The growth of microorganisms is greatly affected by the chemical and physical nature of their

surroundings. An understanding of these influences aids in the control of microbial growth.

Prokaryotes are present or grow anywhere life can exist. The environments in which some
prokaryotes grow would kill most other organisms.

For example Bacillus infernus is able to live over 1.5 miles below the earth's surface without
O2 and 60oC temperature. These microorganisms which can thrive and grow in such harsh
conditions are often called extremophiles.

The major physical factors which affect microbial growth are solutes and water activity,
temperature, oxygen level, pressure and radiation.
1. Solutes and Water Activity

Changes in osmotic concentration of the surroundings can affect microbial growth as a

selectively permeable plasma membrane separates the microorganisms from their
surroundings. If the solute concentration of the environment is lower than the solute
concentration found inside the cell, the environment is said to be hypotonic. If the solute
concentration of the environment is higher than the solute concentration found inside the cell,
the environment is said to be hypertonic.

 Hypertonic Environment
Cells in a hypertonic solution needing to increase the osmotic concentration of their
cytoplasm by the use of compatible solutes. Cells have to be careful about what solutes they
take up or synthesize since some solutes can interfere with cellular function and metabolism.
Cells need to take up compatible solutes, such as sugars or amino acids, which typically will
not interfere with cellular processes.

There are some microbes that have evolved to extreme hypertonic environments,
specifically high salt concentrations, to the point where they now require the presence of high
levels of sodium chloride to grow. Halophiles, which require a NaCl concentration above 0.2
M, take in both potassium and chloride ions as a way to offset the effects of the hypertonic
environment that they live in. Halophiles grow optimally in the presence of NaCl or other salts
at a concentration above about 0.2M. A few prokaryotes like Halobacterium salinarium raise
their osmotic concentration with potassium ions.
  Hypotonic Environment
Cells in a hypotonic solution need to reduce the osmotic concentration of their
cytoplasm. Sometimes cells can use inclusions to chemically change their solutes, reducing
molarity. In a real pinch they can utilize what are known as mechanosensitive (MS) channels,
located in their plasma membrane. MS channels open as the plasma membrane stretches due
to the increased pressure, allowing solutes to leave the cell and thus lowering the osmotic
pressure.

Like all organisms, microorganisms rely on water for growth. They take up water by moving it
across the cell membrane. When water activity outside the cell becomes low enough, it causes
osmotic stress: the cell cannot take up water and becomes dormant. The microorganisms are not
eliminated, they just become unable to grow enough to cause infection. Different organisms cope
with osmotic stress in different ways. That’s why there are different growth limits for each
organism. Some types of molds and yeasts have adapted to withstand very low water activity
levels. In a low a w habitat, the microorganisms must expend extra effort to grow as it should
maintain a high solute concentration to retain water. Such microorganisms are osmotolerant or can
grow over wide range of water activity or osmotic concentration. Most of the microorganisms
grow at a w =0.98 or higher.

If you measure the water activity of any material, you will know which bacteria, molds, or
fungi can grow on and in it. By reducing water activity, you can rule out the growth of certain
classes of microbes.

aw Bacteria Mold Yeast

0.97 Clostridium botulinum E
Pseudomonas fluorescens
0.95 Escherichia coli
Clostridium perfringens
Salmonella spp.
Vibrio cholerae
0.94 Clostridium botulinum A, B Stachybotrys atra
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
0.93 Bacillus cereus Rhizopus nigricans
0.92 Listeria monocytogenes
0.91 Bacillus subtilis
0.90 Staphylococcus aureus Trichothecium roseum Saccharomyces
(anaerobic) cerevisiae
0.88 Candida
0.87 Staphylococcus aureus
(aerobic)