CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Velocity effects in metal forming and machining processes

R. Neugebauer (1)a,*, K.-D. Bouzakis (1)b, B. Denkena (1)c, F. Klocke (1)d, A. Sterzing a,
A.E. Tekkaya (1)e, R. Wertheim (1)f
a
Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology (IWU), Chemnitz, Germany
b
Aristoteles University of Thessaloniki, Greece
c
Institute of Production Engineering and Machine Tools (IFW), Hannover University, Garbsen, Germany
d
RWTH Aachen University, Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering (WZL), Germany
e
Institute of Metal Forming and Lightweight Construction (IUL), Dortmund, Germany
f
Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute for Machine Tools and Production Processes (IWP), Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Velocity is probably the most important parameter in manufacturing, influencing performance, cost,
Velocity
productivity, energy and resources efficiency as well as safety and environmental issues. This paper
Forming
presents basic phenomena as well as other important effects which are linked to velocity as a process
Machining
parameter. In addition, applications, for example superplastic forming or high speed cutting, which have
been founded on uncommon process velocities are discussed in the context of technological
developments which have taken place over the past several years.
ß 2011 CIRP.

1. Introduction components in the same time period. As a result, production costs

Climate change and diminishing natural resources are two of
the most daunting challenges facing manufacturing industry
today. The principal objectives are therefore to reduce costs and
to focus on the reduction of energy and resources employed in the
production process but also to lower process emissions. A
promising approach to gain a significant improvement is the use
of lightweight design, which includes the use of lightweight
materials and semi-finished products. In many cases, these
lightweight materials and semi-finished products are associated
with limited processing properties (e.g. machinability and form-
ability) challenging the manufacturer to produce more complex
components more efficiently. The increasing requirements in
respect of the design and complexity of components as well as
flexibility and quality lead to an even more demanding situation.
Forming and machining technologies reach their limits as regards
feasibility (material behaviour, quality and process forces) and
profitability because manufacturing of complex components only
becomes efficient with considerable effort in respect of process,
tools and machines.
Exploiting the specific velocity effects and using velocity as a
decisive parameter in production processes offers diverse oppor-
tunities to extend process limits. The present keynote paper
focuses on the presentation and exemplification of velocity effects
in production processes. The objective is to establish the
significance of velocity as a process parameter for today’s
production engineering by focusing on the relevant processes of
forming, shearing, joining and machining. Special emphasis is put
on high velocity processes, which are closely related to an increase
in profitability due to the production of a greater quantity of
and energy consumption can be reduced.
Increasing the velocities in the production processes does not
only affect profitability but influences the range of application of
the process involved. Accordingly, a further emphasis of the
keynote paper lies in describing the potential of velocity as a
process parameter to influence the technological feasibility,
required process forces, process reliability and process stability,
achievable quality and for these reasons the extension of process
limits. In this regard aspects of high velocity (e.g. high speed
cutting) are presented and applications based on low velocities
(e.g. superplastic forming) are also discussed.
The term ‘‘velocity’’ covers a broad spectrum of meaning, and
the first section of the paper therefore deals with the various
interpretations of the term velocity in connection with manu-
facturing processes. In addition, parameters linked to the velocity
are outlined. Subsequently, the effects of velocity on material
behaviour and on related forming mechanisms and chip formation
mechanisms are analysed and discussed. This also includes the
aspects of interface between tool and workpiece and tribological
effects. Another aspect which is in the scope of this paper considers
velocities in the simulation of processes including a discussion on
their characteristics and boundary conditions. Finally, based on
examples of different production processes, the effects of velocity
on profitability, process performance and quality are presented
and the requirements essential for exploiting the resulting
potentials are highlighted.
2. Theory and basic phenomena
2.1. Definition of process velocity and related quantities

In the field of production technology today, the definition and

* Corresponding author. application of process velocity is an important factor for profit-

0007-8506/$ – see front matter ß 2011 CIRP.

doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2011.05.001
628 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
ability. Production processes can only be made more efficient and
cost-effective by increasing the process velocity in order to
produce more components in a given time span or by reducing
the time needed for component production. This is true for
forming, shearing, cutting and non-conventional processes as well
as joining operations which are based on forming processes.
In the field of forming, for example the manufacturing of car
body components, the stroke rate is often used as a criterion to
describe velocity. From an economic point of view it is important to
increase the stroke rate. However, if technological aspects,
especially tool and machine limitations, are taken into account,
the stroke rate cannot be increased indefinitely even using the
most modern servo press technology. As the infeed and the reset of
the punch are also part of a stroke, using the stroke rate cannot be
used as an exact indication of the real forming or process velocity.
For this reason the punch velocity is often used for example in deep
drawing processes.
In high velocity forming, shearing and joining, which are based
on the use of acting media or acting energies, different terms are
also used to describe process velocity. When, for example, active
components are accelerated by chemical, electrical or physical
energy their velocity is often specified (e.g. forming punch,
shearing punch, and joining element). In explosive forming where
the material is accelerated directly by the medium, the process
velocity is often specified as the propagation velocity of the
forming medium.
The specification of the strain rate or of the strain velocity offers
the opportunity to characterise, classify and compare these various
forming processes with regard to velocity. Here the strain rate is
defined as the time derivative of the material strain. In a uniaxial
case, it is defined as:
 
de d l
ė ¼ ¼ ln (1)
dt dt l0
Also in superplastic forming the strain rate assists in classifying
the process with regard to velocity. The diagram in Fig. 1 shows the
strain rates of various forming processes.
The general definition of velocity or speed in cutting is the
workpiece and/or tool time-rate change of distance. In cutting with
defined edge, the characteristic velocity is a relative speed between
the tool edge and the workpiece surface, including cutting speed
and feed speed. Both the cutting speed and the feed speed might be
carried out by the tool and/or the workpiece, depending on the
process and the machining equipment. In turning, the cutting
speed is normally defined by the peripheral velocity of the
workpiece, while in milling the cutting speed is defined by the
peripheral velocity of the tool. Normally the cutting speed is much
higher than the feed speed. In grinding, using undefined cutting
edges, the velocity is defined as the peripheral speed of the wheel
combined with a much lower feed speed of the workpiece and/or
the tool.
The variation of process velocity has a direct influence on the
various phenomena in the cutting zone causing differences in the
elastic and plastic behaviour, which results in different strain rates,
cutting forces and stresses as well as chip flow and tool life.
Fig. 1. Strain rates for conventional as well as nonconventional forming processes
[206].
Fig. 2. Material removal rates for a range of materials [90].
In cutting, the velocity or speed is used as the main process
parameter or performance criterion, while the strain rate in the
primary shearing zone is mainly applied for analysing the basic
physical phenomena. Cutting speeds for turning, milling and
drilling applied in industry in combination with the chip cross-
section which is defined by feed and depth of cut influence the
material removal rates as shown in Fig. 2. To reach a higher
removal rate for a specific chip cross-section, the cutting speed
should be increased (high speed machining – HSM or high speed
cutting – HSC). The limitations are workpiece composition and
properties, machine capacity and stability as well as tool life and
chip flow. However, shorter machining time or higher removal rate
with medium speeds can also be achieved by using high
performance cutting (HPC) with higher feeds and larger depth
of cuts.
In forming and in cutting, strain rates with values below
101 s1 based on the dynamic plastic behaviour of materials is
categorised as slow process velocities. In superplastic forming (cf.
Section 3.3) strain rates are typically between 105 s1 and
103 s1. A strain rate between 101 s1 and 102 s1 is defined as
intermediate, while a strain rate of more than 102 s1 and up to
107 s1 is defined as a high velocity depending on material
composition and properties. Strain rates higher than 104 s1
usually correspond to the phenomena involved in shock wave
propagation.
2.2. Basic physical and mechanical phenomena
For conventional applied velocities in forming (intermediate
strain rates) the process can be assumed to be quasi-static and the
material behaviour can be described as elastic–plastic. For high-
velocity processes and also for low-velocity processes, time
represents a significant process parameter. For low-velocity
processes this is primarily related to the dominant visco-plastic
material behaviour together with strain rate-dependent hardening
and mostly higher process temperatures. In the case of high-
velocity processes inertial effects may become significant; forming
heat and frictional heat may not be neglected and strain rate
hardening as well as thermal softening may take place. In both
cases aspects such as:
 the thermal expansion of tool and workpiece;
 the heat transfer between tool and workpiece;
 the generation of frictional heat between workpiece and tool;
 the velocity- and temperature-dependent friction; and
 the increase in temperature in areas of higher strain rates may
play an important role.
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
This collection of phenomena is generally implemented in nearly
all commercial ‘‘General Purpose’’ FEM software and theoretically
has received thorough study [23,169,217]. The forming or cutting
process is described by the initial boundary value problem:
r  ü  divs ¼ 0 in V
r  c p  Ṫ þ divq ¼ Q in V;
with the constitutive equations [124]:
s ¼ Sðw; w p ; TÞ ðelastic material behaviourÞ
@Fðs ; a; TÞ
’˙ P ¼ l  ðflow ruleÞ
@s
ȧ ¼ l  Aðs ; a; TÞ ðhardening ruleÞ
0  l  Fðs ; a; TÞ ðyield conditionÞ
q ¼ h  gradT ðheat flowÞ
Q ¼ v  s : ẇP ðforming heatÞ
where r – density, cp – specific heat capacity, h – heat conductivity, v
– efficiency of plastic dissipation, n – normal vector on the boundary
@V of the region V, u – displacement vector, s – Cauchy stress
tensor, T – temperature, q – heat flow, Q – heat sources, w – Euler
strain tensor, wp – Euler plastic strain tensor, a – internal hardening
parameter, F – plastic potential/yield condition, appropriate initial
and boundary value conditions and corresponding mechanical and
thermal contact conditions between the individual components (13)
and (14). The time derivations that occur are objective, which
implies that they are independent from the motion state of the
chosen reference system. The law of conservation of linear
momentum (2) takes the influence of inertia effects into account,
while the evolution Eqs. (5) and (6) in conjunction with the visco-
plastic yield condition (7) are also an implicit representation of the
strain rate influence on the visco-plastic deformation processes.
However, the comparatively large set of material parameters
which are indispensable for a description of the thermo-mechan-
ical properties of the material calls for a significant amount of
material testing infrastructure. The values of these parameters for
the materials commonly used in industry are often unknown. The
challenge in terms of simulation of velocity-dependent forming
processes therefore lies to a lesser extent in the complexity of the
underlying initial boundary value problem than in the identifica-
tion and provision of reliable material parameters. This applies
both to forming and also to cutting processes.
In the following sections a uniaxial form of notation is used. The
equivalent stress (second invariant of the Cauchy stress tensor s)
is denoted by s and the equivalent plastic strain (second invariant
of the Euler plastic strain tensor wp) is denoted by e. The strain rate
in the uniaxial case (1) in general is the objective time derivative of
the Euler strain tensor ẇ.
In addition, the flow characteristics of the material depending
on the local strain rates are affected by the local temperatures.
Consequently:
 the initial yield point drops as the temperature rises;
 the initial yield point rises as the strain rate increases;
 as the strain rate increases, the heat generated from forming also
increases, thereby compensating for the rise in the initial yield
point, the thermal properties of tool and workpiece undergo
changes with changing temperatures;
 as the temperature increases there is often a drop in creep
resistance;
 elastic properties are also frequently temperature-dependent.
For very high or very low velocities, the reduced creep resistance
and the strain rate related hardening properties necessitate the
inclusion of visco-plastic material behaviour. In light of the aspects
629
outlined above, it is essential for the numerical simulation of such
forming processes to take the following into account:
 strain rate-, and temperature-dependent flow curves;
 load-, and temperature-dependent thermal transfer coefficients;
(2)  temperature-dependent heat capacities and heat transfer
coefficients;
(3)  velocity and load-dependent friction coefficients;
 material strain rate- and temperature-dependent failure limits.
(4)
2.3. The influence of velocity on formability
(5)
Categorisation of the process velocity based on tool or
workpiece velocities does not reflect the various types of material
(6)
behaviour, which is of vital importance for the forming results.
Although often used, the velocities by themselves provide
(7)
incomplete information on the local forming processes.
(8) In order to illustrate the influence of velocity during forming
and cutting it is necessary to distinguish between tool velocity and
(9) forming velocity – or to be more precise – strain rate. A decrease in
tool velocity does not necessarily lead to a decrease in strain rate.
Depending on the relevant process, the deformation/failure
behaviour of materials is influenced by a series of phenomena
in the forming and cutting zone, as already discussed at the
beginning of Section 2.
Generally speaking, the processing of metal sheets, tubes and
profiles can only be carried out using multi-stage process chains.
This is especially true where complex geometries are concerned. One
of these process steps is the separation of material by shearing. In
this case, friction occurs in the shearing zone while distinctive strain
localisations are evolving. The deformation processes in these areas
take place alongside increased strain rates linked with local
temperature increases and, resulting from this, thermal softening
and strain rate-induced hardening. In addition, inertia effects have a
stabilising impact. So the so-called adiabatic shear bands are based
on alternate hardening and softening of the material in the primary
shear zone. This process with its cyclic progression causes, for
example, a variable (segmented) chip geometry and also translates
into fluctuations in the cutting force. These localising effects can also
be used to achieve a greater degree of accuracy in machining, cutting
and forming. One example is adiabatic cutting, with high tool
velocities for specifically generating adiabatic shear bands as
discussed in Section 3.3. In forming applications especially, process
stability represents a challenge because the process needs to be run
very close to the failure limit.
2.4. Cutting with defined and undefined edge
To fulfill cost-effectively the requirements relating to dimen-
sional tolerances, surface quality, shape complexity and large part
size, various high flexible cutting processes are used in the
production process chain. Based on the relative movement
involving tool and workpiece, chips are separated mechanically
[18]. These machining processes are subdivided into cutting with
defined and undefined edges. If the quantity, form and orientation
of the cutting edges to the workpiece are able to be described
explicitly, it is designated as cutting with defined edges such as,
turning, milling and drilling. The mechanical removal of material
by multiple cutting edges, formed of grains of hard material whose
distribution and form can be described only statistically is called
cutting with undefined edge. To this group belong processes with
bonded grains, such as grinding with rotating tools, belt grinding,
or honing, and cutting with non-bonded grains, such as lapping
and polishing. The cutting edges with a high negative rake angle
penetrate only a few micrometers into the material [187]. For this
reason, micro cutting is included in this group. The chip thickness
in grinding is so small that it is important not to neglect elastic
strains. Fig. 3 shows different chip formation zones in turning and
grinding.
630 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650

Fig. 3. Chip formation with defined and undefined edges [185].

During cutting, material is separated mechanically by shearing
in the primary shear zone (2). In the secondary shear zone the
frictional forces on the rake face result in a plastic deformation of
the material (3). In addition, in the separation zone high
compressive stresses occur and lead to a deformation and
subsequent separation of the material (4), whereby both elastic
and plastic deformations occur. Besides shearing, frictional
processes also take place (5) and (6).
In grinding, the machining results can be adjusted by various
parameters such as contact length lg, specific removal rate Q 0w and
cutting speed vc as well as grinding wheel specifications. Cutting
speeds are in the range of 3500 m/min down to a few centimeters
per minute [190].
In micro cutting and in grinding the penetration depth has a
major influence on the chip formation as shown in Fig. 4 [49].
Increasing the cutting speed causes a significant decrease of the
cutting force and improvement of surface quality as shown in
Fig. 5. Analysing the chip formation in high speed cutting can be
realised by a sudden interruption of the contact between the tool
and the workpiece [16,97,172].
Cutting of ductile materials consists of plastic deformation in
small areas. The cutting velocity affects the temperature, chip
formation, mechanics and metallurgy in cutting processes based
on the phenomena described at the beginning of Section 2. With
increasing cutting speeds the time for material deformation in a
cutting process decreases and the deformation takes place in a
limited area. The material shearing process produces significant
amounts of heat in the shear zone. The temperatures occurring in
the small scale shear zone in high speed cutting affect the whole
process including tool wear, material behaviour and friction
[41,178].
The limiting factor as regards cutting velocity for many
workpiece materials is the tool wear and resulting tool failure.
The main reason for these problems is that the temperature
increases asymptotically with cutting speed approaching the
workpiece material melting temperature. However, the cutting
speed range where the ultimate temperatures are reached is
material-specific. Titanium alloys, for example, and steel AISI 1045
show similar chip temperatures but the cutting speed varies by an
order of ten. The highest temperature rise in cutting metals is
found at conventional cutting speeds [21,44,91,107,150,154].
The temperature in the shear zone has a radical influence on
chip formation. When cutting steel or aluminium alloys with low
speeds, continuous chip formation takes place in accordance with
the shear plane model. As the speed increases, the average chip
compression ratio decreases, the shear angle increases and a

Fig. 4. Influence of depth of cut on chip formation in micro cutting.

 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650 631

Fig. 5. Cutting speed with regard to process forces and surface generation.

Fig. 6. Influence of the cutting speed on chip formation.

change to higher shear localisation is identified as shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 shows the shift speed for different materials. Siems [166]
At high cutting speeds, thin shear bands may be observed in enhances the correlation between chip formation mechanism and
comparison to conventional cutting speeds. It is anticipated that cutting forces. The cutting forces decrease with higher cutting
the higher strain rates will cause an increase in the shear force at speeds for all materials investigated. For materials with a change in
the shear zone. Since the shear time decreases with increasing chip formation from continuous to segmented this decrease begins
cutting speeds, the temperature gradients within the shear bands with initiation of segmentation.
become higher and lead, therefore, to a higher shear localisation The cutting forces approach a minimum for these metals.
[21,92,188]. Materials with continuous chip formation, however, exhibit an
With further increases in the cutting speed the material failure increase in cutting forces for high cutting speeds after a local
mechanism changes. The temperature and the chip formation minimum [166]. Fig. 8 shows the change in force for wide range of
mechanism have a radical influence on the cutting power and cutting speeds [91].
hence the process forces. Shear localisation and material failure According to Arndt, the forces of inertia exceed the forces due to
mechanisms lead to a change in chip formation resulting in a friction, separation and shearing when a critical cutting speed of
reduction of process forces [188]. As regards the measurement of around vc = 8000 m/min is reached. Sutter and Molinari identify
process forces at high cutting speeds, it is necessary to consider the this border velocity as being around 1200 m/min for 42CrMo4
dynamic behaviour of the measurement device in order to avoid [175,176].
measurement errors [159].
The characteristics of the cutting force behaviour with
increasing cutting speed have been subject to some initial
fundamental investigations [6,98]. The corresponding cutting
power can be subdivided into a constant fraction of power
required for the high speed cutting range and a variable fraction
depending on the cutting speed [188]. The point of inflection of the
variable power fraction is then defined as the transition velocity
vHSC. This shift cutting speed can be calculated on the basis of
mechanical and thermal properties for various materials:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
TM  c p  r  h
vHSC  0:025 (10)
Rm
where TM – melting temperature, Rm – tensile strength, cp – specific
heat capacity, h – thermal conductivity and r – density. Fig. 7. Material specific definition of the HSC range.
632 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650

Fig. 8. Cutting force propagation for a wide range of cutting speeds.

3. Modelling and simulation Some detailed examples for the modelling of material laws are
cited by Shatla et al. [81,138,163]. In general, the plastic flow curve
3.1. Material laws of a metallic material can be represented by a yield condition in an
uniaxial notation analogous to (7):
The application of cutting and forming processes to metallic
f ðs ; e; ė; T; xÞ ¼ 0 (11)
materials involves highly complex interactions between plastic
material behaviour, strain rate, temperature and material micro- where s – real stress, e – real strain, de/dt – real plastic strain rate, T
structure. Even in conventional machining, very high equivalent – temperature, x – microstructure parameter.
strain rates of around 105 s1 are achieved in the shear zone. As The microstructure parameter x considers the influence of the
regards HSC, values of more than 107 s1 are possible. The strain size, form and arrangement of the grains as well as the type and
levels may amount to as much as 1000% in thin shear bands and dispersion of dislocations and microstructure [121]. These factors
temperatures reaching as high as the melting temperature of the are not considered in most cases because they are very complex
material may occur. Extreme dynamic material loading brings and difficult to measure experimentally. In many cases empirical,
about particular material behaviours such as increased strain rate microstructural (or rather micromechanical) approaches are used
density, local temperature elevation and formation of adiabatic to determine plastic material behaviour under mechanical process
shear bands and/or instabilities as well as the formation of loads.
segmented chips. Before these fundamental mechanisms can be The Johnson–Cook model presents one empirically established
evaluated and predicted, the material properties in this range of model [164].
process conditions must be known.    
T  T0 m
An exhaustive presentation and discussion of material testing s ¼ ðA þ B  en Þ  ð1 þ C  lnėÞ  1  (12)
TM  T0
focused on isotropic hardening for the metal forming industry is
given in [145], where special emphasis is placed on material- and where A, B, C, n and m – material constants, e – strain, T0 – room
product-oriented testing. Micro-structural models describe the in- temperature, TM – melting point of a specific alloy.
process and post-deformation aspects of material response in The model assumes that the flow stress curve is independently
terms of microstructure parameters. The phenomena covered by affected by strain, strain rate and temperature, as represented by
these models are dynamic and static phenomena, both of which are the different terms. But in this model temperature is influenced by
caused by deformation [123]. Dynamic phenomena arise at the strain due to adiabatic deformation at high strain rates [81]. As a
beginning of the deformation process and may continue through- result of the complex interrelations between the material law
out. They include hardening (not necessary restricted to isotropic parameters the existing approaches show major differences in
hardening), dynamic recovery, and dynamic recrystallisation. their identification of the flow stresses depending on the plastic
Dynamic phenomena leave the material in an unstable state that strain (Fig. 9).
promotes the start of static phenomena and, in particular, static
and meta-dynamic recovery and recrystallisation which are then
followed by grain growth. Examples of some important micro-
structural models are given in [15]. These models apply to slow
processes in particular such as super-plastic forming [29], where
simplified models [162] are used. Methods that are widely used for
high strain rate testing, such as flying wheel, drop tower, plate
impact and the split Hopkinson pressure bar enable the acquisition
and analysis of data in areas of high velocity [108,121,122]. Using
these facilities, it is possible to determine the parameters of most
empirical material models (e.g. [170]).
According to experimental results from electron backscatter
diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
experiments [150], the texture evolution does not develop
significantly with the variation in intermediate strain rates, while
dislocation structure and behaviour investigated by means of TEM
experiments shows significant differences with variations in strain
rates. The change in the dislocation structure, behaviour and
density with variation of strain rates could explain the mechan-
isms of the strain rate hardening, showing that round half-loop
dislocations are replaced by straight and crossing dislocations and Fig. 9. Comparison of a range of parameter sets for the Johnson–Cook model for
then by cell structured dislocations. TiAl6V4 [82,108,111].
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
3.2. Velocity-dependent friction
Research and development work on the numerical specification
of contact and friction conditions may include the following:
 Development, mathematical formulation, implementation of
friction models and implementation and adaptation to the
numerical solution methods [156].
 Standard implementations may be illustrated using Coulomb’s
Law and the Friction Factor Law.
t ¼ m  s n when t  t y
t ¼ t y when t  t y
where sn – normal contact stress, t – friction shear stress.
Both basic models were modified on the basis of a stick-slip
model. Using these laws enables consideration of the relative
sliding velocity between the tool and the workpiece and it is also
possible to represent flow cutting (see [36,156]).
Attempts are also being made to achieve a better friction
approximation by considering the influence of cutting speed,
temperature, rake angle, shear angle, material characteristics and
intermolecular forces in the simulation model. These influences
were verified either theoretically or experimentally. For example,
the influence of a sliding speed of between 60 and 400 mm/s in the
case of AISI 1045 steel has been studied by [32].
Using this data, a law of friction has been derived, based on
Coulomb friction (13) and taking into account sliding speed and
interface temperature.
m ¼ C 1  s n C 2  vg C 3  T int C 4
where Ci – coefficients, sn – contact normal stress, vg – sliding
speed, Tint – interface temperature.
The direct effect on the surface may be considered using the
model put forward by Heath [69] for describing the contact surface
on the basis of fractal mechanisms. The classic Coulomb Law of
friction enjoys wide acceptance in practice due to its simplicity.
However, it only reflects reality within a very small range of
applications.
A wide variety of analogous experiments are required to fully
characterise the friction phenomenon at variable sliding speeds. In
such experiments, conditions of pressure, velocities, surface
characteristics and temperature present in applications of interest,
need to be achieved. Espinosa et al. [57] report on experimental
research techniques available for the study of dynamic friction
such as:
 pressure-shear plate impact frictional experiments to investigate
time-resolved friction,
 modified Split-Hopkinson bar method, where a dynamic axial
force is applied to a rotating bar/specimen system to understand
the dynamic contact of two bodies with initial velocities,
 pin-on-disk tests, designed for low-velocity friction experiments
to understand the mechanisms involved in degradation of
material surfaces in contact for a long period of time, and
 various other techniques, ranging from quasi-static conditions to
very low sliding velocities, primarily used for studying quasi-
static frictional behaviour.
Espinosa et al. additionally show results of dynamic friction
tests on steel, aluminium and titanium materials at frictions
speeds up to 7 m/s. Here the quasi static friction mechanisms and
the velocity dependence of the friction coefficient are examined
with a high time resolution [57].
Some basic investigations into friction are carried out under dry
conditions to simplify the complex chip-tool interaction. Some of
the principal results concerning dry friction are summarised by
Philippon et al. as follows [144]. At low velocities (vc < 1 m/s) for
steel-on-steel non-lubricated contact of sliding surfaces, the
633
friction coefficient demonstrates a strong dependency on the
surface roughness of the real surface in contact [113]. Some
authors note that the apparent contact surface occurs at the tips of
asperities which create adhering patches like spot welds. The work
used for deforming or shearing the asperities during sliding
produces a frictional force. Other authors, finding higher value of
the coefficient m for rougher surfaces, relate the friction to the
forces required to make the asperities on one surface ride over
another. At higher velocities (vc > 1 m/s), it was observed that for
the same roughness conditions, the friction coefficient m depends
on both velocity v and the normal force applied N. The coefficient m
decreases with increases in sliding velocity v for a constant normal
(13)
force N applied. In the same way, for a constant sliding velocity v,
the friction coefficient m decreases with an increase in the applied
(14)
normal force N [127]. A decrease of m was attributed to the heat
generated during frictional sliding and to the oxidation produced
by the high temperatures generated.
3.3. Forming
In forming technology the following four friction conditions can
be distinguished which relate to surface pressure to the relative
velocity between the tool and the metal sheet and to the dynamic
viscosity of the lubricant:
 solid friction, direct contact between tool surface and the surface
of the metal,
 boundary friction, sliding on a lubrication oil film of molecular
size and boundary layer of the friction pairs,
 mixed friction, lubrication gap smaller than the total surface
roughness, and
(15)  hydrodynamic friction, lubrication gap greater than total surface
roughness.
With increasing sliding speed different friction conditions can be
observed. In the first stage of the movement, the friction coefficient
decreases but increases again slightly when reaching the stage of
hydrodynamic friction. In 1987, the American Society of Lubrication
Engineers was already aware of 234 different methods for
measuring friction and wear. The most widespread is the strip
drawing (and all its variations), which is a method for measuring
friction and wear in sheet metal materials. The principle of the strip
drawing method is based on a simplified model of sheet metal
forming processes, especially the deep drawing and the stretch
drawing processes. Applying this test method to the characteristic
deformation regions within the sheet metal forming process allows
an investigation of the following tribological interactions:
 blankholder/sheet metal/matrix,
 die radius/sheet metal, and
 punch radius/sheet metal.
3.4. Machining
Friction processes in the course of machining are characterised
by the fact that new surfaces are constantly developing and these
are coming into contact with the tool. The relative velocities,
temperatures and contact pressures are very high and vary over
wide ranges
The contact zone between the tool face and the chips being
discharged may be divided up into two areas (Fig. 10). In area 1 in
the vicinity of the cutting edge it is possible for seizure of the
material to occur [139,189,218]. Any run-off of the chips will then
only be possible if a flow layer is formed featuring major plastic
deformations. The adherent material may, assuming a low cutting
velocity, form built up edges while at high speeds a thin flow layer
with extremely high shear deformations tends to develop. In this
zone of plastic contact, Coulomb friction cannot be applied.
Frequently, friction factor models are used here where the
634 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 10. Contact stresses between the tool and the chip [40,139,189,218].
maximum shear stress is limited by the shear yield stress of the
machined material (14). Seizure occurs once the friction shear
stress t reaches the shear yield stress ty for the material.
In area 2 (Fig. 10), the zone of elastic contact, the chip slides
down the face of the tool and no further plastic deformation of the
material takes place. Here Coulomb friction (13) can be applied.
The friction coefficient m may be dependent on other parameters in
different ways, for example as described in (16). In order to obtain
data relevant to machining, friction tests need to be carried out at
high speed, high temperature and high normal contact pressure in
order to achieve plastic flow conditions. In addition, the chemical
purity of the consistently new surfaces emerging must be taken
into account. Standard pin-on-disk tribometers are not suitable for
this. A recently developed tribometer for machining studies is
described in [40].
At very high velocities vc and normal forces N, the sliding
surfaces are separated by a lubricating film of molten material,
reducing the friction coefficient m to very low values. The findings
presented by Philippon underline these assumptions [144]. These
results are in part confirmed by the investigations of Sutter et al.
[176] and Zemzemi et al. [214]. Sutter et al. use an air gun set-up to
arrange speeds vc > 50 m/s when cutting 42CrMo4 steel. Friction m
is considered in this case as the quotient of the tangential and
cutting force at a tool rake angle W = 08. The friction coefficient
decreases significantly with increasing cutting speed and cutting
depth (Fig. 11).
A range of different assumptions exist about the distribution of
stress in the contact zone, the expansion of the zones of plastic and
elastic friction contact and the friction conditions to be applied. A
number of authors use the distribution of Zorev [218] which is
illustrated in Fig. 10. Area 1 directly adjacent to the cutting edge is
characterised by a relatively low sliding speed right up to the point
of seizure [189] and very high contact pressure, whereas in area 2,
right up to the end of the tool–chip contact, the sliding speed
increases up to the chip discharge speed.
Fig. 11. Influence of the cutting speed on the friction coefficient [176].
A detailed overview of the current state of technology of the
frictional approaches used in simulations of chip formation can be
seen in [71]. Although we are familiar with the fact that Coulomb
friction only applies in the purely elastic area and that it cannot
correctly illustrate the process in the contact zone that occurs
during machining, this model is mostly used for reasons of
simplification in analytical and FEM calculations. In the most
straightforward case, a constant friction coefficient m is calculated
for the whole of the face based on the quotient of feed force Ff and
cutting force Fc and the rake angle g.
   
F
m ¼ tan arctan f þ g (16)
Fc
Here the influence of the material congestion on the cutting
edge has not been taken into account. Studies which focused on
varying the feed values showed that where larger feed rates are
concerned there exists a linear correlation between cutting and
feed force. Further, where contact lengths that are small by
comparison to the cutting edge radius are concerned, the effect of
material build-up can no longer be ignored. Other approaches that
have been the subject of further development work operate with
friction coefficients that are variable in relation to the zone in order
to eliminate this problem [5,8].
The simulation of friction not only calls for appropriate friction
models, but also for in-depth knowledge of material behaviour.
Due to the extreme deformation conditions in the flow layer, there
are hardly any material parameters available to enable their
simulation. In [109] an attempt was made to estimate material
data in the flow layer by comparing FEM simulations with
metallographic studies of real chips. The definition of a viscous
flow layer V31 has made it possible to reproduce, with a good level
of approximation, the field of velocity in the inner area of the chip
root together with the extreme deformation gradients in the
boundary layer of the chip in the FE model (Fig. 12).
By way of frictional boundary conditions, seizures of up to half
the contact length and subsequently Coulomb friction with a
constant friction value were assumed. However, this method is
considerably more complex than a simple comparison of measured
and calculated forces.
Examinations of the friction and contact area at the tool surface
after machining AISI 1045 steel show that, depending on the
cutting speed, a transfer of elementary iron between tool and chip
takes place. At high cutting speeds, an iron transfer layer is
observed, thus supporting the tendency for adhesion and
increasing plasticity of the secondary shear zone. At lower cutting
speeds, pure sliding occurs with no significant iron transfer layers.
The percentage of the iron transfer over the contact length is also
influenced by the cutting speed. Surface roughness analysis of the
tool rake face supports the existence of sticking and sliding regions
[3,80]. Hitherto, no adequate friction model has existed which
generally describes the contact between tool, workpiece and chip
under the conditions of the chip formation process.
3.5. Simulation of velocity-dependent processes
To explain the processes involved in chip formation a large
number of models have been developed based on continuum
mechanics and continuum thermodynamics (2)–(9), molecular
dynamics and empirical data. In addition to purely empirical
technological models by Kienzle [85], Taylor [180] and Kronenberg
[104] shear line and shear zone models predominantly came to be
used from an early stage. For better illustration of the circum-
stances, these have undergone consistent further development by
numerous authors, starting from the simple straight shear line
right through to shear zones where the boundary is curvilinear and
takes into account cutting edge rounding. These models are based
on the simplifying assumptions of:
 stationary flow,
 plane strain,
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 12. Model of a viscous boundary layer in the contact zone between chip and tool and zone of extreme deformation in the real chip [109].
 rigid-ideal plastic material behaviour,
 idealised tool geometry,
 Coulomb friction.
More recent approaches also include extensions to incorporate
rounded cutting edges plus curvilinear cutting face and chip shape
geometry [200]. This also enables simulation of wear phenomena
on the tool.
Due to the high level of abstraction, the shear lines and shear
zone models are of only limited usefulness in describing the highly
complex chip formation process. Because of their universal
application capability and the increasingly powerful hardware
and software, the FEM today represents the most widespread
method of approach.
For simulations it is essential to focus on the important factors
and procedures that are responsible for the main effects during
production processes. In order to achieve a good correlation
between the simulation results and experimental results, all
components of the simulation relative to the material data, the
physical boundary conditions and the geometrical structure of the
process must be considered. This applies to metal forming
processes as well as machining processes.
3.6. Forming
Prominent examples for the utilisation of the velocity as a
process parameter are the electromagnetic forming (EMF) and
superplastic forming (SPF). In EMF the deformation of the
workpiece is driven by the Lorentz force, a material body force
that results from the interaction of a pulsed magnetic field with
eddy currents induced by the magnetic field itself. For the
numerical modelling a coupled 3D simulation of this process is
required. As regards the mechanical structure a thermo-elastic,
visco-plastic, electromagnetic material model is relevant and this
is incorporated in a large-deformation dynamic formulation. The
evolution of the electromagnetic field is governed by Maxwell’s
equations. Their numerical solution in 3D calls for particular
arrangements due to problems connected with an adequate
gauging of the fields [174,196]. Hence, Nédélec elements are
required. Coupling between the thermomechanical and the
electromagnetic subsystems takes the form of the Lorentz force,
the electromotive intensity. A staggered scheme based on a
Lagrangian mesh for the workpiece and an ALE formulation for the
electromagnetic field has been shown in [174] to solve the coupled
system, guaranteeing the efficiency and accuracy of the data
transfer between the two meshes. Up to today, a number of
numerical simulations of EMF have been undertaken [20,60,179].
Often commercial or semi-commercial programs such as ABAQUS,
635
MARC or FEAP have been utilised [20,33,182] to simulate the
process. However, in the approaches reported on above, emphasis
is placed on the modelling and simulation of the coupling between
the electromagnetic and the mechanical model, whereas the
material models employed were not adapted to the particular
requirements of the process. These primarily include a considera-
tion of the rate dependence which is typical of the behaviour of
metallic materials at high forming rates such as those achieved
during EMF. This is associated with the fact that mechanical
dissipation may result in a possibly significant temperature
increase in this almost adiabatic process. Relevant thermodyna-
mically consistent electromagnetic thermo-mechanical multi-field
models have been developed and implemented in [173,177] based
on a Lagrangian formulation for the mechanical system and an
Eulerian formulation on a fixed mesh for the electromagnetic
system.
Superplasticity is the ability of materials to undergo extreme
elongations. It was discovered variously by individuals such as
Benough in 1912 [25] and Pearson in 1934 [142]. Superplastic
behaviour only occurs within a narrow range of temperatures and
strain rates, it is characteristic for some fine-grained (3–5 mm)
alloys at temperatures of the order of half the absolute melting
temperature. Several titanium alloys are superplastic, as are many
specially formulated aluminium, stainless steel and Inconel alloys
[7]. During superplastic forming (SPF), it is possible to produce, in a
single operation, highly complex, detailed structures that would
normally be realised by assembling numerous components. [37].
Since the material behaviour during forming is visco-plastic, high
dimensional accuracy can be achieved with only minor levels of
spring-back associated with cold forming or even none at all.
Superplasticity has been widely utilised in a variety of forming
processes such as forging, extrusion and blow-forming [61,66]. The
low strain rates of SPF processes (and hence the long forming times
required) provide a major incentive for process optimisation [17].
In general, the investigations focus on metallurgical aspects, the
determination of relevant process parameters [38], strain rate
controlled forming, characteristics of deformation and failure/
preventing premature failure, reducing the forming time without
compromising the uniformity of deformation, effects of grain
evolution and cavitation on the superplastic forming process.
More recently, there has been an increase in the use of the finite
element technique to simulate the SPF process because it lends
itself to a closer examination of variables such as strain rate than is
the case with the experimental process [125,201,212]; codes such
as MARC, ABAQUS and ANSYS are commonly used. In the absence
of elastic effects, SPF behaviour can conveniently be described as a
kind of non-Newtonian viscous flow. The mechanisms of super-
plasticity are considered in detail in [39,141,153]. Increasingly
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investigations point towards cooperative grain boundary sliding
[140,141,213] as being a dominant influence on the extreme
ductility achievable in superplastic materials. In cooperative grain
boundary sliding, individual grains form conglomerates which
move as a whole.
3.7. Machining
For machining processes Marusich gives a good overview of
simulation activities prior to 1995 [119]. As a general rule, visco-
plastic material behaviour (4)–(7) is specified for FEM simulation
of chip removal. Thermo-mechanically coupled calculations (2),
(3), (8) and (9) are used. For describing material behaviour, the use
of the Johnson–Cook equation (12) is preferred [82]. Another semi-
empirical model is presented by Zerilli and Armstrong. It considers
micromechanical effects in relation to the thermal activation
behaviour of face-centered (fcc) and body-centered cubic (bcc)
structures of the workpiece material. Other constitutive material
laws are formulated by Oxley, Clifton Hensel-Spittel and El-Magd
respectively, where the stress s is determined by different linear or
exponential procedures within the equation terms [55].
The type of constitutive material law strongly influences the
flow stress in FE simulations and thereby the computed forces,
temperatures and chip geometries. Results from different material
models in workpiece material AISI 1045 and workpiece material
AISI 52100 are compared in Fig. 13 [51].
An increase in these differences may be noted, especially within
the range of extreme high and low temperatures and strain rates.
As the cutting speed increases, a transition occurs in relation to
many ductile materials from flow chip formation to segmented
chip formation. Thermally contingent concentrations of deforma-
tions, material failures or a combination of both are regarded as
causes. However, this change in chip formation characteristics is
not always observed. Possible causes include differences in the
temperature level between continuous and interrupted cutting
Fig. 13. Influence of temperature and strain rate on the true stress at strain e = 1 and
strain rate de/dt = 3000s1 [51].
Fig. 14. Example of a modified Johnson–Cook approach in accordance with Calamaz
for TiAl6V4 [35].
[158]. Studies have also shown that structure and heat treatment
have a far greater influence on chip formation than the cutting
speed [2,129].
Several modifications of the Johnson–Cook method (12) allow
for softening at higher levels of strain, a factor which leads to
improved modelling of thermal softening and hence to segmented
chip formation as a result of adiabatic shearing (Fig. 14)
[35,83,152].
The so-called adiabatic shear bands are based on alternate
hardening and softening of the material in the primary shear zone.
This process which implies a cyclic progression causes a varying
(segmented) chip geometry and also translates into fluctuations in
the cutting force. Variants which make additional allowances for
micromechanical material structure and phase transition
[120,215] are particularly suited to very high strain rates and
temperatures of less than half the melting temperature of the
material. For even higher temperatures, diffusion and recovery
processes must also be taken into account [215].
The second important approach to simulating chip segmenting
is the localised dissolution of material cohesion if a specified
parameter value is exceeded. This also makes it possible to
simulate chip rupture. An overview of the various rupture models
is provided by [21,71]. In most cases failure criteria in accordance
with Lemaitre or Cockroft-Latham [195] are applied in a range of
modified forms. Whereas, in accordance with Lemaitre, a
successive decline in material strength is simulated as stress
develops, according to Cockroft-Latham a sudden failure occurs
once a specified failure value is reached. This failure may occur
either as a result of dissolution of the element cohesion or
following elimination of the elements in which the failure criterion
has been exceeded [11,149,167]. However, an unrealistic loss of
mass is associated with the elimination of elements which may
lead to errors in relation to the simulation.
Taking into account adiabatic shear bands as discussed in
Section 2 only leads to a slight segmentation by comparison with
real chips, so that some authors recommend a combination with
failure simulations [77,168,192]. By contrast, good results without
additional failure models were achieved by [13] and [77]. It is
possible to reinforce segmentation by manipulating the flow
curves used, but at the same time material behaviour that is not
validated by experiments may be anticipated.
Good geometric correlations of FEM simulations with experi-
mentally generated segmented chips have been achieved with the
Cockroft-Latham [121,195] and Lemaitre [192] failure models. At
very high cutting velocities, changes to active mechanisms occur
during the chip formation process which affect the formation of
chips, the thermo-mechanical load on the tool and the quality of
the surfaces generated including the formation of burrs
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
[60,96,107,183]. These aspects require consideration in numerical
simulations.
At high cutting speeds, a reduction in cutting force can be
observed [95,158] as discussed in Section 2.3. Based on the
minimum energy principle, the shear angle is always adjusted so
that the cutting force is minimal. At the same time, the shear angle
is geared to achieving very high cutting velocities against a limit
value that is dependent on the rake angle. In theory, it is possible to
demonstrate here that the cutting force reaches a minimum as the
speed of cutting increases and then starts to rise again [183].
However, this only applies where there is a continuous flow chip.
For machining processes with segmented chip formation, the
cutting force remains at level that is roughly constant once the
minimum has been reached [166].
Burr formation can also be shown to be dependent on cutting
speed in some cases. Studies into high speed machining show a
reduction in burrs as cutting speed increases [10,86], while distinct
minima in terms of burr formation were sometimes found [87,114].
4. Influence of velocity on process and performance
4.1. Processes and velocity
Production processes are the result of interaction between the
tool/machine and the workpiece/material. Hence, the investigation
of a production process with its variables implies that the related
modules should be taken into account at the same extent. In the
case of velocity as a significant influencing variable, several
reference points may be identified. Velocity may be specified in
relation to the workpiece, the material, the tool or the machine. For
this reason, velocity as a concept needs to be carefully formulated
and clearly applied. The use of the term without a reference may
leave the definition ambiguous. For example, in explosive forming
velocity could refer to the shock wave velocity, the workpiece
velocity as well as to the strain rate. The precise use of the concept
is therefore essential for effective communication and the
successful interchange of knowledge.
In referring to the workpiece as a process module, the concept
of velocity is linked predominantly with the movement of the
component and thus with handling or transport operations. When
applied in conjunction with hybrid processes, the concept of
workpiece velocity acquires a further meaning. If the machining
process is made up of a combined movement of workpiece and tool
together, then it is essential to distinguish between the individual
velocities. With processes such as spin extrusion, transverse
rolling, rotary milling or ultrasound-assisted machining, move-
ments of the workpiece as well as of the tool may occur and
become superimposed on each other in such a way as to culminate
in a movement. The velocity of the workpiece and the velocity of
the tool will then result in a process velocity.
If it refers to the material or the behaviour of the material, the
concept of velocity will re-appear within the framework of a
different relationship. Describing the material behaviour, velocity
plays a significant role in defining the strain rate as discussed in
Section 2.3. It results from the degree of deformation and hence
from the process conditions such as the tool or workpiece velocity.
Therefore, workpiece velocity and strain rate are not identical but
have a direct relationship.
In referring to the tool as a process module, velocity is a key
factor. In machining, cutting and feed velocities represent central
process parameters. In forming, ram velocity in deep drawing or
die velocity in the case of extrusion are terms that are commonly
used in relation to velocity. If the service life and wear on the tools
used are examined, tool velocity will also prove to be an essential
factor. As machining velocities rise, wear on the tools can increase
and the quality of the machining declines. Under certain
circumstances, above-average or significantly lower machining
velocities may lead to smaller loads on tools and this may
ultimately be of benefit for the machining process. The production
process is considerably influenced by the machine performance.
637
In referring to the machine as a process module, the process is
directly affected by the machine performance. Performance in this
context means the productivity or the output of the machine; i.e.
the speed at which processes can be implemented and components
can be completed.
4.2. Influence of velocity in forming, shearing and joining
With regard to forming technology speed, temperature and
weight are the fundamental process parameters [63]. These in
essence define the limits of performance and the application
spectrum for the respective forming procedure. These variables
directly influence the process performance. High velocity forming,
superplastic forming, high velocity shearing and magnet pulse
welding have shown the potential of exploiting this relationship.
High velocity forming is characterised by a forming process
which takes place in a very short period of time. This requires high
component acceleration which implies high energy transformation
within a short period of time, too. The significant workpiece
velocities are associated with high strain rates. The high velocities
in this process group thus help to expand the limits of material
formability in the forming process and allow much more
geometrically complex shapes [134]. In addition, forming proce-
dures can be applied to materials not formable with conventional
processes. Such materials include magnesium [193,194], nickel
[115], aluminium [79,160,205] or titanium alloys [73,100].
Forming processes at higher velocities allow high dimensional
and shape accuracies as well as the potential to dispense with
specific stages in the forming process [42,88,134]. Due to the
twinning that occurs during high velocity forming [74,181,194]
grain boundary strengthening occurs. This is a process that
encourages a more even load on the component [73,181] and
improves the fatigue strength characteristics of the components
[136]. In sheet metal forming, success in reducing springback and
in eliminating wrinkling has been achieved by implementing high
in-process velocities [136,208].
High process velocities incorporate a great deal of potential as
far as shearing is concerned [9,78,111,157,161,171]. As a result of
the high process velocity ‘‘adiabatic shear bands’’ occur as shown
in Fig. 15.
At high cutting speeds, a jump in temperature (Wmax  1000 8C)
may occur within a locally restricted zone in a very short time. This
can lead to a softening of the material. The effect, ‘‘adiabatic shear
bands’’, results in higher cutting surface quality in terms of smooth
and burr-free surfaces but also in a particularly fine-grained
microstructure [103,105,131]. Evidence of a narrowing of the
deformation zone was established by comparison to the conven-
tional shearing processes together with increased dimensional and
shape accuracy [131] as discussed in Section 2. Furthermore,
lubricant can be dispensed with during the process so as reduce the
costs of reworking [131,136].
High velocity technology has also gained greater importance
within the joining technology sector. Impact welding processes,
such as pulse magnetic welding and explosive cladding, are
Fig. 15. Strain hardening as result of high process velocities in shearing.
638 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650

representative examples which provide evidence of the positive

effects of implementing high velocities in the joining process. One
great advantage lies in the capability of producing joints made of
different materials, which has not always been possible using
conventional techniques [58,64,100]. In addition, in this welding
process, there is no occurrence of a typical heat-affected zone or
distortion in areas close to the weld and the formation of damaging
inter-metallic phases can be minimised [216]. The joint areas are
characterised by good strength properties and sometimes demon-
strate even greater levels of strength than the basic materials
[56,216]
Superplastic forming is one example of how, even at low speeds,
forming limits can be extended as discussed in Section 3.3. As a
result of low flow stresses associated with superplasticity small
forming forces occur, which may also lead to lower tool loads
[105]. However, one main disadvantage of low speeds in the
forming process is the reduced productivity.
Fig. 17. Classification of tool materials [94].
4.3. Velocity in cutting, cutting tool materials
PCBN has a high temperature hardness, while its toughness and
The velocity in cutting is related to the cutting tool properties thermal conductivity and thereby its performance can be adjusted
and the surface integrity of the machined workpiece as well as to by the boron content and the type of binder. High-speed conditions
some phenomena concerning the technological process safety at are limited by process temperatures due to thin layers adhesion on
high cutting speeds. the tool surface when the melting point of the workpiece material
As shown in Fig. 16, at higher cutting speeds the workpiece is reached [59].
temperature and the specific cutting force decrease, the removal Ceramic tool materials have a comparable high thermal and
rate and productivity increase and surface quality improves. Tool chemical resistance to PCBN. They are divided in oxide-ceramics,
life has an optimum speed range due to a combination of various mixed-ceramics and SiN-ceramics. With SiN-ceramics and com-
wear phenomena, cost and energy considerations. bined PCBN-SiN inserts, a high process performance can be realised
In cutting, the velocity also depends on the interrelation of the during face milling of cast iron at vc = 1000 m/min [47].
high dynamic process characteristic and the component proper- The influence of the cutting speed in milling was investigated
ties. However, high-speed-cutting processes have to be considered by Bouzakis et al. [30] for coated carbide inserts. Fig. 18 shows
differently. Besides the geometrical dimensions and the machining
conditions, the chemical and physical properties of the workpiece
and the cutting tool materials determine the tool performance and
the wear behaviour. In comparison to conventional cutting speeds,
the tool is exposed to much higher temperatures and friction loads.
The tool hardness and the chemical stability of substrate and
coating as well as the shock resistance at elevated temperatures
play an important role [34]. Fig. 17 shows the range of various tool
material properties concerning toughness or bending strength, and
wear resistance or hot hardness related to impact strength or feed
and cutting speed, respectively.
Carbide tools are widely used in HSC, especially fine-grain
substrates with a grain size even below 1 mm. Coatings composed
of aluminium, titanium and carbon are used to enhance the tool
performance. Coating technologies, mainly PVD and CVD, influence
the physical properties of the coating in terms of chemical stability,
hardness and residual stresses [204]. For enhanced oxidation
resistance and high temperature strength, AlCrN, CrAlSiN or PVD-
Al2O3 are included in the coating. The tool performance can further
be increased by multilayer coating systems [27]. Due to their
specific properties, polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) and
ceramics are suitable for high speed cutting of cast iron and
machining of hardened steels (>60 HRC), coated carbides are used
for alloyed steels up to 50 HRC.

Fig. 18. Flank wear versus the number of cuts (a) and number of cuts up to
Fig. 16. Effect of high speed cutting on the machining process [95]. VB = 0.2 mm (b), at various cutting speeds [30].
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 19. Influence of the cutting speed on the subsurface microstructure [186].
results of milling tests with a single TiAlN coated insert at various
cutting speeds up to 600 m/min. The overall best cutting
performance is achieved at the cutting speed of 200 m/min,
attaining a flank wear of 0.2 mm, after approximately 55,000 cuts.
This effect can be attributed to the improvement of the film
impact resistance and strength properties at a cutting temperature
between 100 8C and 200 8C. At early flank wear stages of
approximately 0.04 mm, coating failure starts on the curvature
of the cutting edge and they display a slow propagation rate in the
region of 200 m/min. At higher cutting speeds, additional coating
failure is developed on the rake face. At higher flank wear stages up
to 0.2 mm, the coating removal on the cutting edge is complete;
however, this occurs at a significantly higher number of cuts, for a
cutting speed of 200 m/min. At cutting speeds of 100 m/min and
600 m/min, severe coating damage appears at the very beginning
of the tool utilisation.
The tool design is of special interest, because tool breakage can
lead to damage to the workpiece, machining spindle or other parts
of the machining system [34,110]. Substantial increases in the
cutting tool performance can be achieved by the sensible
manipulation of the cutting edge geometry and the preparation
technologies [50].
Regarding the influence of cutting speed on application and
safety (for example aerospace or automotive industries) it is
necessary to understand the effect of the cutting speed on the
subsurface integrity of the various components. If the relative speed
between the tool and the workpiece is increased, the temperature
and the temperature gradient in the cutting tool (and also in the
chip) increase. As result, the specific forces decrease and the affected
depth of the workpiece subsurface is reduced (Fig. 19) [46,186].
The effect of the cutting speed vc on the residual stresses for
high speed milling up to cutting speeds of vc = 1500 m/min in
cutting aluminium Al7449 is shown in Fig. 20 [48]. Increasing the
cutting speed from vc = 250–750 m/min causes a decrease in the
Fig. 20. Influence of the cutting speed on the residual stress distribution [48].
639
compressive residual stresses at the surface, whereas the max-
imum compressive residual stress in the subsurface zone remains
nearly constant (Fig. 20, left). Beyond this cutting speed, the
subsurface effect remains constant.
Chip formation at high cutting speeds can decrease the surface
quality of the workpiece. Increasing surface roughness due to scurf
formation, material residues and vibration at high speeds has been
examined by a number of authors [79,92,186].
Grinding and fine finishing are advancing towards high
efficiency and high speeds [89]. The cutting speed and the feed
speed determine the effective chip thickness. An increase in the
rotational speed of the grinding wheel can improve either the
workpiece surface quality or productivity (Fig. 21). In the first case,
the workpiece is influenced thermally to a greater extent [89,154].
Furthermore, grinding with high cutting speeds results in a
changed chip forming process [89,117].
Cubic boron nitride grains are used as an abrasive for machining
steels with high speeds due to their hardness and wear resistance.
Grinding wheels operating at speeds of up to 500 m/s need to
exhibit high fracture and wear resistance, good damping proper-
ties as well as high stiffness and good thermal conductivity
[89,117]. Besides using wheels without a central bore, segmented
grinding wheels are used to increase the burst speed [117]. Finite-
element-assisted calculations of the bursting speed configure the
grinding wheel elements, like the bond system and base body [22].
Due to the regenerative effects influencing the workpiece as well as
the grinding wheel surfaces, self-excited chatter vibrations can
result during high-speed grinding [154]. Therefore, sensors and
actuators for process monitoring are used to carry out chatter
control [117]. According to Oliveira et al. [155] the potential of CBN
wheels has not yet been exploited. A possibility of convincing
industry of the advantages may be the mixture of known effects, as
Duscha et al. [52] have recently shown. A combination of speed
stroke and high speed grinding extends existing process limits
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Fig. 21. Influences in high speed grinding [89].
considerably via reduced grinding energies, wheel wear and
surface roughness.
5. Technological applications
5.1. High velocity forming processes
The technological applications of the high velocity forming
processes vary widely. Daehn [43] classifies the processes the
energy source used. Thus chemical, electrical, electromagnetic or
mechanical energy can be used to provide the process energy for
forming. Examples for the use of chemical energy include explosive
forming processes. Electrical energy acts, for example, in electro-
hydraulic processes and electromagnetic forming processes. High
velocity hammers utilise mechanically stored energy as a source to
achieve high process velocities. Lange [105] breaks down the high
velocity processes into operations with active fluid media
(explosive forming, electro-hydraulic forming, expansion of
compressed gases), with active energy (electromagnetic forming)
and processes with accelerated masses (pneumatic-mechanical
processes). Further systematisation approaches are based on the
type of energy transfer or oriented towards special technologies
[54,93].
5.1.1. Electromagnetic forming
Electromagnetic forming (EMF) uses the Lorentz forces acting
on workpieces (preferably fabricated from an electrically highly
conductive material) by pulsating magnetic fields, as discussed in
Section 3.3. There is no contact between the coil generating the
magnetic fields and the workpiece. It can be used for compression
of tubes/profiles, expansion of tubes/profiles and forming of sheet
metal [68]. In [19,148] a detailed description of the process
principles and a review of the current state of the art concerning
process analysis, equipment design and applications can be found.
In EMF, coil currents may typically be characterised by rise
times in the range of 5–50 ms and peak values of a magnitude of
101–102 kA. Correspondingly, the magnetic pressure may attain
values in the range of 20–120 MPa or higher within the same rise
time. Consequently, the deformation is often completed within
100 ms or less. During this time, the workpiece is accelerated to
velocities of up to several hundred metres per second followed by
subsequent deceleration. Depending on the geometry, strain rates
of 103–104 s1 may occur. Compared to conventional quasi-static
forming processes, localising effects are less distinctive and under
certain circumstances the formability of some materials is
increased.
In Fig. 22, the strain achieved by electromagnetic forming to
produce conical and v-shaped parts is shown. In comparison with
the quasi-static forming limit curve, a significant increase in the
forming limits is achieved [65]. This observation is consistent with
earlier findings based on studies of electromagnetic ring expansion
and another impulse forming process [14]. Here, the increase in
formability due to high forming velocities is referred to as
hyperplasticity (Fig. 22). The reduced tendency to localising
effects also stabilises the electromagnetic compression process.
Comparative experiments show that applying a quasi-static
hydraulic pressure to the outside of a tube, will result in buckling
without any uniform diameter reduction while EMF is more
uniform (Fig. 23a).
The influences of process parameters are discussed in [19,146].
By contrast to tube compression processes, free electromagnetic
sheet metal forming usually continues after the decline of the
pressure due to inertial effects. In such cases, applying a pressure
pulse with a shorter rise time and a higher maximum does not
significantly change the forming velocity. Any adaptation of the
velocity is possible only with a concurrent change in the resulting
workpiece geometry. This can be realised by adapting the charging
energy or the coil geometry [19].
In the case of sheet forming into a die (which is more relevant
from a technological viewpoint), one factor that is decisive is the
distribution of velocity. Here, the abrupt deceleration of the
workpiece due to contact with the die has to be taken into account.
As shown in [151], this deceleration can be especially problematic
if the target geometry is of low stiffness (risk of re-bounce).
Moreover [151] shows that, particularly in cases of target
geometries with relatively small drawing depth, an inhomogen-
eously distributed velocity can lead to an incomplete realisation of
the final part geometry (Fig. 24a). If the velocity distribution is
homogeneous, it is much easier to achieve a better target shape
(Fig. 24b).
5.1.2. Explosive forming, laser-shock forming, electro-hydraulic
forming and hydro-pulse-forming
Explosive forming processes may be divided into processes
where the explosive comes into direct contact with the workpiece
(contact operations) and processes where the explosive is ignited
Fig. 22. Formability of conventionally and electromagnetically formed sheets
according to [65].
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 23. (a) Comparison of quasi-statically and impulsively compressed tubes; (b)
roundness deflections in electromagnetic tube compression according to [146].
at a distance from the workpiece (stand-off operations). In stand-
off operations, the transfer of energy is realised by means of a
transmitting medium (e.g. air, water, oil, sand, ice or even loamy
soil) [26]. In terms of velocity, the velocity of the shock wave
generated may attain values of up to 8000 m/s. As a result
pressures of up to 10,000 MPa are achieved on the component
surfaces [93].
Explosive forming is used in the cold forming of sheet metals
with limited formability, for example titanium or zirconium alloys.
In addition, the process is used in tube forming and in bulk metal
forming, for example in forging. The component spectrum ranges
from workpieces for automotive, aircraft and rocket manufacture
to reactor construction and application areas in medical technol-
ogy [93]. The scope of application for explosively formed
components has likewise increased in recent years [4]. Barriers
to the implementation of this technology have been the strict
statutory regulations and necessary safety precautions as well as
the lengthy set-up times.
Studies into explosive forming can therefore take place only
within a restricted framework. The focus of investigation lies on
the increase in formability of high-strength materials as well as the
realisation of complicated part geometries [72,198,211]. Another
aim is to improve the correlation between the numerical and
experimental results [4,84,128]. First activities can be observed in
the field of machine development for explosive forming processes
[211].
The provision of active energy using gas generators (known
from car airbags) is a technological variant of explosive forming.
The advantage is the fast and controllable generation of appro-
priate gas volumes and pressures. Based on the achievable
expansion velocities as well as the pressures, this technology
lends itself to forming and cutting sheet as well as tubular
components. The combination of media-based and high velocity
Fig. 24. Influence of the velocity distribution on the forming result in
electromagnetic sheet metal forming according to [151].
641
operations makes it possible to achieve high-complex component
geometries. Some basic studies [131,132,135] were conducted
which established the basic feasibility of this technology. Since the
gas medium acts as an active tool component, the tool design can
be considerably simplified. Consequently, the opportunity is
offered of achieving a significant increase in efficiency.
The objective of one industrial project was the potential
evaluation for increasing the manufacturing flexibility and hence
for cost reduction in small and medium-range volume production
[136]. As part of the project various component derivates were
manufactured (engine bonnet–inner part). The basis was a 2-stage
forming process consisting of a conventional deep-drawing
operation for generating a uniform pre-form and a subsequent
forming process using gas generators to achieve/calibrate the final
geometry.
Shock waves can also be provided by the electro-hydraulic
effect. Here, a high voltage discharge placed in a suitable medium,
for instance water, will lead to the formation of the shock wave,
which distributes the energy for the forming processes. The shock
wave develops as a result of the explosive volatilisation of a wire, in
most cases copper or aluminium, in a fluid medium or due to spark
discharge in a liquid. The liquid is in direct contact with the
component and replaces part of the tool [181,209]. On-going
studies are aimed at transferring the technology to industrial
applications. One item of other research activities [76] is the
expansion of the forming limits for stainless steel to produce
sharp-edged contours.
In laser shock forming processes, deformation is induced by
mechanical pressure generated by a shock wave (Fig. 25). This has
its origins in workpiece coating, whereby one layer of the coating is
abruptly volatilised by a laser beam impulse. Extensive studies into
laser shock forming are described in [160,197,207].
Another interesting approach is the hydro impulse process
[199]. The process is based on the forming of a workpiece in a die
by means of a pressure impulse that is generated by a
pneumatically accelerated hammer and transmitted to the work-
piece by means of a liquid medium. Studies with the focus on the
process mechanisms, the process-specific effects as well as on the
process limits and component characteristics have taken place for
different sheet metal materials.
5.2. Superplastic forming
Superplastic forming is a process by which extremely complex-
shaped lightweight components can be realised as discussed in
Section 3.3. The opportunity of enabling single operation forming
of very complex details normally realised by assembling numerous
components is attracting the attention of many industrial sectors
(e.g. automotive and aircraft industries). In [130] for instance,
different types of gas forming using superplasticity are described.
Due to the increasing demand for the implementation of
lightweight design strategies, there is a growing need to utilise
superplastic forming for producing complex structures for a
greater range of applications. Therefore today’s research activities
are focused on the forming of innovative lightweight materials.
Fig. 25. Principle of laser shock forming [197].
642 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650

Fig. 26. Realisation of lightweight fan blades by HMGF.

Fig. 27. Process combination: superplastic forming and diffusion bonding.

Constraining factors include the relatively high material costs and
the lengthy process times.
5.2.1. Hot metal gas forming and quick plastic forming
So-called hot metal gas forming (HMGF) is a process variant of
superplastic forming, developed to reduce the process time
significantly [24,53]. Note that there has been an increase in
efforts to make use of HMGF in industrial applications. For
example, one industrial project targeted the realisation of light-
weight fan blades for aircraft engines made from titanium alloys
(Fig. 26).
Forming times of approx. 1 min at a forming temperature of
W = 650 8C as well as a forming pressure of p  700 bar have been
achieved [134]. This process, which is also called quick plastic
forming (QPF), offers the opportunity of achieving strain levels that
are comparable with pure superplastic forming. It was developed
as a high-volume, hot blow forming process for automobile
components. By contrast to superplastic forming (grain boundary
sliding), a further materials mechanism becomes more important –
the so-called ‘‘viscous glide controlling dislocation creep’’ [28]. The
company GM uses quick plastic forming to produce complex
carbody components in quantities of up to 100,000 pieces per year
[101]. In order to shorten the process time, the blanks are heated
outside the forming tool. The QPF process itself is carried out, by
contrast to the SPF, at lower temperatures (W  450–500 8C) and
higher strain rates (103–101 s1).
5.2.2. Process combinations
A further approach aimed at reducing process times in
superplastic forming is the use of process combinations, for
example, a conventional deep drawing process followed by the
superplastic process [116]. A further example is the combination of
superplastic forming with hydraulic stretch forming at room
temperature with the objective of guaranteeing strain hardening of
the formed material ensuring a sufficient part strength and
accuracy [112].
The combination of a superplastic forming process with
diffusion bonding (SPF/DB) contributes towards increasing the
productivity of SPF processes. Since complex, integral reinforcing
structures can be realised, applications abound in the aircraft
industry (e.g. hollow fan lightweight fan blades, canard wings,
hollow multi-skin panels, and honeycomb panels) [70]. Fig. 27
shows the process sequence. In general, the bonding process is
carried out as a single stage operation using masks to define the
areas to be joined. Subsequently, the final geometry and the
internal stiffening structure are realised in a second stage.
conventional materials can be modified to cope with high levels
of strain. To extend the applications, strategies to modify
conventional materials were developed. One approach is to
generate superplastic characteristics on the basis of an ultra-fine
grained microstructure. This can be achieved, for example, using
SPD (Severe Plastic Deformation) processes [12,133]. Another
method for the generation of superplastic characteristics within a
locally restricted area is Friction Stir Processing [126].
5.3. Joining and cladding at high velocities
Impulse forming technologies (e.g. electromagnetic forming,
electrohydraulic forming or explosive forming) may also be
applied to join hollow profiles as well as sheet workpieces. The
resulting connections may be based on any one of three different
joining mechanisms: interference-fit, form-fit, and metallic bond-
ing or impulse welding.
However, regardless of the particular joining mechanism, the
impacting velocity represents the decisive factor as far as the
formation and the resulting strength of the joint are concerned.
During impulse forming the workpiece is rapidly accelerated and
then decelerated again. This means that the forming velocity
depends on time as well as on displacement as shown in Fig. 28.
The impacting velocity is the forming velocity associated with
the displacement that corresponds to the clearance between the
parts to be joined. Consequently, as far as electromagnetic joining
is concerned, it can be adjusted via the pressure pulse and via this
clearance. This means that, for a constant charging energy, the
transferable load can be maximised if the clearance is carefully
chosen (see Fig. 29).
This correlation has been investigated on the basis of inter-
ference-fit joints in [118]. The influence of velocity on form-fit

5.2.3. Material
The materials that are used for superplastic forming operations
must satisfy the requirements for a homogeneous structure, small
grain size and high resistance to grain growth during forming as
discussed in Section 3.3. These materials are frequently associated
with high costs. In order to open up superplastic forming for
further applications, investigations are underway as to how Fig. 28. Dependence of forming velocity on time and on displacement [118].
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 29. Transferable force in interference fit joints produced by electromagnetic
compression [118].
joining of tubes and the process design are discussed in [203]. Here,
the effect of different pressure pulses on the transferable force is
studied. It has been proved that applying higher charging energy and
thus a higher pressure maximum without changing the pressure rise
time results in higher transferable strength. Similarly, joints
manufactured by applying the same charging energy but a pressure
pulse with a shorter rise time and a higher maximum demonstrate
higher transferable strength. A metallic bond is created when the
atoms are propelled towards each other with forces sufficiently high
to enable the atoms to overcome their natural repulsion forces and
share and exchange electrons. Thus the velocity of the impact will
have a significant effect on joint quality. In the case of electro-
magnetically welded sheets, joint strength can be increased by
increasing charging energy and, correspondingly, forming velocity
[99]. Moreover, there is an optimum standoff distance for a constant
charging energy at which the sheets attain maximum impact
velocity and at which the shear strength of the resulting joint is
optimised. The microstructural properties of the weld are also
influenced by the impact velocity [202].
A primarily macroscopic view of the weld seams produced by
electromagnetic forming will often show non-welded zones
typically in the centre of the weld [147,202]. One explanation
for this effect is that high joining quality can only be achieved if the
Fig. 30. Influence of the velocity and angle of impact on weld quality in impact welding by electromagnetic compression [151].
643
impact velocity and the angle of impact are adjusted to the
particular welding task. These values may vary, subsequently
resulting in different weld qualities (Fig. 30). The non-welded
zones may typically be attributed to an angle of impact of
approximately 908.
Within mechanical joining technology the targeted use of the
velocity as a process parameter can lead to an extension of the
application range and/or to an improvement in joining quality. In
the case of high-strength steel materials (e.g. press-hardened
components) or even composite constructions using self-piercing
solid rivets, problems frequently arise as regards feasibility and
quality. If, for example, high forces are required, machines and
tools can reach their load limits. In addition, an undesirable
material flow may develop or an undesired burr may occur.
In the field of rivet connections, investigation have shown that
significantly higher tool and joining speeds (v = 5 m/s) lead to
considerable improvements of joint quality and process reliability
(Fig. 31) [137]. As regards self-piercing riveting, effects have been
demonstrated pointing to an expansion of process limits, a
reduction in process time and cost as well as to a reduction of
tool wear [67].
5.4. High speed impact cutting, explosive and electromagnetic
shearing
The adiabatic cutting process, which had previously been used
specifically for separating solid profiles [102,165], offers various
opportunities for improving resource/energy efficiency as well as
for cutting high-strength materials. Advantages are high-quality
cutting surfaces (avoidance of reworking) as well as savings in
material (no chip formation) and post-processes (no additional
oiling and consequently washing). This opens up possible
application areas for mechanical cutting which had previously
been dominated by laser cutting or sawing operations.
One of the principal objectives of the work carried out in
adiabatic cutting lies in expanding the range of application for this
technology, for example cutting of hollow profiles/tubes or high-
strength sheet parts (Fig. 32). Systematic studies are being carried
out using an adiabatic cutting unit. In addition to examining
relevant process parameters, investigation of tool designs also
represent a significant focus. Results show that, by comparison to
conventional shearing, a significant improvement in cutting
quality can be achieved [75] (only small burr generation; almost
rectangular, fine-grained fracture surface). The roughness values in
the fracture zone are comparable with those of a conventionally
realised flush cut.
Alternative possibilities of achieving high cutting velocities and
therefore adiabatic effects include the use of gas generators or the
use of electro-magnetic impulses. On the one hand, the cutting
impulse may be introduced by means of an accelerated tool active
644 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650

Fig. 31. Influence of velocity on joint quality (2 Al-alloy; s0 = 1.5 mm; rivet: C3.3  4H4) [137].

part. On the other hand, the material to be cut can be directly
accelerated by means of an electro-magnetic impulse or by the
shock wave.
5.5. High speed cutting
5.5.1. Cutting with defined edge
High speed cutting (HSC) and high performance cutting (HPC)
are used for lightweight alloys and castings, for normal and
hardened steels, for die/mold manufacturing as well as for
machining high temperature alloys.
The high speed and high performance cutting processes of
lightweight alloys and high strength materials are attracting more
interest in machining structural and equipment components for
the aerospace and other industries. These components are
normally machined from solid blanks, with a high material
removal percentage (up to 85%). In the case of Al-Alloys,
economical machining is achieved by means of high speed milling
with tool revolution speeds of up to 24,000 rpm and cutting speeds
of up to 3000 m/min.
Here the ability of the process to remain stable and to avoid
chatter vibrations is a major factor in the enhancement of process
performance and assurance of component surface integrity.
Performance is often restricted by the dynamic resilience
behaviour of a chain of components of the machine tool with
involvement in the machining process (Fig. 33). In the machining of
computer cases and monolithic aerospace components such as the
F-15 speed brake [45], high speed cutting [184] has improved
productivity and profitability (e.g. more than $1bn has been saved
on the production of F-18 fighter [210]).
In addition, the machining conditions and the machining
performance depend to a great extent on the specific material
properties. For example, when milling titanium alloys, their high
strength at elevated temperatures, their low elastic modulus and

Fig. 32. Influence of cutting speed on edge hardening.

Fig. 33. Stiffness of the machine tool during HSM and HPC of aluminium alloys [106].
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 34. Special designed tools with internal flushing for milling Ti-alloys [143], and
Al-alloys.
their low thermal conductivity generate high process forces and
thermo-mechanical tool loads as well as adhesive tool wear
impact. As a result the material removal rate of aluminium is about
Qw = 3300 cm3/min, whereas the material removal rate for
machining titanium is about Qw = 127 cm3/min [106].
To enhance the removal rate in milling with higher cutting
speeds, specially designed tools with higher stability and internal
flushing are used. Two examples are shown in Fig. 34, one for
milling titanium and the second for milling aluminium, both with
internal cooling supply to reduce the level of process temperature
and improve chip flow.
The milling cutter for HPC of Ti-Alloys is equipped with cooling
channels through the body and the inserts to enable coolant flow at
pressures of p = 20–70 bar very close to the cutting edge. The
internal coolant supply during the milling process improved heat
transportation and chip flow from the process zone and doubled
the tool life [143].
The use of HSC on large aluminium components, as for example
in the car industry, requires very specific properties from the
cutting tools, such as stability and balancing, flushing and chip
control, adjustable cutting edge positions for high surface quality
and special designed tools, including cutting tool materials for HSC
and HPC.
The face milling cutter shown in Fig. 34 is used for super-
finishing applications on large size components made of soft
materials, particularly Al-Alloys with 7–13% Si additives. The
milling cutter is equipped with a thru-tool coolant system for each
insert directed towards the cutting edge providing efficient chip
exit, essential at such fast machining rates. The design of a recess
on the bottom surface of the cutter acts as a ‘‘built-in pump’’ to
improve chip exit and cutting stability.
The cutter is equipped with unobstructed rake face unique
inserts to permit easy chip flow in HSC and two PCD projecting
cutting-edges for improved tool life. The inserts have positive rake
angles and large clearance angles for better stability, lower cutting
forces, better chip control and improved wear behaviour.
The exploded view of the cutter design shows the various parts
to guarantee separately accurate axial and radial positioning of the
insert. An adjustable screw located below each seat or insert
provides the possibility of balancing the tool for the very high
accuracy required for this high-speed cutting operation. Along
with the insert clamping screw an additional side screw secures
position and stability, necessary at very high spindle speeds and
higher cutting forces. The 125 mm diameter milling head is used
for super-finish face milling of aluminium blocks with 3925 m/min
cutting speed, fz = 0.10 mm feed per tooth and a depth of cut of
0.20 mm, providing a very high surface finish.
645
Fig. 35. Influence of cutting speed and flushing conditions on performance in
grooving TiAl6V4 [7].
The selection of cutting speed is normally aimed towards higher
values, however, machining performance, tool life and economical
aspects should be considered. A typical turning and grooving case
of a TiAl6V4 alloy used in the aircraft industry based on basic
investigations could clearly prove the possibility of doubling speed
and productivity by using a hybrid process in which high pressure
coolant assists chip formation and heat transfer for the cutting
area.
Fig. 35 shows the influence of cutting speed and flushing
conditions on performance in grooving TiAl6V4. One main
advantage of using the high cutting speed lies in achieving lower
wear, better tool life and improved chip flow. Using a common
cutting speed of 50 m/min and a conventional coolant pressure of
40 bar in the process, the tool life was less than 3 min. By
comparison, using a pressure of 150 bar, the cutting speed could be
doubled to 100 m/min and the tool life extended to more than
20 min. Compared to very high pressure (p = 300 bar) and very
high speeds (v = 150 m/s) the combination of the higher cutting
speed with the higher coolant pressure provided more advanta-
geous chip shapes. The example demonstrates that the process
performance not only depends on cutting speed but can also be
improved by considering flushing conditions. For example, for
machining another workpiece material, dry cutting or MQL can be
advantageous.
5.5.2. Grinding–cutting with undefined edge
The main application fields of high speed grinding are creep-
feed grinding, high-efficiency deep grinding, drill-flute grinding,
speed-stroke grinding and crankshaft grinding [62]. The cutting
speed and the material removal rate have a great influence on the
quality and the performance of machined crankshafts. Fig. 36
shows the residual stress profiles in a crankshaft surface zone as a
function of depth for different grinding speed ratios q.
Although the residual stress value close to the surface of
sII = 500 MPa at a speed ratio of q = 200 is higher than compared
to the surface stress value at q = 1333 (sII = 270 MPa) the
deviation of the stresses in relation to the initial status is, in the
first case, reached in a 100 mm depth. In the second case, the depth
of the influenced surface layer is reached only at about 400 mm.
Because of this behaviour the grinding process adjustments are
significant for the quality and the service life of such machined
components. Additionally, the crankshaft has a special structural
shape with different axes of rotation. To be able to utilise the
technological advantages of high speed grinding, a continuous path
control for crankshaft grinding has to be used. The continuous path
control can reduce the number of process steps and thereby
improve the flexibility of crankshaft production lines. It is
characterised by electronic coupling of the workpiece rotational
axis and the radial grinding guidance axis enabling the grinding of
bearing seats to be carried out in a single set-up. Due to the
omission of additional clamping operations, the workpiece quality
646 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
Fig. 36. Influences of the speed on the residual stress depth profile [62].
is essentially enhanced. The crucial factor is a scientific knowledge
of the influences of each process stage on the resulting workpiece
quality, including such factors as the residual stress state during
grinding at high cutting speeds and high material removal rates.
5.5.3. Machines and systems for HSC and HPC
HSC and HPC not only pose particular challenges for the tools
but also for the respective machine tool itself. High cutting speeds
are associated with high spindle speeds and, depending on the
application, also with high spindle performance and rapid machine
control. The feed axes must be capable of achieving increased
traverse speeds and at the same time perform rapid and precise
changes of course. The aim of HSC and HPC is not only to reduce
time but also to enhance, wherever possible, performance
requirements of finish machined components.
The main spindle represents a key component in HSC and HPC
and is, as far as a number of applications are concerned, one of the
main performance-limiting factors. Its additional function is to
guide the tool at very high speeds, while at the same time
absorbing forces in the medium range. The requirements range
from high speed right through to medium speed capability and the
need to apply high levels of torque as well as to absorb high levels
of force. Optimum spindle layout is possible both for HSC and HPC
applications. When the intention is to cover both eventualities by
means of a single spindle, a compromise will need to be suggested
between stiffness and carrying capacity on the one hand and
attainable speeds on the other. A typical layout of a performance
spindle usually constructed as a motor spindle is shown in Fig. 37.
A range of factors exists that limit the performance capability of
a main spindle. An obvious one is any restriction of the permitted
static and dynamic loads that impact on the spindle via the tool
centre point (TCP). Whereas the static limit value tends in practice
to assume a subordinate role, dynamic load-carrying capacity is of
enormous significance.
In HPC a performance limit frequently results due to limited
drive capacity. Furthermore, the load on a number of spindle
Fig. 37. Main spindle layout.
components increases with cutting performance, thus reducing
their service life. Whether the increase in productivity outweighs
this effect is therefore invariably a matter of economics.
As regards high speed cutting, roller bearings – along with a
small proportion of spindles with aerostatic bearings – represent
the most important principle in relation to bearings. With higher
speeds the centrifugal force acquires in addition major significance
for the balance of forces of the individual ball. With increasing
speed, axial displacement of the shaft and a decrease in bearing
stiffness may be developed. It may be said that, as speed increases,
the bearing characteristics deteriorate and the axial shaft position
changes as a result of kinematic and thermal effects [191]. This in
turn affects the overall behaviour of the spindle [1].
Approaches aimed at optimising the entire spindle for HSC
include the further development of motor and inverter systems,
improvements in the performance of spindle bearings, improved
cooling of bearings and the shaft, the integration of process and
component monitoring and the use of active mechatronics
components such as, for example, active electro-magnetic spindle
cushioning or displacement compensation.
Linear feed drives are becoming more and more popular for
highly dynamic applications. They provide high velocity and
acceleration. The feed drive spindle is nowadays almost exclu-
sively a ball screw spindle that is driven either through a gear or
directly from a feed motor. A comparison of accelerations between
the ball screw system with two different pitches and the linear
direct drive with two different maximum forces is shown in Fig. 38
[31]. While the linear motor can attain high accelerations for light
Fig. 38. Acceleration capacity comparison between linear and ball screw drives [31].
 R. Neugebauer et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 60 (2011) 627–650
weight structures, the ball screw drive can maintain its accelera-
tion capacity for a larger variation of mass due to the reduction of
inertia reflected to the rotary motor.
6. Conclusions and future directions
Velocity in manufacturing is probably the most important
parameter influencing performance, cost, productivity, energy and
resources efficiency as well as safety and environmental issues.
Whereas in cutting technological progress tends towards higher
cutting velocities, forming technologies have been successfully
developed for high and low process velocities.
Beside the high technological potential in exploiting velocity
effects, local deformation phenomena, temperature distribution
and strain rates become very complex. Consequently, the
numerical simulation of velocity-dominated machining and
forming processes remains still challenging.
Velocities in cutting have been increased in many cases by
thousands of percent over a relatively short time frame and they
will be further increased, especially in machining high strength
alloys as well as lightweight materials. Cutting speed also relates to
the flushing conditions, for example in the use of MQL, in high
flushing pressure or in kryogenic cooling media.
Hybrid cutting processes are expected to be applied with higher
cutting speeds by using additional energy sources or superimposed
processes such as ultrasonic, laser heating, combined cutting
kinematics, or specific flushing strategies. The design and material
of cutting and grinding tools is adapted on the one hand for high
cutting speeds, but on the other hand for high performance cutting.
High speed in grinding is expected to use more CBN wheels as well
as speed stroke, enabling an extension of process limits.
In forming, high process velocities are realised by technologies
such as explosive forming, electromagnetic forming as well as
laser-shock forming. These processes have been established
efficiently because they provide the opportunity to form materials
which were previously difficult to form by conventional means.
Research activities are focused on forming lightweight construc-
tion and compound materials, with the aim of improving product
quality and expanding the complexity of shapes, as well as
enhancing process efficiency.
The CIRP community has been leading the above mentioned
trends in HSM, HSC, HPC and Hard Cutting since the middle of the
last century, using a combination of scientific, practical and
simulation methods.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following persons who
have been actively involved in the preparation of this paper: Prof.
E. Abele, S. Bäumler, Dr. C. Harzbecker, Dr. A. Klink, Dr. J. Köhler,
Prof. M. Kunieda, Prof. M. Liewald, D. Lung, Dr. D. Michael, Dr. V.
Psyk, A. Rennau, Dr. G. Schmidt.
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