatives to the currently used
ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire are the same material in a
different design geometry, ASTM A228 music spring-quality steel wire, and
ASTM A229 class I steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
Solution
• Materials:
• Alternative 1: ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire (Datum Material)
• Alternative 2: ASTM A227 class I hard-drawn steel wire in different design
geometry
• Alternative 3: ASTM A228 music spring-quality steel wire
• Alternative 4: ASTM A229 class I steel wire, quenched and oil tempered
4
Pugh Selection Method
5
Pugh Selection Method
6
Pugh Selection Method
Example – Conclusion:
• The music spring-quality steel wire (6+,1S,1-) and the oil-
tempered steel wire (4+,2S,2-) are superior to the original
material selection
• The music wire is selected because it ranks highest in
advantages over the current material, especially with regard to
manufacturing cost
7
Weighted Property Index
8
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index
• For the properties whose high values are desirable (e.g., strength,
stress, durability, reliability), the scale factor is formulated as
• For the properties whose low values are desirable (e.g., density,
corrosion, cost etc.), the scale factor is formulated as:
9
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index
• The weighted property index is
ii
Where
i is summed over all the properties (criteria) and
i is the weighting factor for the ith property
10
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index
• For properties that are not readily expressed in numerical values
(like weldability and wear),
• some kind of rating (like rating from 1-5) is required
11
Weighted Property Index
• Processing of material
• Safety/Environment
• Cost of material
• Performance of material
• High strength
• Corrosion resistant
12
Weighted Property Index
13
Weighted Property Index
14
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index
• Properties of materials for gas oven
15
Weighted Property Index
3/15=0.2
16
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index (WPI)
• WPI chart for selection of material for inner body of a gas oven
S: satisfactory, U: unsatisfactory
Lowest val ue under considerat ion For Heat Capacity,
Scaled Property 100 Density, Cost
Numerical value of property
For Yield Strength,
Numerical Value of Property Melting Temperature,
Scaled Property 100
Largest va lue under considerat ion Coeff. of thermal
expansion
γ = (0.2*100)+(0.2*100)+(0.267*93.4)+(0.2*100)+(0.067*100)+(0.067*50.72) = 95.04
17
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index (WPI)
• WPI chart for selection of material for inner body of a gas oven
S: satisfactory, U: unsatisfactory
γ = (0.2*100)+(0.2*100)+(0.267*93.4)+(0.2*100)+(0.067*100)+(0.067*50.72) = 95.04
The weighted property index shows that stainless steel has higher rating
It also has S grading for Availability and Corrosion Resistance
So stainless steel will be selected!
18
Weighted Property Index
Weighted Property Index
• Materials for other parts
• Keeping availability, performance and cost in view, following materials
are selected for various parts of gas oven
19
Value Analysis
Value Analysis
• It is a team problem solving process to optimize the value of the
product for the customer
• Involves breaking a product down into its component / parts
• Determination of the value of these design elements relative to the
importance of the function which they may provide
• On these basis it is sometimes called as Functional Cost Analysis
• It is an organized system of techniques for identifying and removing
unnecessary cost without compromising the quality and reliability of
the design
20
Value Analysis
21
Value Analysis
22
Value Analysis
23
Value Analysis
Information
Speculation
Analysis
Development
Presentation
and follow-up
24
Materials in Design
Materials in Design
• As we discussed previously, there are many failure modes
• Designer performs Failure Mode Evaluation and selects the material
accordingly
• Following are some design categories considering failure modes and
other requirements:
• Design for Brittle Fracture
• Design for Fatigue Failure
• Design for Corrosion Resistance
• Design for Stiffness
• Design for Creep (Time dependent)
• Design with Plastics
25
Design for Brittle Fracture
26
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 12.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Materials in Design
Materials in Design
• As we discussed previously, there are many failure modes
• Designer performs Failure Mode evaluation and selects the material
accordingly
• Following are some design categories considering failure modes and
other requirements:
• Design for Brittle Fracture
• Design for Fatigue Failure
• Design for Corrosion Resistance
• Design for Stiffness
• Design for Creep (Time dependent)
• Design with Plastics
2
Design for Brittle Fracture
3
Design for Brittle Fracture
Design for Brittle Fracture
• Idea developed by Griffith
• Worked with brittle materials like glass
• Griffith showed that fracture strength is inversely
proportional to square root of crack length i.e.
K a GE
• K= Stress Intensity factor
K 3
x cos 2 1 sin 2 sin 5
2r
K 3
y cos 2 1 sin 2 sin 2
2r
K 3
xy sin cos cos
2r 2 2 2
5
Design for Brittle Fracture
Design for Brittle Fracture
• KIc is the fracture toughness of a material
• The allowable stress of a material is dependent on KIc value
• It can be seen that for the same crack size, the higher the KIc value, the
higher will be the allowable stresses
Material 1
Material 2
6
Design for Brittle Fracture
Example
(i)
7
Design for Brittle Fracture
Example
8
Design for Brittle Fracture
Example
Critical speed vs. crack length is plotted
in Fig. by using material parameters of
a high-strength 4340 steel.
It is important to note that even in this
relatively simple example, the use of
fracture mechanics lends important
realism to the calculation.
If a = 0.1 in and c/b = 2, the critical
speed, (from Fig shown), is 4000 rpm.
9
Design for Brittle Fracture
Example
In the conventional design approach,
which ignores the presence of a crack,
Nc is determined by using σmax in
equation 8.21 equal to the ultimate
tensile strength.
10
Design for Brittle Fracture
Practice Assignment
Hints:
• Allowable stress = σy / N, where N = factor of safety
• Maximum stress = Hoop Stress = Pd/t
• Critical flaw size = acrit =1/π * [KIc / σy]2
• 2acrit = t
11
Design for Corrosion Resistance
12
Design for Corrosion Resistance
There are 8 forms of corrosion:
1. Uniform attack:
• It is the most common form of corrosion
• It attacks the area chemically and uniformly over the
entire exposed surface area
• Thickness is reduced uniformly
2. Galvanic corrosion:
• When two dissimilar metals are immersed in corrosive
or conductive solution / environment
• The potential difference causes corrosion
• The less resistant (anodic) metal is corroded relative to
the cathodic metals
Less tendency
to corrosion
2. Galvanic Corrosion
In the table shown, for any two metals or
alloys in contact in seawater, the metal that is
more anodic (lower in the series) will be
corroded
More tendency
to corrosion
16
Design for Corrosion Resistance
2. Galvanic Corrosion
• To minimize galvanic corrosion, use pairs of metals that are close together
in the galvanic series
• Small anode metal should not be connected to larger surface of more noble
metal
• If two metals are in contact they should be insulated form each other
Do not coat the anodic surface to protect it, because most coatings are susceptible to pinholes
17
Design for Corrosion Resistance
3. Crevice Corrosion:
• localized corrosion that occurs within crevices
• This happens at holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints and crevices under bolts
and rivets heads
Pitting Corrosion
19
Design for Corrosion Resistance
5. Inter-Granular Corrosion:
• localized attack along the grain boundaries with only slight attack of the
grain faces is called IGC
• It is common in austenitic stainless steel that has been sensitized by
heating to the range 950 to 1450°F
• It can occur either during heat treatment for stress relief or during welding
• When it occurs at elevated temperature during welding, it is called as weld decay
20
Design for Corrosion Resistance
6. Selective leaching:
• The removal of one element from a solid-solution alloy by corrosion process
is called selective leaching
• The most common example of it is selective removal of zinc form brass
(dezincification)
• Aluminum, iron, cobalt, and chromium also can be removed
• The alloy is left porous in leaching
Dezincification—zinc oxide
residue, blocking the fitting
21
Design for Corrosion Resistance
7. Erosion-Corrosion:
• Failing at an accelerated rate is caused by relative movement between a
corrosive fluid and a metal surface
• Fluid velocity is high, and because of suspended solid particles, wear and
abrasion may be involved
• A special case is “cavitation” or “fretting”.
22 Erosion-corrosion
Design for Corrosion Resistance
8. Stress Corrosion Cracking:
• cracking caused by the simultaneous action of a tensile stress and a specific
corrosive medium is called SCC
• examples are the aluminum alloy and seawater, copper alloy and ammonia,
mild steel and caustic soda etc.
Avoid selecting such alloys
Keep the stress level low
23
Stress corrosion cracking
Design for Corrosion Resistance
General Precautions:
• Tanks and containers should be
designed for easy draining and
cleaning
• Weld rather than riveting if possible
• Design to exclude air
• no oxygen, no corrosion ✓
• Use materials which are more resistant
to acids
• For example titanium and stainless steel
24
Design with Plastics
Design with Plastics
• Many mechanical components are made of plastics
• A design engineer should know the properties of plastics
• Plastics are used because
• They are lighter
• Have attractive appearance
• Free from corrosion
• Ease of manufacturing
25
Design with Plastics
Metals vs Polymers
• With respect to mechanical properties,
• Steel has about 100 times the Young’s modulus of a polymer
• Steel has about 10 times the yield strength compared to plastics
• Strength properties of polymers are time dependent at or near room
temperature (so prediction of allowable strength is difficult)
26
Design with Plastics
Properties of Plastics:
• The majority of plastics are synthetic materials
• Plastics are made up of tens of thousands of small molecular units
(mers) that are polymerized into long-chain macromolecules, hence
the scientific term polymers
• The polymer configuration may be
• Coiled
• Cross-linked
• Crystalline
27
Design with Plastics
Properties of Plastics:
• Polymers are divided into two general classes:
1. Thermoplastics (TP)
2. Thermosets (TS)
• TP is heated to make it viscous and pliable to get the useful shape
• Can be reshaped by heating again
• TS is heated once to retain the required shape by producing cross-
linked bonding structure
• Can not be reshaped by heating
28
Design with Plastics
Some other polymers are:
• Copolymers
• Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN)
• Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
29
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 12.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Material Processing
Material Processing
• Material processing is also called Manufacturing/Production
Engineering
• Manufacturing is divided into:
• Process Engineering
• Tool Engineering (tools, jigs, fixtures, gauges)
• Work Standards
• Plant Engineering (Space, Transportation, Storage)
• Administration and Control
2
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
A simple hierarchical classification of business and
industrial setup is given below
3
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
A simple hierarchical classification of business and
industrial setup is given below
4
Classes of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes may be divided into the following
eight categories:
1. Solidification: Casting (low viscosity)
2. Polymer processing (molding) : Injection molding, thermoforming
3. Deformation (Plastic deformation) : Forging, Rolling, Extrusion,
Sheet metal forming
4. Machining (Material removal with tool) : Turning, Milling,
Grinding, polishing, lapping
5
Classes of Manufacturing Processes
5. Powder processing (Consolidation of particles of metals) : Sintering,
hot compression
6. Joining Processing: Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion, riveting,
bolting
7. Heat Treatment/surface treatment: (Improvement of Mechanical
Properties) Carburizing and Nitriding, Electroplating etc.
8. Assembly Processes: usually the final step in manufacturing, a
number of parts are brought together and combined into a
subassembly or finished product
6
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
7
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Cost of Manufacture:
• A basic expression for the unit cost of a part C is:
Cc C L
C Cm • ...
n n
where,
• Cm = Material cost per unit
• Cc = Capital cost of plant, machinery, tooling
• n = Annual number of parts
• CL = Labor cost / unit time
• n. = Number of parts produced per unit time
8
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Quantity of parts:
• Two important factors in the choice of manufacturing processes are:
• the total number of parts to be produced
• the rate of production, units per time
• All manufacturing processes have a minimum number of pieces that
must be made to justify its use.
• This concept leads to the economical lot size
• Some processes are inherently high-volume processes, like an
automatic screw making machine, the setup time is long relative to
the time needed to produce a single part
• Others, like the hand layup of a fiberglass plastic boat, are low-
volume processes
• Here the setup time is minimal but the time to make a part is much
longer
9
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Hand lay-up of fiberglass (few selected steps)
http://dpdillon.com/cozy/tipstechniques/howtolayup/index.html
10
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Example (Quantity of parts):
11
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Example (Quantity of parts):
13
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Example (Quantity of parts):
450,000/1000 = 450+1=451
14
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Example (Quantity of parts):
15
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Complexity:
• It refers to shape, size, type and number of features (2-D, 3-D),
symmetric, non-symmetric
• Manufacturing processes vary in their limitations due to complexity
of shapes
• Shapes may be symmetrical or non-symmetrical
• Shapes can be classified according to increasing complexity
• Accordingly, different manufacturing processes vary in their
limitations on producing complex shapes
16
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Complexity:
• Relationship between complexity factor and size of different
manufacturing processes given by Ashby
19
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Complexity:
• Relationship between complexity factor and size of different
manufacturing processes given by Ashby
20
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Complexity:
• Some processes are inherently small-scale, while others like casting,
machining and forging can produce parts with a large range of sizes
• Fabrication methods involving welding and bolting produce large
engineering structures like bridges and buildings
• The complexity of a part will determine whether a process is a
candidate to make that part
• e.g. many processes will not allow the manufacture of parts with undercuts
21
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Materials:
• Materials place certain restrictions in the available manufacturing
processes.
• The factors are
• Melting temperature
• Deformation
• Ductility
• Brittleness
• Weldability
22
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Materials:
Key:
23
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Materials:
24
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Materials:
25
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Quality of
part
Surface Dimensional
No defects
finish accuracy
26
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Quality of the part:
• Freedom from defects
• Internal defects like voids, porosity, cracks or regions of different chemical
composition (segregation)
• External defects are surface defects like surface cracks, rolled-in oxide, extreme
roughness, or surface discoloration or corrosion
27
Porosity
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Quality of the part:
• Surface finish
y1 y2 y3 ...... yn
• It is expressed in µin or in µm Ra
• Surface finish can be calculated as: n
Ra is the arithmetic average based on the 1
absolute value of the deviations from the y y y ..... y
2 2 2 2
2
• Waviness: occurs over a longer distance than the peaks and valleys of roughness
29
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
30
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Dimensional accuracy and tolerances
• Figure shows a general relationship between the surface finish and
tolerance range with a process (tolerance apply to 1 inch dimension
scale)
Approximate values of
surface roughness and
tolerance on dimensions
typically obtained
with different
manufacturing processes
31
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
Dimensional accuracy and tolerances
• Influence of tolerance on processing costs (schematic)
32
Factors Determining Maufac. Process Selection
• the reliability of the expected delivery date for parts made by outside
suppliers
33
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 12.3
Muhammad Ilyas
Design For Manufacture (DFM)
Guidelines
• Minimize the number of parts: Eliminating parts results great saving
• A part is a good candidate for elimination if
• There is no relative motion
• No need for subsequent adjustment between the parts
• No need for materials to be different
2
Design For Manufacture
Guidelines
• Standardize components:
• Using commercially available standard parts minimize the cost and
improve quality
3
Use of catalogues for standard parts
Design For Manufacture
Guidelines
• Use common / similar parts across product lines:
• It is good practice to use parts in more than one product
• Specify the same material, parts, and subassemblies in all products as
much as possible
• This reduces the cost
4
Design For Manufacture
Guidelines
• Design parts to be multifunctional:
• A good way to minimize cost is to design such parts that can fulfill more
than one function
• e.g. a part can serve as a structure as well as a spring
5
Design For Manufacture
Guidelines
• Minimize secondary operations:
• If possible eliminate the secondary manufacturing processes like heat
treatment, polishing, painting etc.
• Use if there is a functional need of it.
6
Design For Manufacture
Some other design rules are:
• Space holes in machined, cast or molded parts
• Avoid generalized statements on drawings like polish this surface or
tool-mark not allowed
• There should be a clear datum surface (datum should not be a point)
• Dimensions should be from one datum surface
• The design should aim for minimum weight having good strength and
stiffness
• Whenever possible, design to use general purpose tooling not special
type i.e. special dies etc.
• Use generous fillets and radii in casting, molds and machining
• Deign the part such that, as many operations as possible can be
performed without repositioning it
7
Design For Assembly (DFA)
8
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for part handling:
• Make the part asymmetric if not symmetric but not poorly
asymmetrical
9
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for part handling:
• Avoid feature that will tangle
• Avoid parts that are slippery, delicate, flexible very small or very
large
10
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for Inserting and Fastening:
• There should be no resistance to the insertion
11
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for Inserting and Fastening:
• Standardize and minimize the parts,
processes and assemblies
12
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for Inserting and Fastening:
• For quick orientation, provide self-locating features
13
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Guidelines for Inserting and Fastening:
• Use the fastener with minimum cost
14
Design For Assembly (DFA)
15
Design For Assembly (DFA)
16
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Alpha Symmetry
• It depends on the angle through which a part must be rotated
about an axis perpendicular to the axis of insertion to repeat its
orientation
Beta Symmetry
• It depends on the angle through which a part must be rotated
about an axis of insertion to repeat its orientation
180̊
17
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Handling time
• Parts that can be grasped with one hand only
Time (seconds)
18
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Handling time
• Parts that can be grasped with two hands
• In such cases, the part is heavy
• Very precise or careful handling is required
• The part is large or flexible
• The part does not possess holding features, thus making one-hand grasp
difficult
Time (seconds)
19
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Handling time
• Part inserted but not secured
Time (seconds)
20
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Handling time
• Part inserted and secured by screws
21
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Assembly Efficiency
Assembly efficiency can be calculated as:
N min t a
Ema
t ma
where:
• Ema = Efficiency of manual assembly
• Nmin = Minimum theoretical parts
• ta = Basic time for assembly = 3 seconds (avg.)
• tma = Estimated time to complete assembly
22
Design For Assembly (DFA)
23
Design For Assembly (DFA)
24
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Minimize the assembly surfaces
• Simplify the design so that fewer surfaces need to be prepared in
processing, and all work on surface is complete before moving to the
next one
Avoid Separate fasteners
• The use of screws in assembly is expensive.
• Snap fits should be used whenever possible
25
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Maximize compliance in assembly
• Excessive assembly force may be required when parts are not
identical or perfectly made
• Allowance for this should be made in the product design
• Designed-in compliance features include the use of generous tapers,
chamfers, and radii
Minimize handling in assembly
• Parts should be designed to make the required position for insertion
or joining easy to achieve
• Quality parts should be made as symmetrical as their function will
allow
• Orientation can be assisted by design features that help to guide and
locate parts in the proper position
26
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Example (Reading Assignment)
27
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Example (Reading Assignment)
28
Design For Assembly (DFA)
Example (Reading Assignment)
29
Example
30
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 13.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Some Definitions:
What is Hazard ???
• Hazard is the potential damage for human, property, or
environment
• Examples:
• A knife (can cut), electricity (can cause shock) and welding (can create metal
fumes) are examples of hazards
• A cracked steering linkage (can cause an accident), a leaking fuel line (can stop
functioning of car etc.), or a loose step (can cause falling) all represent hazards
2
Risk, Reliability and Safety
3
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Some Definitions:
What is Risk???
• Risk is the likelihood, expressed either as a probability or as a
frequency, of a hazard’s materializing
• Examples:
• If there was a spill of water in a room then that water would present a
slipping hazard to persons passing through it
• If access to that area was prevented by a physical barrier then the hazard
would remain though the risk would be minimized
• Risk is the potential for realizing some unwanted and negative
consequences of an event
4
Risk, Reliability and Safety
5 www.ccohs.ca
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Risk Assessment
The assessment of risk is a process involving judgment and intuition
The level of risk can be classified as:
• Tolerable risk:
• We are prepared to live with the level of risk but we want to continue to
review its causes and seek ways of reducing the risk
• Acceptable risk:
• We accept the level of risk as reasonable and would not seek to expend much
in resources to reduce it further
• Unacceptable risk:
• We do not accept this level of risk and would not participate in the activity or
permit others to participate
6
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Risks in Engineering Systems:
Risk associated in engineering systems could be due to:
• External factors that were considered acceptable at the time of design
but which subsequent research has revealed to be a health or safety
hazard
• e.g. the extensive use of sprayed asbestos coating as an insulation and fire
barrier (prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illness
including lung cancer)
• From abnormal conditions that are not a part of the basic design
concept in its normal mode of operation
• Potential risks associated with some systems, such as passenger
aircraft or a nuclear power plant
• Operator error
• Design errors
• Accidents
7
Risk, Reliability and Safety
8
Risk, Reliability and Safety
9
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
It is basically a study of causes, distribution and prediction of Failure
10
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
Let
N0= Number of components put into test
Ns(t) = Number of components survived to or at time t
Nf(t) = Number of components failed between time 0 and t
N s t N f t N 0
N s t N f t
1
N0 N0
11
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
From definition of Reliability, (Probability of survival)
N s t N f t
R(t ) 1
N0 N0
dR(t ) 1 d N f
dt N 0 dt
(Sample dependent)
dN f dR
N0
dt dt
12
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
Hazardous rate or Instantaneous failure rate is the number of
failure per unit time per number of items exposed for the same time
dN f (t ) 1
h(t )
dt N s (t )
13
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
Hazardous rate or Instantaneous failure rate
The hazard rate is defined for non repairable populations as the (instantaneous)
rate of failure for the survivors to time t during the next instant of time
It is a rate per unit of time similar in meaning to reading a car speedometer at a
particular instant and seeing 45 mph
The next instant the failure rate may change and the units that have already
failed play no further role since only the survivors count
14
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
Hazard Rate: In more statistical terms we also can define
the hazard rate h(t) as the probability that a given test item will
fail between t1 and t1+dt1 , when it already has survived to t1
f (t)
F (t)
t1
t
(b) Cumulative distribution of time
(a) Distribution of time to failure
to failure
15
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
In more statistical terms Hazard Rate h(t) is defined as the
probability that a given test item will fail between t1 and t1+dt1, when it
already has survived to t1
f (t ) f (t )
h(t ) P(t1 t t1 dt1 t t1 )
1 F (t ) R(t )
t
R(t ) exp h(t )dt
0
17
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Reliability Theory
The hazard rate or failure rate is given in terms like 1 percent per 1000
h or 10-5 per hour (0.01/1000=10-5)
Hazard or Failure rate for components in the range of 10-5 to 10-7 per
hour exhibits a good commercial level of reliability
18
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Definitions
Cumulative time to failure (CT): When N0 components are run for a time
t without replacing or repairing failed components
𝑇 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 + ⋯ + 𝑡𝑘 + 𝑁0 − 𝑘 𝑡
Mean life: The average life of the N0 components put on test or in service,
measured over the entire life curve
19
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Definitions
Mean time to failure (MTTF): it is the average time that a non-repairable
system, device or component will operate before experiencing a failure
e.g. light bulbs, transistors, bearings etc.
• Therefore, when a part fails in a non repairable system, the system fails
Therefore, the system reliability is a function of the first part failure
It is the sum of the survival time for all of the components divided by the
number of failures
MTTF R (t )dt
20
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Definitions
Mean time to failure (MTTF):
For a non-repairable system, It is the sum of the survival time for all of the
components divided by the number of failures.
Example
Assume you tested 3 identical systems starting from time 0 until all of them failed
The first system failed at 10 hours, the second failed at 12 hours and the third failed at 13
hours
The MTTF = sum of survival time / no. of failures
is the average of the three failure times, which is 11.6667 hours
21
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Definitions
Mean Time between Failure (MTBF): It is the time between two
successive component failures
MTBF is similar to MTTF but it is applied for components or system that
are repairable
Example:
22
Risk, Reliability and Safety
24
Risk, Reliability and Safety
t t
R(t ) exp h(t )dt e
0
where
number of failures
number of time units during which all items were exposed to failure
25
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Constant or Exponential Failure Rate
Remember MTBF is sum of time between failures/ total failures
Thus the reciprocal of is MTBF, i.e.
1
T
So
R (t ) e t T
27
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Example 1.1:
If a device has a failure rate of 2 ×10-6 failures/h, what is its
reliability for an operating period of 500 h? If there are 2000 items in the
test, how many failures are expected in 500 h? Assume that strict quality
control has eliminated premature failures so we can assume a constant
failure rate
Premature
failures
28
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Solution:
t t
R(t ) exp h(t )dt e
(i) 0
(ii) N s t N f t
R(t ) 1
N0 N0
t = 500 h, R(500) = 0.999
29
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Example 1.2:
Solution:
MTBF = T- = 100,000 h,
t = 100,000h
30
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Example 1.3:
t
R(t ) e
Example 1.4:
31
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Example 1.5:
t = 100h, R (100)=?
32
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Variable Failure Rate:
Failures are not constant always e.g. for Relays and thermionic devices
and other mechanical systems
Failure rate is a function of time. Therefore simple exponential relation
for reliability does not apply
Weibull Function (m) is used to consider this type of failure:
33
Risk, Reliability and Safety
34
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 13.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Constant failure rate
Failure rate is the frequency with which an engineering component or
system fails (commonly expressed in failures per hour)
3
Risk, Reliability and Safety
4
Risk, Reliability and Safety
5
Risk, Reliability and Safety
• Since this is not in the form e-constant the parallel system has Variable
Failure Rate
• A system in which the components are arranged to give parallel
reliability is said to be redundant
7
Risk, Reliability and Safety
N-out-of-M System Reliability
• Consider a four-engine aircraft that can fly on 2 engines
• It would lose stability and control if one engine is operated
• This type of situation is known as an n -out-of- m unit network
• The Reliability of such a system is given by a binomial distribution,
with the assumption that each of the m units is independent and
identical:
m
m i
Rn / m R (1 R) mi
i n i
where
m m!
i i!(m i )!
8
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Example:
A complex engineering design can be described by a reliability block
diagram as shown in Fig (below). In subsystem A, two components must
operate for the subsystem to function successfully. Subsystem C has true
parallel reliability. Calculate the reliability of each subsystem and the
overall system reliability.
9
Risk, Reliability and Safety
• Example:
m m!
i i!(m i )!
RA
RB
R1=R2=R3
10
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Maintenance and Repair
• Overall system reliability is improved if repairable component is
replaced with redundant component
A
A
B
A B
11
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Maintenance and Repair
• Decreasing repair time improves maintainability and availability
MTBF = MTTF + MTTR
where
MTBF = Mean time between failure
MTTF = Mean time to failure
MTTR = Mean time to repair
MTBF
MTTR MTTF
12
Risk, Reliability and Safety
3 r
MTTF
22
For obtaining above result, see any good reliability book
13
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Example
If repair rate r = 6 h-1 and failure rate = 10-5 per hour, Calculate:
1. MTTF with repair
2. MTTF without repair
Solution:
3 r
MTTF Class assignment
2 2
14
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Maintainability
• Probability that a component or system that has failed will be
restored to service within a given time
• MTTF and Failure Rate measure Reliability
• MTTR and Repair Rate measure Maintainability
• It is important to predict maintainability during design of an
engineering system
15
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Maintainability
Includes:
▪ Time required to determine failure and diagnose necessary repair action
▪ Time to carry out necessary repair action
▪ Time required to checkout the unit to establish that the repair has been
effective and the system is operational
16
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Maintainability
▪ Maintainability can be calculated as:
M (t ) 1 e rt 1 e t MTTR
where
M(t) = Maintainability
r = repair rate
t = permissible time for repair
17
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Availability
▪ Concept which combines both reliability and maintainability
▪ It is the proportion of time the system is working “on line” to the
total time, when that is determined over a longer period of time
18
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Availability
MTTF
Availabili ty
MTTF MTTR
19
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Design for Reliability
▪ The approach can fall between two broad extremes:
1. Fail-safe approach
2. Absolute-worst case approach
Fail-safe approach
• To identify weak spot in the system or component
• To provide someway to monitor that weakness
• When a weak link fails it is replaced (like a fuse in a house hold
electrical system)
20
Risk, Reliability and Safety
21
Risk, Reliability and Safety
22
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Causes of Unreliability
Design mistakes:
Exclusion of important operating factors, incomplete information, erroneous
calculations, poor material selection
Manufacturing defects:
Poor surface finish, cracks/defects during heat treatment, lack of
supervision, instructions, poor working environment, inadequate training
Maintenance:
Lack of maintenance after operation
Exceeding design limits:
Limit of temperature, speed, load etc.
Environmental factors:
Non-consideration of rain, humidity, ice, temperature etc.
23
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Minimizing Failure
▪ Probability of failure for structural applications Pf < 10-6
▪ Probability of failure for unstressed applications 10-4 < Pf < 10-3
Factors for increasing reliability
▪ Margin of Safety
▪ Derating (to use an elect. device at less than its max. power)
▪ Redundancy
▪ Durability (material selection and design details should be performed with
the objective of producing a system that is resistant to degradation from
such factors as corrosion, erosion, foreign object damage, fatigue, and wear)
▪ Damage Tolerance (crack detection and propagation studies)
24
Risk, Reliability and Safety
25
Risk, Reliability and Safety
26
Risk, Reliability and Safety
27
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
28
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
29
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
30
Risk, Reliability and Safety
31
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Example:
33
Risk, Reliability and Safety
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Example:
34
ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 14.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Cost Evaluation
2
Cost Evaluation
3
Categories of Cost
• Period costs
• occur over a period of time regardless of the amount (volume) of product
that is made or sold
• e.g. the insurance on the factory equipment or the rent of the property
4
Categories of Cost
5
Categories of Cost
6
Categories of Cost
7
Categories of Cost
8
Categories of Cost
9
Categories of Cost
• Break-Even Point
• The break-even point is
the sales or production
volume at which sales
and costs balance
• Operating beyond the
BEP results in profits;
operating below the BEP
results in losses
10
Methods of Cost Estimates
11
Methods of Cost Estimates
12
Methods of Cost Estimates
13
Methods of Cost Estimates
• Parametric Approach:
• In the parametric or statistical approach to cost estimation,
techniques such as regression analysis are used to establish
relations between system cost and key parameters of the system,
such as weight, speed, and power
• This approach involves cost estimation at a high level of aggregation
• so it is most helpful in the problem definition stage of conceptual design
14
Methods of Cost Estimates
• Parametric Approach:
• For example, the cost of developing a turbofan aircraft engine might
be given by:
where C is the cost, x1 is the engine thrust, and x2 is the number of engines produced
15
Methods of Cost Estimates
• Methods Engineering:
• Sometimes called methods analysis or the industrial engineering
approach
• In this method, separate elements of work are identified in great
detail and summed into the total cost per part
• On complex systems it requires a great deal of effort and computation
• Strong trends towards putting material and processing costs into a
computer database and using computer optimizing process sequence
and cost calculation
• Comparison of different costs can be observed from this method
16
Methods of Cost Estimates
• Methods Engineering:
• Detailed methods costing analysis is usually prepared by a process
planner or a cost engineer
• Such a person must be very familiar with the machines, tooling and
processes used in the factory
17
Methods of Cost Estimates
• Methods Engineering:
• Example: Evaluation of cost per part for the production of a simple fitting from
a steel forging
• Overhead charges (fixed costs) often are many more times the direct labor costs.
• In this case the material cost is high because the production sequence starts
with a finished forging rather than a workpiece cut from bar stock
18
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Mathematically,
I t2
Ct2 Ct1
I t1
where,
Ct2 is cost at time2, Ct1 is cost at time 1
It2 and It1 are cost indexes as time t2 and time t1
19
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
• Cost Indexes
• CI is published by the relevant factory or industrial groups
• Examples of sources of CIs
• Consumer Price Index (CPI) — gives the price of consumer goods and services
• Producer Price Index (PPI) — measures the entire market output of producers of
goods
• The Engineering News Record provides indexes on general construction costs
• The Marshall and Swift Index provides an index of industrial equipment costs
20
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
• Cost Inflation Indexes
21
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
22
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
• Cost Indexes – Cost Escalation Factor
• Cost Indexes vary from country to country and conversion factor is used
• For long term projects (e.g. steam turbines, supertankers etc.), with inflation
ever-present, a common way is to use a Cost Escalation Factor to estimate
the cost of equipment at the date it is ready to be shipped to the customer
• A typical cost escalation formula is:
• (BLS)A,B = Bureau of Labor Statistics Index for Material cost – at time A and B
• (BLS)’A,B = Bureau of Labor Statistics Index for Labor cost – at time A and B
• Co original cost
24
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
• Cost Indexes – cost escalation factor: EXAMPLE
This is the escalated cost in June 1976 for the fraction of the original
cost subject to escalation
The fraction not subject to escalation is:
Therefore, the total cost of the equipment at the time of shipment will be:
$289,920 + 230,000 = $ 519,920
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ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 14.2
Muhammad Ilyas
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Cost-Capacity Factor
• Cost of most capital equipment is not directly proportional to the size
or capacity of the equipment (e.g. doubling horse power of motor
increases the cost by only about one-half)
• Economy of scale is an important factor in engineering design
• Cost-capacity relationship may be used to estimate the effect of plant
size on capital cost
2
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Cost-Capacity Factor
Mathematically it is expressed as:
where
C1 = Capital cost associated with capacity Q1
C0 = Capital cost associated with capacity Q0
Size Exponent: x varies from 0.4 to 0.8
For many instances x = 0.6, the above relationship is sometimes called as “six-
tenths rule”
3
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Cost-Capacity Factor
4
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Cost-Capacity Factor – Example
• Cost Capacity and Cost Index can also be combined
× (I1/I0)
C0 = $ 900,000
Q1 = 200 ton/ day
Q2 = 400 ton/day
5
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Practice Assignment
Here,
Q0 = 100 ft3/min
Q1 = 1000 ft3/min
C0 = 35,000
C1 = ?
C1 = 35,000*4.0738 = $142,583
8
Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
Practice Assignment
9
Estimating Plant Cost
10
Estimating Plant Cost
Cp = fCb
where
Cp = Installed plant
Cb = Base cost
f = Lang factor, which depends on the nature of the plant
f = 3.1 for solid-processing plant
f = 3.6 for a solid-fluid-processing plant
f = 4.7 for a fluid-processing plant
11
Estimating Plant Cost
Example
Solution:
12
Estimating Plant Cost
Example
14
Design to Cost
• Guidelines for Design to Cost:
• for reducing product cost at conceptual and embodiment design stages:
• Minimum accuracy, tolerances and conformance to standards
• Use concepts which lead to smaller size
• Use higher speeds for power transmission (reduce torque)
• Make your design as simple as possible
• Use smaller parts
• Use similar parts
• Production in large quantity
• Use high strength materials so the size will be minimum and hence the cost
• Reduce scrape generation
• Reduce the machining operations
15
Manufacturing Cost
• Manufacturing Cost
• Determined in embodiment design as design details are confirmed, so can
be made only after BOM and design details are confirmed
• Most commonly done in process planning step as it follows detail design
• It gives an idea to make a decision about Make/Buy (should the part be
made in house or should it be purchased/manufactured outside)
16
Manufacturing Cost
• A detailed estimate of manufacturing cost follows the following steps:
1. Make a detailed analysis of the product and prepare a list of components
that can be made
2. Crate a manufacturing process plan for each component
3. Determine the material cost
4. Determine the manufacturing time
5. Apply the labor and overhead rates to each operation
6. The manufacturing cost is the sum of step 3 and step 5. The
manufacturing cost per unit Cu is given by:
where:
Cu CM CL OH
• CM = Material cost
• CL = Labor cost
• OH = Overheads
17
Manufacturing Cost
Cu CM CL OH
CM (Vn kv OH M ) ( B OH B )
18
Manufacturing Cost
Cu CM CL OH
• The labor cost (CL) depends on the time tu to carry out the specific
operation.
• This includes:
• Time spent in changing tool
• Lubrication
• Resting
• Waiting for part
19
Manufacturing Cost
CL Cdl Csu OH L
where
Cdl k L tu
Cdl is the direct labor cost. kL is the labor rate (Rs/hr.) multiplied by Time. Csu
is the cost of machine setup and OHL is the overheads on direct labor
20
Overhead Cost
Overhead Cost:
• Any cost not specifically or directly associated with the production of
the product or services
• The two main types are
• Factory overheads:
• It includes the cost of manufacturing that are not related to direct labor or material
• Corporate overheads:
• It is based on the costs of running the company that are outside the manufacturing
or production activities. For example the salaries and fringe benefits, sales
personnel, accounting and finance, legal staff, R & D, etc.
21
Example
Solution:
22
Example
Solution:
The direct labor cost is
(No. parts)*(time/part)*($/time)
23
Practice Problem
24
Practice Problem
25
Product Profit Model
Product Profit Model
• The total cost to produce and market a product can be written as:
C p Q(CM C L OH ) T S C D
where:
Q = Total lifetime volume of production
T = One time capital cost for equipment and tooling
S = Corporate overhead costs
CD = the cost for developing the product until it enters production
Cm = Material cost
CL = Labor cost
OH = Overheads
26
Product Profit Model
• A simple product profit model can be calculated using the following
relations
27
Cost Model
• Cost modeling can show which element of the design or
manufacturing contribute most to the cost
28
Machining Cost Model
29
Machining Cost Model
• After extensive work on metal removal process, the following relation
was developed
nA B B
Cost / piece A
n n
where
A = machining + work-handling cost/piece
B = tool cost (including cost of tool changing and tool grinding)
n = number of pieces produced/tool
30
Machining Cost Model
L L L D
tc
V feed fN f 12v
Where
Vfeed = feed velocity (in/min)
f = feed rate (in/rev)
N = rotational velocity (rpm)
D = work piece diameter (in)
v = cutting velocity (ft/min)
31
Machining Cost Model
Cu Cmc Ct Cm (1)
Cu = total cost/piece
Cmc = machining cost
Ct = tooling cost
Cm = material cost
32
Machining Cost Model
• The machining cost Cmc is the major part of the unit production cost
• It depends on the machining time and the cost of the machine and
overheads
Cmc C1tunit
where 1 M (1 OH m ) W (1 OH op )
C1
60 100 100
and
C1 = cost rate (Rs./min)
M = machine cost (Rs./hr.)
OHm = machine overhead rate (%)
W = labor rate for operator (Rs./hr.)
OHop = operator overheads (%)
33
Machining Cost Model
Production Time for a unit:
• The production time for a unit tunit is given by:
tunit tm ti
where
tm = machining time for one cut
ti = idle time which is given by:
34
Machining Cost Model
Cutting Tool Cost:
Then cost of cutting tool per unit is given by:
tm
Ct Ctool
T
where
Ctool = Cost of cutting tool, Rs
tm = Machining time, min
T = Tool life, min
35
Machining Cost Model
Cutting tool (brazed to the tool-holder) life is expressed by Taylor tool life
equation:
K t rK s
Ctool
r 1
where
Kt = cost of tool
r = number of re-sharpening
Ks = cost of re-sharpening
36
Machining Cost Model
Cu Cmc Ct Cm (1)
Cu = total cost/piece
we have Cmc = machining cost
Ct = tooling cost
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ME – 362
Mechanical Engineering
Design
Part 15.1
Muhammad Ilyas
Detail Design
The final stage of the design process is the detail design
2
Detail design
Detail Design
• It is the phase where all of the details are brought together, all
decisions are finalized, and a decision is made by management to
release the design for production
3
Detail Design
• Poor detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept and lead to
manufacturing defects, high cost and poor reliability in service.
4
Detail Design
• Poor detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept and lead to
manufacturing defects, high cost and poor reliability in service
• The reverse is not true i.e. a brilliant detail design will not rescue a
poor conceptual design
5
Detail Design
• Major activities
and deliverables
of detail design
6
Steps involved in Detail Design Process
7
Detail Drawings
Detail Drawings:
• To produce drawings that contain the information needed to
manufacture the product
• The information on detail drawing includes:
• Standard views of orthogonal projection (top, front and side views)
• Auxiliary views (sections, enlarged views, isometric views)
• Dimensions
• Tolerances
• Material specification
• Manufacturing details (surface finish etc.)
8
Detail Drawings
Other
Major detail information,
like surface
Notes finish etc.
Minor detail
10
Detail Drawings
• Assembly drawings:
• They are of two types:
• Design Layouts: It shows the relationship of all components in the assembled
products
• Exploded views: show the individual parts of a mechanism separately but indicates
their proper relationship
11 Exploded views
Detail Drawings
• Keeping the drawing change history:
• To record the history of the project and the changes that are made
along the way
Title block
12
Bill of Materials (BOM)
Bill of Materials:
• The part list of each component in the product:
• The part description
• Quantity BoM
• Part
• Number
• Purchase order
13
Bill of Materials (BOM)
14
Impact of CAE on Detail Design
• Engineering design is a complex process that produces large quantities
of data and information
• Moreover, there is a strong importance to reduce the product design
cycle time, improve the quality of the product, and decrease
manufacturing cost
• Computer-aided engineering (CAE) has an important and growing influence
on these goals
• The ability to make computer models and carry out computer-based
simulation has greatly increased the ability to efficiently size parts and
improve their durability
15
Impact of CAE on Detail Design
• CAE advantages:
• ability to design for robustness
• greater economic impact
• CAE has significantly reduced the drafting task of preparing engineering drawings
• ability to make changes quickly
• Parts/ assembly associativity
• BOM
16
Bill of Materials (BOM)
17
Impact of CAE on Detail Design
windchill is a PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) software product that is offered by PTC
- capabilities to help manufacturers manage their products through all phases of the product
lifecycle
18
Final Design Review
19
Final Design Review
Final Design Review:
1. Input documents
2. Effective meeting process
3. Appropriate output
20
Final Design Review
Final Design Review:
• Input documents:
• It consists of the documents like PDS, QFD, and the technical analysis like
FEA, CFD etc
• It also consists of the test results, detail and assembly drawings etc.
• Member(s) of the design review team give presentation to review all the
technical aspects of the product
21
Final Design Review
22
Final Design Review
Design Checklist
23
Final Design Review
24
Final Design Review
Output from review:
• Decision is made weather the product is ready to release to the
manufacturing department or not
• A detailed design report is submitted after necessary reviews
• Based on the design report and confirmation of material and parts
availability the design is released for manufacturing
25
Thank You
and
Good Luck with Your Exams!
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