RVS College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

EC 6701-RF & MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
2 MARKS
UNIT-I
1. Specify the X-band frequency range and wavelength
The X-band frequency range : 8 – 12.5 GHz
The X-band wavelength : 3.75 cm – 2.4 cm
2. Define Lossless Network.
For any loss less network the sum of product of each term of any one row or any one
column of s matrix multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity
For a lossless N port devices the total power leaving N ports must be equal to total input
to the ports.
3. State the limitations in measuring Z, Y and ABCD parameters at microwave frequencies.
i. Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and current at the ports of
the network.
ii. Short circuit and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a wide range of frequencies.
iii. Presence of active devices such as power transistors and tunnel diodes makes the
circuit unstable.
4. Write down the merits and demerits of microwave frequencies over lower frequencies.
Merits: Bandwidth, Less Noise
Demerits: Design complexity, cost, Phase variation
5. Write the frequency range for following IEEE microwave bands. L, s, c and X band.
L – 1 to 2 GHz
S – 2 to 4 GHz
C – 4 to 8 GHz
X - 8 to 12 GHz

6. State the application of RF circuits.

RF oscillators: PLL, Voltage-controlled oscillator
Transmitters, Transmission lines, RF connectors
Antennas, Antenna theory
Receivers, Tuners
Amplifiers
Modulators, Demodulators, Detectors
RF filters

7. Give the relation between S and ABCD parameters.

8. What is meant by symmetry of scattering matrix?

[M/J – 08]
|S| is a symmetric matrix when the microwave device has the same transmission
characteristics in either direction of a pair of ports.
 Sij = Sji
9. Define − Scattering Matrix
Scattering matrix is a square matrix which gives all the combinations of the power
relationships between the various input and output ports of a microwave junction.
10.Why are S parameters used in microwaves?
The S parameters are used in microwaves because of the following characteristics,
i. Increased stability at higher frequencies
ii. Mismatch loss is less
iii. Attenuation loss is less
11.What is insertion loss?

Insertion loss is a measure of the loss of the energy in transmission through a line or
device compared to direct delivery of energy without the line or device.

12.State the properties of S parameter. [N/D – 12]

The properties of S parameter are,
i. |S| is always a square matrix of order (n*n)
ii. |S| is a symmetric matrix
iii. |S| is a unitary matrix
iv. Under perfect matched conditions, the diagonal elements of |S| are zero

13.Define − Lossless Network

In lossless passive network, the power entering the circuit is always equal to power
leaving network which leads to the conservation of power.
14.State the different types of high frequency capacitors.
The different types of high frequency capacitors are,
i. Parallel plate capacitor
ii. Leaded capacitor
iii. Perfect capacitor
15.State the different types of high frequency resistors.
The different types of high frequency resistors are,
i. Carbon composite resistors
ii. Metal film resistors
iii. Thin-film chip resistors
16.State the different types of high frequency inductors.
The different types of high frequency inductors are,
i. Simple wire inductor
ii. Coiled wire inductor
17.Define − Straight Wire Inductance
 When alternating current is applied in a wire medium, the magnetic field is alternately
expanding and contracting. This produces an induced voltage in the wire that opposes any
change in the current flow. This opposition to change is called ‘Straight Wire Inductance’.
18.Define − Skin Effect

As frequency increases, the electrical signals propagate less inside the conductor. Because
of the current density increases to the perimeter of the wire and causes higher impedance for the
signal. This effect is known as skin effect.
19.Define − Q Factor
It is the measure of ability of an element to store energy and is equal to 2π times the
average energy stored to that of the energy dissipated per cycle.
20. Specify the ABCD relationship of a lossless
transmission line.
The ABCD relationship of a lossless transmission line is,
V1= AV2 - BI2
I1 = CV2 - DI2

UNIT-II
21.Define noise figure of two port network.
Noise figure is defined as the ratio of input SNR to the output SNR.
F = (SNR) O / (SNR) I
22.What is the necessary to go for microstrip matching network?
Input and output matching networks are needed to reduce undesired reflections and
improve the power flow capabilities. Microstrip matching networks are simple to design and low
cost.

23.Define unconditional stability.

Unconditional stability refers to the situation where the amplifier remains stable for any
passive source and load at the selected frequency and bias conditions.
24.Define transducer gain.
Transducer power gain is defined as the ratio of power delivered to the load to that of the
power from the source.

25.What is the need for rollett factor K? write its equation.

The condition of unconditional stability is achieved when K>1.

26.What is meant by power gain of an amplifier?

[N/D – 12]
Transducer power gain is defined as the ratio of power delivered to the load to that of the
power from the source.

27.Define − Unilateral Power Gain

When feedback effect of the amplifier is neglected (i.e. S12 = 0), the amplifier power gain
is known as unilateral power gain.

28.Define − Operating Power Gain

 Operating power gain is defined as the power delivered to the load to that of the power
supplied to the amplifier.
29.Define − Available Power Gain

Available power gain is defined as the power available from the microwave network to
that of the power from the source.

30.What is the need for impedance matching network?

[N/D – 11]
The need for impedance matching network is,
i. To stabilize the amplifier by keeping the source and load impedances in the appropriate
range
ii. To reduce undesired reflections
iii. To improve the power flow capabilities
31.What are the considerations in selecting a matching network? [N/D – 12]

The considerations in selecting a matching network are,

i. Gain and gain flatness
ii. Operating frequency and bandwidth
iii. Output power
iv. Power supply requirements
v. Input and output reflection coefficients
vi. Noise figure

32.State the various types of waveguide stub.

The various types of waveguide stub are,

i. E stub
ii. H stub
iii. E-H tuner
33.Define – Positive RF Feedback.

Positive feedback is defined as the instability caused due to the increase in the magnitude
of the return voltage in a passive radio frequency waveguide.

34. Write the expression for noise figure of a two port amplifier.
[N/D – 11]
The expression for noise figure of a two port amplifier is
F = Fmin + (Gn/Rs) |Zs – Zopt|2
Where,
F – Noise figure
Fmin – Minimum noise figure
Gn – Source conductance
 Rs – Source resistance
Zs – Source impedance
Zopt – Optimum impedance
35. What are the key parameters used to evaluate the performance of an amplifier?
Key parameters of amplifier, to evaluate its performance are
1. Gain and gain flatness
2. Operating frequency and bandwidth
3. Output power
4. Power supply requirements
5. Input and output reflection coefficients
6. Noise figure

36. Write short notes on feedback of RF circuits.

(i) If │Γ│>1, then the magnitude of the return voltage wave increases called
positive feedback, which causes instability (Oscillator).
(ii) If │Γ│<1, the return voltage wave is totally avoided (amplifier). It’s called as
negative feedback.

37. What are the approaches used to a matching network?

(i) Derive the values of the elements analytically
(ii) Rely on the smith chart as a graphical design tool

38. Define nodal quality factor.

Nodal quality factor is defined as the ratio of the absolute value of the reactance to the
corresponding resistance. Qn=Xs/Rs
39. What is the advantage of T and Pi matching network?
The addition of the third element into the two element matching network introduces an addition
degree of freedom in the circuit and allows us to control the value of ql by choosing appropriate
intermediate impedance for wider bandwidth.

40. Why we go for double stub matching networks?

One of the main drawbacks of single stub matching network is that they require a variable length
transmission line between the stub and the input port, or between the stub and the load impedance.
Usually, this does not a problem for fixed networks, but may create difficulties for variable tuners.

UNIT-III
41.What is phase shifter?
When a wave propagates on a line, a phase difference prevails between any two arbitrary
points along its paths.
42.Equivalent circuit of Gunn diode.
43.What are ferrites and give its properties? Give some examples of ferrite devices?
Ferrites are ceramic like materials. These are maby by sintering a mixture of metallic
oxides.
Properties Specific resistivity’s may be used as much as 1014 greater than that of metals
Dielectric constants around 10to 15 or greater Relative permeability is 1000
Isolator Circulator Phase shifters, Modulators, Power limiters

44.Which has the lesser coupling in the following? 3 dB, 6dB, 10 dB.
3 dB has the lesser coupling.

45.What are waveguide bends? Types?

Waveguide is normally rigid, except for flexible waveguide, and therefore it is often
necessary to direct the waveguide in a particular direction. Using waveguide bends and twists it
is possible to arrange the waveguide into the positions required.
 Waveguide E bend
 Waveguide H bend
 Waveguide sharp E bend
 Waveguide sharp H bend

46.What are the applications of magic tee?

Power combining and power splitting

47. What is the S-matrix for 4 port circulators?

Clockwise
[S] =0001
1000
0100
0010
Anticlockwise
[S] = 0 1 0 0
0010
0001
0010

48.What is Faraday’s rotation law?

If a circularly polarized wave is made to pass through a ferrite rod which has been
influenced by an axial magnetic field B, then the axis of polarization gets tilted in clockwise
direction and amount of tilt depends upon the strength of magnetic field and geometry of the
ferrite.

49.State the two parameters that describe direction coupler and define them.
Directivity – ration of power coupled in forward direction to the backward direction
Isolation – ration of power transmitted to the main port to the isolated port

50. What are the two types of terminations?

Matched load
Variable short circuit

51. What are powered dividers?

Power dividers are used to divide the input power into a number of smaller amounts of
power for exciting the radiating elements in an array antenna.
14. Give the applications of directional coupler
1. Unidirectional power measurement
2. SWR measurement
 3. Unidirectional wave launching
4. Reflectometer
5. Balanced duplexer

52.Define VSWR
Voltage standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of maximum voltage to the minimum
voltage. VSWR=Vmax/Vmin

53.What is Gyrator?
Gyrator is a two port device which provides a relative phase shift of 180 degree for
transmission from port 1 to port 2 as compared to the phase for transmission from Port2 to
port1.
54.Name some wave guide components used to change the direction of the guide through an
arbitrary angle.
Wave guide corner, Bend and twist

55.What are the different types of Directional coupler?

1. Two hole directional coupler
2. Be the hole directional coupler
3. Four hole directional coupler

56.What are hybrid couplers?

Hybrid couplers are interdigitated micro strip couplers consisting of four parallel strip
lines with alternate lines tied together, It has four ports. This type of coupler is called Lange
hybrid coupler.

57.What are nonreciprocal devices? Give two examples

The devices which are having the property that the forward characteristics are not equal
to the reverse characteristics are called non reciprocal devices.

58.Why isolators are called uniline?

An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in one direction and
provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus, isolators are called unline.

59.What are junctions? Give some examples

A microwave circuit consists of several microwave devices connected in some way to
achieve the desired transmission of MW signal. The interconnection of two or more microwave
may be regarded as MW junction. Eg:Magic Tee,Hybrid Ring

60. What is Tee junction? Give two examples

In MW circuits a wave guide or coaxial junction with three independent ports is referred
to as tee junction. Eg: E- Plane Tee,H-plane Tee
UNIT-IV

61.Distinguish O and M type tubes.

M type tubes are crossed field devices where the static magnetic field is
perpendicular to the electric field. Here the electrons travel in curved path.
The other name for O – tube is linear tube or rectilinear beam tube.

62.What is the purpose of slow wave structures used in TWT amplifiers?

Slow wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce wave
velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave can interact. In TWT,
since the beam can be accelerated only to velocities that are about a fraction of the velocity of
light, slow wave structures are used.
63.Write the classification of microwave tubes and explain the different types of them.
O and M types of tubes.

64.What are slow wave structures?

Slow-wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce the
wave velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave can interact.

65.Compare TWT and Klystron amplifier.

66.What is velocity modulation?

The variation in electron velocity in the drift space is known as velocity modulation.

67.What are the high frequency effects in conventional tubes?

The high frequency effects in conventional tubes are
i) Circuit reactance
a)Inter electrode capacitance
b) Lead inductance
ii) Transit time effect
iii) Cathode emission
iv) Plate heat dissipation area
v) Power loss due to skin effect, radiation and dielectric loss.
68.What are the assumptions for calculation of RF power in Reflex Klystron?
i) Cavity grids and repeller are plane parallel and very large in extent.
ii) No RF field is excited in repeller space
iii) Electrons are not intercepted by the cavity anode grid.
iv) No debunching takes place in repeller space.
v) The cavity RF gap voltage amplitude V, is small compared to the dc beam voltage VO
69.What is the condition for oscillation in Reflex klystron ?
The necessary condition for oscillation is that the magnitude of the negative real part of
the electronic admittance should not be less than the total conductance of the cavity circuit
i.e. _-Ge__G. Where 1 G=Gc + Gb +G1 = ------ Rsh
Rsh _ effective shunt resistance
Gc _ copper losses of cavity
Gb _ beam loading conductance
G1 _ load conductance
70.Give the drawbacks of klystron amplifiers.
1. As the oscillator frequency changes then resonator frequency also changes and the
feedback path phase shift must be readjusted for a positive feedback.
2. The multicavity klystron amplifiers suffer from the noise caused because bunching is
never complete and electrons arrive at random at catcher cavity. Hence it is not used in receivers.

71.What is the effect of transit time?

There are two effects.
1) At low frequencies, the grid and anode signals are no longer 180O out of phase, thus
causing design problems with feedback in oscillators.
 2) The grid begins to take power from the driving source and the power is absorbed even
when the grid is negatively biased.

72.What are the applications of reflex klystron?

1) Signal source in MW generator
2) Local oscillators in receivers
3) It is used in FM oscillator in low power MW links.
4) In parametric amplifier as pump source.
73.State the applications of TWT.
1) Low power, low noise TWT‟s used in radar and microwave receivers
2) Laboratory instruments
3) Drivers for more powerful tubes
4) Medium and high power CWTWT‟S are used for communication and radar.
74. How the klystron amplifier can act as klystron oscillator? What are the applications of
klystron amplifier?
When the klystron amplifier is given a positive feedback such that the overall phase shift
becomes zero 360° and __Av _= I then klystron amplifier acts as an oscillator.

75. What are the applications of klystron amplifier?

Applications:
(1) UHF TV Transmitters
(2) Long ranger radar
(3) Linear particle accelerator
(4) Troposcatter links
(5) Earth station transmitter.

76.Define phase focusing effect.

The bunching of electrons in known as “Phase focusing effect” This effect is important
because without it, favored electrons will fall behind the phase change of electric field across the
gaps. Such electrons are retarded at each interaction with the R.F field in magnetron.

77.Define Transit time in Reflex klystron.

The time taken by the electron to travel into the repeller space and back to the gap. T =n + ¾

78.Write the parameters on which bunching depend on?

i) Drift space should be properly adjusted.
ii) D.C anode voltage
iii) Signal amplitude should be such that proper bunching takes place.

79.What are the principal limitations of conventional negative grid electron tubes?
1) Electron transit time becomes a noticeable proportion at high frequencies.
2) Lumped electrical reactance and low Q resonant circuit.

80.What is frequency pulling and frequency pushing in magnetrons?

Frequency pulling is caused by changes in the load impedance reflected into the cavity
resonators. Frequency pushing is due to the change in anode voltage which alters the orbital
velocity of electron clouds.

UNIT-V
81.Define thermistor.
Thermistors are semiconductors with a negative temperature coefficient.
Thermistor elements are mounted in either coaxial or waveguide structures so they are
compatible with common transmission line systems used at microwave and RF frequencies.
82.Define barretter.
A barretter is a thin wire that has a positive temperature coefficient of resistance.

83.Why direct microwave measuring equipments are not used in laboratories?

Direct microwave measuring equipments like spectrum analyser and network analyser
are very expensive.

84.What are the uses of network analyser?

A network analyzer is a device used to measure S parameters of the circuit of interest for
various frequencies.

85.What are the types of networks analyser?

Types: Vector Network analyser, scalar network analyser

86.Define guide wavelength.

Guide wavelength is defined as the distance between two equal phase planes along the
waveguide. The guide wavelength is a function of operating wavelength (or frequency) and the
lower cutoff wavelength, and is always longer than the wavelength would be in free-space.

87.What is the significance of VSWR measurements?

VSWR meter is a highly sensitive, high gain, low noise voltage amplifier tuned normally at
fixed frequency of 1 kHz at which microwave signals are modulated. This meter indicates
calibrated VSWR reading for any loads.

88.List any two methods of measuring microwave power.

Bolometer Sensor
Thermocouple Sensors

89. State the demerits of single bridge power meter. [N/D – 08]
The demerits of single bridge power meter are,
i. The change of resistance due to a mismatch at the microwave input ports results in
incorrect reading
ii. The themistor is sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature resulting in false
reading

90.What is bolometer? [M/J – 07]

Bolometer is a power sensor whose resistance changes with temperature as it absorbs
microwave power. Examples: Barretter, Thermistor.
91.What are the possible errors occur in measurement of standing wave ratio? [N/D – 12]
The possible errors occur in measurement of standing wave ratio are,
i. Vmax and Vmin may not be measured in the square law region of the crystal detector
ii. Probe thickness and depth may produce reflections in the line
iii. Residual VSWR arises due to mismatch impedance
iv. Harmonics and spurious signals from source cause measurement errors

92.Define − Return Loss [N/D – 07]

The return loss is a measure of the power reflected by a line or network or device. Return
loss (dB) = 10 log [input energy to the device / reflected energy at the input of the device] Return
loss (dB) = 10 log [Pi/Pr]

93.Define − Reflection Loss

Reflection loss is a measure of power loss during transmission due to the reflection of the
signal as a result of impedance mismatch.
94.Define − Insertion Loss
Insertion loss is a measure of loss of energy in transmission through a line or device
compared to direct delivery of energy without the line or device.

95.What is a VSWR meter?

VSWR meter is a highly sensitive, high gain, low noise voltage amplifier tuned normally at
fixed frequency of 1 kHz at which microwave signals are modulated. This meter indicates
calibrated VSWR reading for any loads.

96.What is calorimeter?
Calorimeter is a convenient device for measuring the high power at microwave
frequencies which involves conversion of microwave energy in to heat, absorbing the heat in a
fluid and determine the temperature.

97.What are tunable detectors?

The tunable detectors are used to demodulate the signal and couple the required output
to high frequency scope analyzer. The low frequency demodulated output is detected using non
reciprocal detector diode mounted in the microwave transmission line.

98.What is calorimetric direct heating method?

In calorimetric direct heating method, the rate of production of heat can be measured by
observing the rise in temperature of the dissipating medium.

99.What is calorimetric indirect heating method?

In calorimetric indirect heating method, heat is transferred to another medium before
measurement.
100.What is the principle by which high power measurements could be done by calorimetric
method? [M/J – 08]
Principle by calorimetric method are,
i. Direct heating method
ii. Indirect heating method