Minerals Engineering 131 (2019) 164–169

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Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

The effect of pulp bubble size on the dynamic froth stability measurement T
⁎
S. Geldenhuys , B. McFadzean
Centre for Minerals Research, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cape Town, South Africa

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The measurement of dynamic and static froth stability has found widespread application in the characterisation
Froth flotation of froth performance. However, little attention has been given to scale parameters in the performance of these
Dynamic froth stability measurements. This study focussed on the effect of pulp bubble size on froth stability. Different pulp bubble sizes
Scale-up were generated in a non-overflowing column and time-dependent froth characteristics such as froth height, side-
Pulp bubble size
of-froth and top-of-froth bubble size were measured. An inverse relationship was found between apparent,
measured froth stability and pulp bubble size. It was also shown that top-of-froth bubble size is independent of
pulp bubble size. A normalised froth height parameter is used to generate a bubble growth curve which is
independent of pulp bubble size. It is proposed that this type of analysis may present an avenue into a truly scale-
independent analysis of froth stability.

1. Introduction
The importance of the froth phase within the overall flotation pro-
cess has been well documented (Dippenaar, 1982; Yianatos et al., 1998;
Ata, 2012). Numerous parameters have been investigated to quantify
froth performance; however, dynamic and static froth stability has
found widespread application due to the simplicity, low cost and re-
peatable behaviour (Barbian et al., 2006; Farrokhpay, 2011). The dy-
namic stability test, which this study focusses on, is adapted from a
methodology first presented by Bikerman (1973). A mineral slurry is
placed within a non-overflowing column and sparged with air while
recording froth height as a function of time until a maximum froth
height is achieved (Barbian et al., 2003).
Froth stability columns have become a staple in most froth related
research. Following from this, various important factors affecting froth
stability have been identified, such as: particle size (Aktas et al., 2008;
McFadzean et al., 2016; Johansson and Pugh, 1992; Mackay et al.,
2018; Norori-McCormac et al., 2017), reagent type and dosage
(McFadzean et al., 2016; Wiese et al., 2011), and particle hydro-
phobicity (Johansson and Pugh, 1992; Schwarz and Grano, 2005).
However, little to no attention has been given to scale-up effects and
how values extracted from laboratory equipment will translate to the
performance of an industrial froth. It should be noted that scale-up
effects are defined as factors that arise from the equipment and con-
ditions used to measure froth stability. These may be factors such as the
material of construction, the size and geometry of the measuring de-
vice, the air flow rate, the froth depth and the bubble size. In this paper,
the froth stability arising as a result of changes in one of these para-
meters is called the “apparent” froth stability, since it changes only as a
result of the method used to measure it and not from one of the fun-
damental stabilising properties of particle or reagent attributes. One
such parameter, air flow rate, has already received vast amounts of
attention in froth literature (Barbian et al., 2003; Aktas et al., 2008;
Mackay et al., 2018; McFadzean et al., 2016). Pulp bubble size, which is
intimately linked with the bubble generation mechanism used, the
equipment size and the air flow rate, is one of the most frequently
changed parameters in laboratory columns. However, no research has
been conducted to characterise the effect thereof on a mineralised froth
and studies of bubble size have mainly arisen from fundamental 2-
phase foam literature.
A forced drainage study by Koehler et al. (1999) found that the
drainage rate within a foam is highly dependent on the bubble size.
Forced drainage experiments were performed by generating a stable,
dry foam and then adding liquid to the top of the foam while measuring
the propagation velocity of the added liquid as it travelled down the
foam (Koehler et al., 1999). The forced drainage experiments indicated
increasing drainage kinetics in large bubbled foams. This result was
corroborated by a study done by Saint-Jalmes and Langevin in 2002,
where it was seen that the drainage regime (Plateau border dominated,
or node dominated) and rate was heavily influenced by the bubble size
of the foam. Another important change that occurs with bubble size is
the amount of liquid in the froth/foam phase. It has been shown, using
an expression for liquid recovery developed from a foam drainage
equation, that the amount of liquid recovered from a froth is heavily

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: stefan.geldenhuys@uct.ac.za (S. Geldenhuys).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2018.11.013
Received 8 June 2018; Received in revised form 29 October 2018; Accepted 10 November 2018
0892-6875/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Geldenhuys, B. McFadzean
Table 1
Summary of PGM ores used.
Bulk Mineralogy
UG2 (Jones, 1999) Dominated by Chromite. Less silicate minerals
(pyroxenite and plagioclase)
Platreef (Schouwstra and Kinloch, 2000; Dominated by Pyroxenites, serpentines and
Schouwstra et al., 2013) clac-silicates. Negligable Chromite
Oxidised PGM Ore (Becker et al., 2014) Dominated by pyroxenites and alteration
silicates. Negligable chromite
dependent on the froth bubble size (Neethling et al., 2003). However,
while it is accepted that a variation in froth bubble size will have an
impact on drainage kinetics, liquid content, and subsequently measured
froth stability; none of the referenced studies have shown the effects of
varying the pulp bubble size on the froth bubble size.
Considering the significant bubble size effects described within the
reviewed literature, the objective of this study was to determine the
relationship between pulp bubble size and the dynamic froth stability of
a mineralised froth. In addition, top-of-froth bubble size and side-of-
froth bubble growth were also measured to assess their usefulness as a
scale-independent froth stability measure.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Ore type and preparation
Three different platinum group mineral (PGM)-bearing ores were
used for the experimental work and a summary of each is displayed in
Table 1. Each ore was chosen due to the relative froth response that
would be expected, i.e. UG2 will result in a relatively sparsely miner-
alised froth, Platreef will result in a moderately mineralised froth, while
the oxidised PGM reef would result in a highly mineralised froth.
All three ore types underwent a similar processing stage where it
was crushed, then blended, riffled and split into 1 kg portions to have
representative samples for the froth stability tests. Each respective ore
type was milled to obtain a product with 50% of the material passing
75 µm. All wet milling was done in a 1 kg rod mill charged with six
(285 mm × 16 mm) rods, eight (285 mm × 20 mm) rods and six
(285 mm × 25 mm) rods.
2.2. Chemical reagents and dosing
All flotation reagents were supplied by Senmin (Pty) Ltd. Sodium
isobutyl xanthate (SIBX) was used as a collector at a dose of 100 g SIBX
per 1 ton of ore. Collector was added in the mill. Norilose 6064 was
used as a carboxymethyl cellulose depressant at a dose of 100 g Norilose
6064 per 1 ton of ore. Depressant was added to the froth stability
column feed tank. Senfroth 516 was used as a frother at a dose of
100 ppm, or 1 µL Senfroth 516 per 1 L of synthetic plant water. Frother
was dosed to the froth stability column feed tank. The above mentioned
reagent regime was kept constant irrespective of the ore type used. The
slurry for the experiments was prepared by using a standard synthetic
plant water recipe (Wiese et al., 2005).
2.3. Experimental froth stability column setup
A schematic representation of the froth stability column setup used
for this test work is displayed in Fig. 1.
A 200 mm × 1000 mm froth column made of transparent acrylic
was used throughout the experimental work. The froth column uses
four 5 mm × 60 mm glass frits to generate the desired pulp bubble size
at a constant air rate of 6 L/min per glass frit or an overall superficial
gas velocity of 1.4 cm/s. The main objective of this study was to change
the pulp bubble size without significantly changing mixing dynamics
within the column. This was achieved by using five different glass frits
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Minerals Engineering 131 (2019) 164–169
BMS concentration Naturally Floatable Gangue
Sparse BMS concentration Low concentration of alteration silicates
(∼ < 0.1 wt%) (∼2.5 wt%)
Large amounts of BMS Moderate amounts of alteration silicates
(∼1.2 wt%) (∼10–15 wt%)
Less BMS speciation (∼0.2 wt%) High concentration of alteration silicates
(∼40.4 wt%)
which are classified based on their geometric pore size as defined in
Table 2.
Each frit was characterised for Sauter mean bubble size in a 2-phase
system with 100 ppm Senfroth 516 where the Anglo American Platinum
Bubble Sizer (APBS) and accompanying software was used to extract
the data from photographs. It is possible that bubble size in 2-phase and
3-phase systems may not be identical (Vazirizadeh et al., 2016), how-
ever, it is expected that the overall trend will remain constant. The
resulting plot, displayed in Fig. 2, indicated that the Sauter mean
bubble size could be varied from 1.4 mm to 2.9 mm by using the various
glass frits. About 75 photographs were taken per pore size experiment.
Sauter mean bubble size was determined for each photograph and the
errors bars in Fig. 2 represent the standard deviation between each
photograph.
2.4. Experimental procedures and data analysis
This study employed video tracking of froth growth for dynamic
stability. The freshly milled slurry was added to the froth stability feed
tank with an overhead stirrer to prevent settling. Once the slurry was in
the feed tank it was diluted to 33% solids and the depressant and
frother were added. Before slurry was introduced to the frothing
column the rotameter was set at 6 L/min per frit. The frothing column
was filled to a pulp level of 200 mm while the overhead stirrer of the
column maintained the solids in suspension. A white LED light was used
to illuminate the front of the column. The air shut-off valve was opened,
and the froth growth rate was video recorded using a Canon 80D
camera. The system was allowed to reach equilibrium which usually
took about 5 min. Each pulp bubble size experiment was executed three
times (1 experimental run and 2 repeats) before the frothing column
was emptied and another pulp bubble size was tested. An example of
the resulting effective froth height versus time plot is shown in Fig. 3.
From the data displayed in Fig. 3 a clear equilibrium froth height
was reached which was then averaged between the three repeats into
one value. This equilibrium height (Hmax) is then used in Eq. (1) to
calculate the dynamic stability factor (∑) (Bikerman, 1973).
Hmax ∗A H
Σ= = max
Q Jg (1)
The superficial gas velocity (Jg) in Eq. (1) was calculated by the
total volume of air entering the column (25 L/min in total or 6.25 L/
min per frit if a perfect split is assumed), which was kept constant
throughout all the experimental runs, divided by the area of the
column.
Video footage was used to manually size 400 bubbles at five dif-
ferent froth heights using free image processing software, ImageJ. A
screenshot of the froth height under investigation was extracted from
the video. The bubble size reported was taken as either a vertical or
horizontal cut through a bubble, whichever was smallest. It would be
beneficial to sample more bubbles, especially towards the top of the
froth; however, a balance needs to be maintained between statistical
rigour and the time taken to manually size an image.
S. Geldenhuys, B. McFadzean Minerals Engineering 131 (2019) 164–169

Overhead
Strirrer

Air Feed
(Rotameter
+ On/Off
Valve)
Feed Tank

Froth
Column
Feed Pump

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the froth column setup.

Table 2
400
Geometric mean pore size of the glass frits supplied by GlassTech (Pty) Ltd.
Height (mm)
Frit ID Geometric mean pore size (μm) Thickness (mm) Diameter (mm) 300
POR0 200 5 60
POR1 126 200
POR2 63
POR3 25
100
POR4 13

0
3.5
0 50 100 150 200

3 Time (s)
2.5
Experimental Run Repeat 1 Repeat 2
d32 (mm)

2
1.5 Fig. 3. Froth height versus time for the Platreef POR1 system.
R² = 0.91
1
0.5 80
Dynamic stability, Ȉ (s)

0
10 100 1000 60
Pore size (μm)
40
Fig. 2. Sauter mean bubble size (d32) as a function of geometric mean pore size.
The error bars represent the standard deviation of the measured Sauter mean
bubble diameter. 20

3. Results and discussion 0

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
3.1. Dynamic stability as a function of pulp bubble size d32, pulp (mm)
2-phase UG2 Platreef Oxidised PGM
Fig. 4 displays the dynamic stability determined from the growth
data for each pulp bubble size and for all the experimental systems
tested. The error bars reported in Fig. 4 are the standard deviation of Fig. 4. Dynamic stability (∑) as a function of Sauter mean pulp bubble size (d32,
the three different dynamic stabilities obtained for each condition (1 pulp)for all experimental systems (2-phase and 3-phase). The error bars reported
experimental run plus 2 repeats). The 2-phase system contained only are the standard deviation of the three dynamic stability values obtained.
frother at a dosage which was the same as for the 3-phase tests.
The main observation from Fig. 4 is the fact that the dynamic sta- size has a large impact on the measured froth stability. This may have
bility follows a well-defined reproducible decay with increasing pulp confounded previous froth stability studies and will certainly affect
bubble size for all the different ore types. It is evident that pulp bubble comparisons between different studies as pulp bubble size is rarely

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S. Geldenhuys, B. McFadzean Minerals Engineering 131 (2019) 164–169

0.5 0.5
POR0 POR1 POR2 POR0 POR1 POR2
POR3 POR4
0.4 0.4
Fraction of total

Fraction of total
0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
(a) Bubble Size (mm) (b) Bubble Size (mm)

0.5 0.5
POR0 POR1 POR2 POR0 POR1 POR2
0.4 POR3 POR4 0.4 POR3 POR4
Fraction of total

Fraction of total
0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
(c) Bubble Size (mm) (d) Bubble Size (mm)

Fig. 5. Top-of-froth bubble size distribution as a function of pulp bubble size for (a) 2-phase, (b) UG2, (c) Platreef, and (d) Oxidised PGM.

measured during these experiments.
In general, Fig. 4 shows that the 3-phase systems are more stable
than the 2-phase system which highlights the stabilising effect solids
have on the froth phase. Comparing the different 3-phase systems to
one another the oxidised PGM ore is the most stable system, which is to
be expected due to the vast quantities of alteration silicates present.
However, the Platreef and UG2 systems had relatively similar froth
stabilities, which was unexpected. This is an interesting observation as
it challenges the preconceived notion that a UG2 froth is mostly barren
compared to a Platreef froth due to the lower concentrations of al-
teration silicates present in a typical UG2 ore. This might point to the
fact that mineral association and liberation play an equally important
role in froth stability. This was alluded to in the study by Becker et al.
(2009), which showed large amounts of pyroxene reporting to the
concentrate of a Merensky ore due to the dissemination of fine talc
grains throughout the pyroxene particles. That being said, seeing as the
particle size distribution of both ores were not fully characterised for
this study the UG2 ore might be substantially finer than the Platreef
while still meeting the 50% passing 75 µm criteria. This is consistent
with the fact that the milling time for both UG2 and Platreef were si-
milar, while it is known that a UG2 ore is substantially softer than a
Platreef ore.
3.2. Bubble size parameters
Top-of-froth bubble size and bubble growth across the froth phase
have previously been employed as proxies for froth stability (Ata et al.,
2003; Pugh, 2005). Seeing as the previous section highlighted a sig-
nificant change in the measured dynamic stability it is interesting to
track top-of-froth and side-of-froth bubble size to ascertain whether a
similar change occurred as a function of pulp bubble size.
3.2.1. Top-of-froth bubble size as a function of pulp bubble size
Fig. 5 displays the experimentally determined top-of-froth bubble
size distributions for all the experimental systems.
Firstly, it should be noted that for the 2-phase system the POR3 and
POR4 top-of-froth bubble size distributions could not be determined
because of difficulty identifying bubble edges due to the optical prop-
erties of this system.
The overwhelming observation from the data displayed in Fig. 5 is
the fact that the top-of-froth bubble size distribution remains constant
regardless of the starting pulp bubble size. In 3-phase froth systems
where the presence of solids heavily affects the stability of the froth it
has been found that various physical properties of the particles affect
the resulting average bubble size of the froth (Ata, 2012; Dippenaar,
1982). This behaviour was confirmed by Morar et al. (2012), who used
machine vision techniques to analyse the top of various flotation froths
and found that bubble burst rate correlates well with two experimental
parameters, namely: top-of-froth bubble size and solids loading. It is
clear from Fig. 5 (and 6) that there is a constant top-of-froth bubble
size, regardless of initial bubble size. This suggests that the final solids
loading per surface area of the top-of-froth bubbles is fixed for a par-
ticular system of constant ore type, particle size, reagent dosage, etc. If
these are constant, then the final bubble size will be constant, irre-
spective of starting bubble size. This is supported by the fact that the
oxidised PGM system, which will load a greater density of particles per
bubble surface area, peaks at a much larger bubble size (+/− 7 mm)
compared to the other systems (+/− 2.5 mm).

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S. Geldenhuys, B. McFadzean Minerals Engineering 131 (2019) 164–169

100 100
(a) (b)
R2 = 0.88 R2 = 0.86

10 10
d32 (mm)

d32 (mm)
1 1

0.1 0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Normalised froth height (-) Normalised froth height (-)

100
(c)
R2 = 0.96

10
d32 (mm)

0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Normalised froth height (-)

Fig. 6. Sauter mean froth bubble size (d32, froth) as a function of normalised froth height for all the experimental starting pulp bubble sizes of the (a) UG2, (b) Platreef,
and (c) Oxidised PGM ore. The legend is POR0, POR1, POR2, POR3, and POR4.

3.2.2. Bubble growth across the froth phase as a function of pulp bubble size
Statistically characterising bubble size at the top-of-froth condition
is quite challenging due to the low number of bubbles sampled, coupled
with the somewhat chaotic environment at the top-of-froth. For this
reason, a measure of the growth of the bubbles throughout the froth is
considered to be more representative. Since the froth height is con-
stantly varying for each pulp bubble size as well as the ore type used, a
corrected froth height is required to normalise the data onto a common
froth height scale. The normalised froth height was calculated by using
Eq. (2).
Hi H Barbian et al., 2003; Barbian et al., 2006; Iglesias et al., 1995;
Normalised Froth Height = = i
Hmax ΣJg
where:
– Hi is the froth height at which the bubble size is measured;
– Hmax is the equilibrium froth height;
– ∑ is the dynamic froth stability factor calculated from Eq. (1), and;
– Jg is the superficial gas velocity.
Fig. 6 displays the Sauter mean froth bubble size, on a log scale, as a
function of the normalised froth height for each of the experimental
starting pulp bubble sizes and ore types. By normalising the froth
height, for a specific ore type, the froth bubble growth as a function of
height in the froth is independent of the initial pulp bubble size. This
follows from the observation in the previous section: the final, top-of-
froth, bubble size is defined by solids loading, which follows from
particle and solution properties. This is a surprising and important
observation seeing as a plot of bubble size growth across the froth phase
can now be used to analyse froth stability independently of scale
parameters such as starting pulp bubble size. Systems with a greater
froth stability will tend to a larger top-of-froth bubble size and therefore
have a larger exponent in the exponential equation that defines the
curve. This is supported by the fact that the oxidised Merensky ore,
which is known to have a more stable froth, has a larger exponent than
the Platreef or UG2 ores, which have similar froth stabilities.
4. Conclusions
Literature shows that various experimental setups have been tested
with the sole purpose of quantifying froth stability (Aktas et al., 2008;
(2) Tsatouhas et al., 2006; Zanin et al., 2009; McFadzean et al., 2016;
Mackay et al., 2018). One characteristic that all these devices share is
the fact that the feed bubble size is not characterised during or even
before an experimental program starts. This paper shows that measured
dynamic froth stability changes because of changes in the pulp bubble
size. In general, an inverse relationship is seen between dynamic sta-
bility and pulp bubble size, with froth stability increasing significantly
as bubble size becomes smaller. This observation remained constant for
different feed ore types, as well as a 2-phase system, and therefore great
confidence can be associated with the previous statement. This beha-
viour adds complexity in extracting valuable froth stability parameters
from a laboratory scale experiment.
It has been experimentally shown that top-of-froth bubble size re-
mains constant in a non-overflowing column for a specific ore type
regardless of the starting pulp bubble size. It has been suggested that
this may be because of the top-of-froth bubble size being defined by the
solids loading attainable for a particular set of particle and solution
properties. This gives a valuable tool to analyse a system for froth
stability independently of apparent stability changes by scale para-
meters. A measure of bubble size change across the entire froth was

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S. Geldenhuys, B. McFadzean
found to be more statistically rigorous than top-of-froth bubble size.
Since the froth height varied for each pulp bubble size, a correction to
the froth height was proposed which resulted in a normalised froth
height scale where various conditions could be directly compared.
Applying this correction to the data set results in a characteristic bubble
growth curve which is independent of the starting pulp bubble size. It is
proposed that this finding could lead towards a methodology where
froth stability could be characterised independently of scale para-
meters.
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