RM120 Module New

Inspire Tomorrow,Today
Acknowledgements
This course is a product of effort from many people who worked hard to see it ready for use by BOU
learners. BOU wishes to acknowledge all those who made their contributions. While a number of
contributors have been acknowledged under the unit they contributed to, any person who may have
been left out is hereby acknowledged.
©2006 ICG
All rights reserved. Reproduction, copying and all forms of transmission are only in accordance with
the national Copyright Laws that are in force.
Please address correspondences to;
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Botswana Open University
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Tel: 3646000
Fax: 3181473

ISBN 99912 - 82 -12 - 2
NOTE: Please note that this material was developed for the Botswana College of Distance and Open
Learning (BOCODOL), which has since been transformed to the Botswana Open University (BOU).
Hence, there are instances where it reflects BOCODOL. The material is currently under review to
align it with the new corporate identity.
Research Methods : D-RM 01
Contents Page
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Course: Research Methods i
Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methods
Topic 1: The Meaning of Research 2

Topic 2: Exploratory and Explanatory Research 21
Topic 3: Quantitative and Qualitative Research 31
Topic 4: Basic and Applied Research 43
Topic 5: Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research 56
Unit 2: Principles of Research 69
Topic 1: Basic Ethics in Research 71

Topic 2: Violations of Academic Integrity 85
Topic 3: Plagiarism 94
Unit 3: Research Proposal and Data Collection 106
Topic 1: Writing a Research Proposal 108

Topic 2: Sampling 120
Topic 3: Collection of Data 134
Unit 4: Data Analysis and Report Writing 148
Topic 1: Preparing Data for Analysis 150

Topic 2: Methods for Data Analysis 159
Topic 3: Report Writing 169
C BOCODOL
Research Methods: D-RM 01 Introduction
Introduction to the Course

Research Methods
Overview
First I would like to welcome you to your Research Methods course. I believe that your principal
purpose of spending your hard-earned cash with BOCODOL is that you may learn. Learning is
about the acquisition of knowledge and skills to shape behaviour and induce desire for positive
change. About this particular course, you should be able to demonstrate competitive knowledge of
research in the future by conducting independent research exercises for your organisation. You
should even be free to venture into a consultancy firm and conduct business research exercises for
external bodies. This course therefore gives you the scope and nature of research.
Aims of the Course

The aim of this course is to provide
understanding of research processes and the relationship between research and knowledge
development
sound research practices and skills to apply appropriate research designs and methods in
different contexts.
Conducting research can be one of the most interesting features of your course. It is only here that
you would get a measure of control and autonomy over what you learn. It is an opportunity to
justify, critic, pursue – or even discover – new aspects of a subject or topic you are interested in.
Those of you who have been exposed to the challenges and rigours of job responsibilities will
find it timely to investigate and make observations on particular areas of their profession. In a
research, such observations may be your own evaluation, hence personal and far-reaching in your
career and understanding of the work environment. In succeeding units, you will learn different
methods of finding and interpreting information that will nurture and boost your level of
understanding of research.
Under supervision and guidance of your tutor, you should be able to carry out an independent
investigation into a problem of your choice from any course in your Diploma in Human Resource
or Business Management Programmes. You will collect data, interpret and write up a report to
illustrate the understanding of your topical issues relating to the problem. The report must
demonstrate your understanding of the relationship between theoretical knowledge and its
application to field situations. You are therefore advised to start your project work on completion
of this unit. However, if you feel confident to start early, you may do so but please consult your
tutor to check if you have adequate research knowledge and skills to carry out a research on a
project.
i BOCODOL
Research Methods: D-RM 01 Introduction
The Structure of the Course

The course is made up of six units as follows:
Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methods

Unit 2: Principles of Research
Unit 3: Data Collection
Unit 4: Data Analysis and Reporting of Writing
Course Assessment
The course has two assignments. The first assignment is set from units 1 and 2 the second
assignment is set from units 3 to 4 of this course. The Assignments, which constitute 30% of the
course grade, cover the theoretical part of the course. There will also be final examinations and
project work whose contribution to the final grade you will be informed in due course.
Time
You are advised to spend about 100 hours on this course. The time involves reading through the
material and grasping the methods and procedures of conducting an independent full-fledged
research exercise. You will also have to attempt self-assessment exercises that are made available
to you at the end of each topic.
ii BOCODOL
Reserch Methods: D-RM 01
Unit 1
Introduction to Research
Methods
Unit Team
J Dikinya
M Tlotleng
A Ntuma
C BOCODOL
Research Methods: D-RM Units 1-4
Unit 1
Introduction to Research Methods
Overview
Research is about looking for knowledge. In today’s competitive world, the race is all
about what one can achieve better than others so that one may have a special place in the
world of nations.
There are some countries known to possess immense nuclear power and have assumed
the super power status and economic prosperity that lends them to socio-political prowess
and command respect in great forums such as the Security Council of the United Nations.
There are also some businesses that are better than others in terms of the profit they earn
and sustainable operations. These are real life situations. The fundamental question is
why is it that some countries and businesses perform well when others lose out. The
answer is not far away but right by your finger tips; success is about knowing what you
are doing and to be on top, you must seek knowledge. You ought to invest in research.
Focussing on the basis of research as a form of inquiry, you may have wondered whether
someone; be it a friend or a visitor coming to your place and asking you questions about
your health as it is the custom in Botswana, is really conducting some ‘research’. Is it
possible that people talking about a particular subject matter over the radio and certain
questions are posed to them are engaged in a ‘research’ of some kind? When a student
reads some literature on a book or asks another student about problematic areas on a
school assignment or subject, are they involved in some ‘research’ or what?
Reality is that not every kind of questioning, whether in the form of interviews, focus
groups or any other form of communication constitutes research. In this unit we will
study research as a systematic process made up of different stages. Each stage is not an
end by itself, but a means to the accomplishment of the wholly embracing broad concept
of research. There are established and conventional research procedures and processes.
They may differ, just as there are different strategies and data collection methods, but are
recognisable to research experts because of the established manner in which research is
understood.
The point is that there are various ways of conducting a research. The research types may
differ on the research intent or purpose, process, outcome or duration of the research. In
this unit we shall explore all types of research.
Aims of This Unit

The aims of this unit are to:
introduce research concepts and the different types of research and their purpose
clarify the significance of embarking on a particular type of research - advantages
and disadvantages of the method
BOCODOL 2008
Research Methods: D-RM 01 Units 1-4
explain the relevance of each type to specific situations and highlight the
importance of understanding research
explain the significance of combining research methods
Unit Structure
The unit is structured into five topics as follows:
Topic 1: The Meaning of Research

Topic 2: Exploratory and Explanatory Research
Topic 3: Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Topic 4: Basic and Applied Research
Topic 5: Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research
Time
You will need 20 hours to study this unit.
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Topic 1
The Meaning of Research
Welcome to the first topic of Unit 1 of the Research Methods course. In this topic we
will explore the meaning of research by looking at some of the key words and phrases in
the definitions given by some authors. With reference to key words used in the definition
we will further look at the meaning of research in different societal contexts. Last but not
least we will find out how research is applied to formulate solutions.
Learning Objectives
After working through this topic, you should be able to:
define research
explain the meaning of research in the context of different work environments
explain research in understanding theories, behaviour and laws
explain how research is applied to formulating solutions.
Topic Contents List

1.0 The Meaning of Research 3
1.1 Research as an active, diligent and systematic process 4
1.2 Research as enquiry and discovery 7
1.3 Research as the interpretation and revision of facts 9
1.4 Research in understanding theories, behaviours and laws 11
1.5 Applying research to formulate solutions 15
1.6 Research as collection of information on a subject matter 18
2.0 Summary 19
3.0 Self-assessment Exercise 1 19
4.0 Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 1
References 19
Time
You will require 2 hours to study this topic.
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1.0 The Meaning of Research

Research is defined as an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry to discover,
interpret and revise facts (Trochim, 2006); its purpose being to ignite maximum
understanding of events, behaviours or theories so the insight may be applied to solve
practical questions through the creation of laws and theories (Rowan et al, 2005).
Sometimes it is understood merely to refer to a collection of information on a particular
subject matter (Saunders et al, 2003).
You will realise that the first definition given by Trochim is loaded with key words that
explain research as a process. For instance, there we find words such as “active” and
“diligent”. The word I would like you to consider most is “systematic”. The second
definition, or rather a statement that qualifies what Trochim asserted is that given by
Rowan et al - that explains the purpose. I would say that Saunders and others bring the
first two statements together on the basis that when conducting research, there is no way
you could do that without ensuring that you have the information you want about a
particular topic, subject or matter of concern. On the basis of these definitions, I would
like us to take a journey together and explore the real meaning of research, one step at a
time for the sake of simplicity.
Let us together explore the meaning of research by looking at some of the key words and
phrases in the definitions given by our three (3) authors. I would prefer that we pick the
following:
(a) Trochim proposes that we identify the process of research on the basis of the
following characteristics:
Activity, diligent and systematic

Enquiry and discovery
Interpretation and revision of facts.
(b) Rowan et al direct us to the purpose of research and some of the key words and
phrases are:
Pursuit for maximum understanding of events, behaviours and theories

Application of insight to explain theories, laws etc
(c) Saunders et al refer to research as:
A collection of information on a particular subject matter
We shall look at a bullet point at a time to try and understand the research process.
Before we go there nonetheless, I would also like to introduce a quotation by Sytsma that
I have found quite explicit and simpler on the meaning of research. I suggest that we
interweave understanding the quotation with the bullet points above as we discuss the
research process. Sytsma asserts that:
As a teacher, I encourage the students I work with, aged five to

fifty and more, to be researchers. In this I challenge them to
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search and search again, to reiterate in their learning, to go

around making personal sense of their experiences as they
interact with a multitude of resources. I ask this of them so their
learning creates meaning – deepening their insights and reaching
higher to new planes of complexity, giving their performances in
living integrity. I want their cycles of learning – their
researching – to bring them the richness and clarity of the inner
self of being working with the outer self of becoming. I want
them to learn to watch themselves learning, to be truly
participative in their meaning-making. As a researcher and
student of research, I could ask no less of myself and of all those
associated with the research presented herein. The challenge has
been to take a lead, to go round, to follow the emergent thread
and witness its weaving, to dance – to make moving patterns of -
meaning into life. In the years of this particular journey, I have
learnt to always look and look again. (Sytsma, 2003: 8)
The questions to raise at this juncture could be how does the quote relate to research as
an active, diligent and systematic process, inquisitive and discovery oriented, assisting in
the interpretation and revision of facts, a quest for optimal understanding of theories,
behaviour and laws and finally how does it help us to apply the insight to formulate
solutions to our everyday confrontations with life.
1.1 Research as an active, diligent and systematic process
You need to be active as a researcher. This is mainly because you ought to get in touch
with different people and organisations about your subject matter. From your contacts,
you will not necessarily get what you want and even scheduled meeting at times fail to
materialise, requiring you to re-set them. Thus you will realise the need to keep updating
your schedule against the changes that may arise because of your clients. The last thing a
researcher does is to formulate assumptions for responses because the contacts were too
busy to attend to his/her work requirements as it could be very unethical. You will learn
more about research ethics in Unit 2.
Apart from people, you will also need to find literature related to your work. Those could
come in the form of books, journals, magazines, pamphlets, the internet and other
sources. You will find that it takes considerable time to locate them than you could have
planned. For some of the literature you would need to get in touch with people and locate
material resources. For instance, to find just enough books you must visit places like the
library, find an internet connected computer to surf for journals and related documents.
You will realise that at the time of deciding to go to school, you may not have thought
about acquiring a personal computer or computing skills. Obtaining internet connection
could be expensive. For you to find all these material resources, you should have met
with the right people at the right time.
Let us take an example.
In a speech presented to the 2005 Communities in Control conference convened by Our

Community and Centacare Catholic Family Services delivered by Professor Ken Reed
and Dr Betsy Blundson of Deakin University who were principal researchers into the
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relationship between individuals’ lives and their communities, they made the confession
that it was important to model the impact of community on residents’ lives alongside the
following:
How different collections of resources affect people

Knowledge base (A database of community, neighbourhood and individual
level indicators)
Organisational community, that is, the mix of organisations that is located in or
significantly affecting the community
Community capital that comprised of the prevalence and density of the
networks and norms contributing to the level of confidence in local authority
structures and institutions
Physical assets made up of industrial and commercial infrastructure
In the light of the foregoing, they ended up with a structure like this:
Census Australian
standard Analysis
Public domain data geographical Database engine Web
classification -Statistical Interface
Community survey scheme -Mapping
Fig.1: Relationship between individuals’ lives and their communities

(Reed and Blundson, 2005)
Studying the structure, you realise that a lot of activity is required to get around and find
people who would attach you to the physical and other resources needed for your
research. This corresponds with Sytsma’s observation that a researcher is challenged to
be participative, to search and search again, hence action.
The concept of diligence relates well to the idea that you ought to give out your best in
whatever you do. In the aspect of research it relates to matters of ethical conduct and pro-
activeness. Research, as already mentioned, requires time and commitment. You are not
going to be a good researcher unless you are convinced that you want to do it. It gives
you a lot of autonomy and that means no one is going to tell you when to wake up and do
something as per the requirements of the schedule you set for yourself. At the same time,
when you decide to do nothing, you may not be coerced to act. Your research supervisor
may advise you to submit certain pieces of work in accordance with set deadlines. The
onus is upon you to meet the deadlines or get your work rejected because it came late.
Public servants will remember diligence from the public service charter that demands that
“concerns, complaints and applications from members of the public should be dealt with
promptly and thoroughly” (General Orders, 1996:5). Like research, it is expected that
you avoid all kinds of impediments that could deter or cause the delay to work that is to
be done as the results could have unbearable consequences. Diligence is about pride in
your work, the desire to strive for achievement and self-satisfaction that you gave the
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work your utmost. It is against sub-standard performance and work hastily done to meet a
deadline at the expense of quality.
Sytsma said “I could ask no less of myself and of all those associated with the
research…” I do not know what you think about the statement. It, however, reminds me
of Elizabeth Garret Anderson. She became the first woman medical practitioner at the
age of 29 at a time when females were not allowed to go beyond nursing in England. She
had to go to France for her doctoral studies, learn French as it was the medium of
instruction whilst pursuing her studies at the same time. She became the first woman
doctor. Her effort led to the passing, in England, of the Medical Act in 1876 that opened
doors of opportunity for all women to become doctors (Oxford University Press, 2002). I
would say here is one example that demonstrates commitment and strive to achieve in
spite of insurmountable challenges. You will find your work as a researcher seemingly
daunting. Trochim also alluded to research as a systematic process. Most of you would
have come across a number of systems by now, if not heard about them. For me, when
you talk about a system, I am reminded of biological science lessons, where as students,
we were taught about body tissues, organs and systems. Some of the systems that quickly
come to mind are nervous system, digestive system and the respiratory system. I still
remember that the nervous system is about the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
The point is that a system is made up of different parts of the body working together to
achieve a common purpose. Reference to research as a systematic process should connote
the relationship between the different steps of the research process like parts of a system
in our bodies. You should now be aware that you do not start the research process with
your complete research paper in your hand ready for submission. The plan is that you
start with nothing and then accumulate the resources you would use to accomplish the
process. You cannot start writing until you have information, you may not get the
information if you did not plan how you would find it. It’s more like a cycle. A simple
analogy of the research process could be like this:
1. Define your problem or question
Decide what sources of information

2.
you can use
3.
Locate your resources
4.
Start reading, printing, taking notes
5.
Organise data, write and complete
your assignment
6. Evaluate your write-up
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Activity 1A
The following passage is adapted from Ermine et al (2004:5)’s “The Ethics of Research
Involving Indigenous Peoples”. Read it carefully and answer the questions that follow.
There is an idea that European civilisation or the “West” has

some special quality of mind, race, culture, environment, or
historical advantage which gives this human community a
permanent superiority over all other communities. These qualities
would seem to confer on this community the special duty of
advancing and modernising the rest of the world. This is observed
to come about as a matter of science, scholarship and informed
and expert opinion.
Questions
1. Define the problem.

2. If you were to conduct a short research about the problem, what sources of
information would you need?
3. Show how you would actively and diligently organise the process of conducting
the research.
4. How would you ensure that your write-up contains enough information
considering the research problem?
1. Eurocentrism or the perception that Europe or the “West” is more civilised than
the rest of the world.
2. Literature: Books, journals, articles, etc.
3. Devise a work-plan for the study based on the following:
o Definition of the problem

o Decide on the sources of information to use
o Locate the resources
o Start reading, printing, taking notes
o Organise data, write and complete the work
o Evaluate the write-up for possible mistakes
4. Normally the research report will have the number of words suggested. You are
not to exceed or give less than the minimum required. The idea is to stay within
the suggested range of words.
1.2 Research as an enquiry and discovery
In everyday language, to enquire could mean to ask questions about something. In

research, though the same notion applies, there is also an element of examining critically
the information at your disposal, sifting for what you want and discarding that which you
do not want. It is like looking at things through a microscopic lens to see clearly the
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constituent elements of the subject you are studying. A typical example could be looking
at your skin with the naked eye after being told that it has pores that should be open to
allow air to circulate. If you happen not to see them, you would find using the
microscope quite handy. With the microscope you would see the hair together with the
pores and the skin cells. That could be more typical of a science research exercise.
Similarly in social sciences, whose subjects of examination are often intangible, you
would realise that your sense of imagination using the brain can help you to unearth logic
from phenomena that is not that obvious to a significant number of people.
You talk about discovery, then you realise that to do so, you should have gone through
the process of enquiry. Just as when you talk about people who navigated the world, you
may not leave out the name of Christopher Columbus. You talk about America, you are
likely to remember that it was named after Amerigo Vespucci, one of the first people to
realise that it was another continent and not part of Asia (Aykroyd et al, 2002).
Discovery is about acquired in-depth knowledge that assists us to locate or make a sound
conclusion about a particular subject. It is the end product of a carefully conducted
research.
The Tree Maker, a virtual firm that uses the internet to reach its customers specialises in
researching for surnames and their meanings. The firm boast of a huge database of
surnames and their origins. The procedure is that you insert your surname via the internet
and obtain its origins and related families on a family tree via the internet. If your
surname does not exist within the database, it is their opportunity to research and find its
origins. This is done by access to historians whose job is to discover the family history
related to your surname and its origins. The process of uncovering something that was
not known before is called discovery. In science research you hear about the discovery of
penicillin and other medical drugs. At the moment scientists are eager to investigate
about the cure for HIV/Aids.
Activity 1B
The following passage is extracted from page 36 of the Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development (CIPD) magazine People Management of 12th October 2006
The “Blue Ocean” Strategy
We developed the terms red and blue oceans to describe two
different realms of the market universe. Red oceans are all the
industries in existence today – the known market place. In red
oceans, industry boundaries are defined and accepted, and the
competitive rules of the game are known. As the market place
gets crowded, prospects for profits and growth are reduced, and
cut-throat competition turns the red ocean bloody. This is where
most businesses compete today. Blue oceans, in contrast,
represent all the industries not in existence today, unknown
market space untainted by competition. In blue oceans, demand is
created rather than fought over, and there is ample competition
for growth.
On what basis does the “blue ocean” strategy constitute enquiry and discovery?
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The “blue ocean” strategy is new. No information was yet available at the time of
conceiving the idea. The researchers read about strategy in general and realised that
there were other strategies that fell short of addressing organisational problems of
impending competition for commodities in the market. The “blue ocean” strategy was
coined as a result of a study that sought to find a better strategy that could help
organisation increase profits and curb competition.
It is a discovery in that it brings new hope that organisation may survive in times of stiff
competition.
1.3 Research as the interpretation and revision of facts
A significant element in research is the interpretation and revision of facts. You would
realise that I have, unlike in my past analogies, decided to treat “interpretation and
revision” as a single phrase rather that as separate words. This is because at times
interpreting facts is synonymous to revising and you could revise for better interpretation.
For example, when a law that is in force is found somehow inadequate, the general trend
is to re-visit such a law and make amendments where necessary. The outcome is the law
better suited to the intentions of the legislature or the revised Act.
In research, it is important when analysing data to use accurate words to reduce chances
of multiple interpretations or subjectivity. The use of neutral words or phrases could
indicate that the writer or researcher does not want liability from the interpretation that
the reader could deduce from the context. You should remember that your research will
be read by stakeholders, sponsors and interested parties. They are entitled to your opinion
about the research.
For illustration, let us take the following passage from Montgomery (1990):
Freedom fighters, terrorists and guerrillas
“These expressions could all be used to refer to one group of

armed men. But they would be used by different people, and the
words themselves would also indicate the attitude of their users
towards the armed men. The person who say ‘freedom fighters’
shows his approval of these men; the person who says ‘terrorists’
shows his disapproval; the person who calls them ‘guerrillas’
shows his neutrality, that is, his lack of an attitude.”
The essence of an academic research is to learn. When you want to learn about
something, the first point is to accept that you do not know it such that you approach the
matter with an open mind. You are not, as a researcher, expected to display some attitude
or emotions about the research topic as that could bias the findings and render the
research less user friendly. People want more of reality and objectivity than subjective
feelings of the researcher. To be able to interview people and get their true perceptions
about an issue, you need to be accurate and perceive things as they are, not as you want
them to be. It is important to avoid making assumptions about what people think. Be
clear, concise and direct.
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It is thus important that after writing, you revise and make amendments for better
interpretation of you research findings.
Activity 1C
Read through the passage and answer questions that follow.
Public Accountability and Information abuse
In many industrialised societies there is a strong popular belief

that the publication of information about the functioning of public
bodies is an overwhelming social good. In some societies, such as
the United States of America, it may also be enshrined in public
disclosure legislation. In the context of school “failure” or
“success” the role of published performance information is
crucial. It provides the data to make judgements, or in market
terms, it introduces a common currency by which the “worth” of
institutions can be measured. Indeed this appears to be the
primary purpose of such information and the discourse of most
politicians implicitly acknowledges this when it refers to such
matters as parental “choice” or raising “standards”.
(Goldstein and Myers, 1996:13)
Questions
1. In your own words, explain the meaning of the following words and phrases as
used in the passage:
(a) school “failure” or “success”
(b) common currency
(c) “worth”, “choice” and “standards”
1. (a) School “failure” or “success” refers to the way public institutional

performance is gauged. Taking the example of a school as a public
institution means that members of the public; parents and other
stakeholders, are able to discern its performance on the basis of student
performance. A school with a good and that with a bad pass rate can be
identified using the process. This in turn helps the government to take
remedial action on behalf of the people.
(b) Common currency refers to a regular method or way of evaluating the

performance of public institutions by members of the public.
(c) “Worth” refers to whether it the public institution is a form of investment

to the community or not. A worthy cause will have positive benefits to the
people and a poor one will bring dissatisfaction as a result of poor
results.
“Choice” means that parents or members of the public decide whether to

continue with a particular course of action or not on the basis of its
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performance. They can suggest the closure of a poor public institution and
invest more on that with good performance.
“Standards” is used to refer to a common yardstick that may be used to

evaluate public institutions.
1.4 Research in understanding theories, behaviour and laws
To begin with, theories and laws are similar in that you move from a theory to a law. A
law is simply tried and tested theory that has been found applicable to real life situations
with success. It becomes a rule that academics and researchers alike may apply to
enhance understanding and create solutions or make informed decisions. Behaviour on
the other hand is not that predictive. It changes with prevalent situational factors at play
at a particular point in time. A law or theory may be applicable in the foreseeable future,
but behaviour is prompted by individual feelings at a point in time.
What I am attempting to clarify is that Newton’s law of gravity is a scientific tool that
was discovered a long way back but is still applicable to day. I am not ruling out the
possibility that another scientist may discover something wrong with it such that its
change may be prompted. All I want to put clear is that it has taken quite sometime and
we have relatively enjoyed its applicability to solve real life situations where it is
applicable. It has not been so with the social science theory of the psychological contract,
for instance. The psychological contract theory asserts that employees behave in a
particular manner when determining whether to support the execution of work tasks or
not. This is because they may be tempted to consider the benefits of doing so. It purports
that when an individual signs a work contract with the employer, it is understood to be a
two-way process. The employee promises to give out the best in the execution of work
tasks. The employer promises to reward the employee accordingly for the work done.
There are times when the employee feels that he/she cannot continue to give out the best
when the employer is failing to appropriately and adequately reward performance. The
tension that builds may evoke negative feelings on the part of the employee whose
response may become the behaviour to avoid doing much work or give just what is
perceived commensurate with the current pay.
Thus theories, laws and behaviour may be found related in the understanding mentioned
above. The purpose of research may then be to evaluate the relationships between
individual behaviour against applicable theories and laws. To take an example, Popper
(1963) contends that science is falsification. One may wonder about the root of his
understanding of science because scientists are known to have a lot to do with current
developments and historic achievements. I would like us, for the sake of more
understanding, to treat his statement as a theory or hypothesis since it has not yet been
proven to be true such that it could become law. He argues on the premise of two theories
by Freud and Adler and illustrates on the basis of human behaviour as thus:
“… a man who pushes a child into the water with the intention of
drowning it; and that of a man who sacrifices his life in an
attempt to save the child.”
Popper says that a Freudian is likely to interpret the actions of the first man as suffering
from repression while the other man may be considered to have achieved sublimation.
According to Adlerian philosophy, both the first and second man may be said to suffer
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from inferiority. The first man may have pushed the child into the water to prove that he
dared commit a crime hence not a coward. The second man may have wanted to prove
that he dared to save the child, hence he is brave.
In this light it becomes difficult to imagine a theory involving human behaviour that
cannot be explained. Thus Popper argues that it could be pointless for Freud and Adler to
boast about such theories as having been confirmed or verified. They should not go into
creating an argument in favour of these theories as that could only prove them utterly
weak. What is your opinion?
The argument put forth by Popper against Freud and Adler is exactly what is required of
a researcher. Your purpose is not to agree or disagree with what you read or learn from
other sources. The expectation is that you read to obtain opinions of others to help you
create your own. When you submit your research paper at the end of the year, let the idea
that dominates the research findings be yours. That would mean you succeeded in
becoming a researcher of some quality.
Activity 1D
1. What is your opinion regarding theories of Freud and Adler about a man who
pushes the child into the water?
2. “…It is meaningless that we are born; it is meaningless that we die”. In the
context of the above statement, discuss the meaning of life.
These are theoretical questions for which you may have different suggestions for the
answers.
1. A theory involves a statement, perception or resolution about a particular issue

that may not be applicable to all situations. To deduce the meaning of a theory
you need to figure out the situation from which it was arrived at.
The intention a man who pushes a child into the water as per Freudian theory is
that the man is not in the right mind he wants to prove that he is not afraid by
committing murder. Murder is a crime punishable in a society. It is simply
abhorable to think that a fully grown human being may want to go against
societal norms and principles of good conduct to show that he is not afraid.
It is equally sensible to think that the man may be suffering from inferiority or
rejection by the society such that he may want to be recognised as something even
if his actions were anti-human and degrading.
This brings us to the suggestion that Popper was right to deduce that almost all
human behaviour may be subject to multiple interpretations.
2. The theory that man’s existence is meaningless could be about whether one loves
life or not. All that we do or not do for life spells it all. Still then a lot is done by
people to avoid life when they think it is empty.
BOCODOL 12 2008
To say that life is meaningful, you should be occupied with something. A man
decides to marry and have children to live a better and meaningful life. After the
marriage he may find the reason to have a larger house and car for the family.
That, however, may not be interpreted to mean that a man without children does
not have a life, only that he could be having something else to live up to. The
meaning of life may therefore be in what we use it for and not emptiness.
Even suicide bombers would find life meaningful so that they may die as they
wish -having accomplished “martyrdom”. In this act, according to them, they
have a reason that they lived and a reason to die. Life is therefore meaningful.
1.5 Applying research to formulate solutions
On 7th September 1999, Harold Shapiro, the then chairperson of the National Bioethics
Advisory Commission of the United States wrote a letter to the President and the first
paragraph of that letter ran as follows:
Dear Mr President:
On November 14, 1998, you wrote to the National Bioethics

Advisory Commission requesting that we “conduct a thorough
review of the issues associated with…human stem cell research,
balancing all medical and ethical issues.” Your request came in
response to reports of the successful isolation and culture of these
specialised cells, which have simultaneously offered hope of new
cures to debilitating and even fatal illness while renewing an
important national debate about the ethics of research involving
human embryos and cadaveric foetal material. After nine months
of careful study, I am pleased to inform you that we have
completed our deliberations and now provide you with the
commission’s report, Ethical Issues in Human stem cell
Research.
Source: Report and recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory

Commission, Volume I: 1999)
The substance of this letter with regard to the application of research to formulate
solutions is pretty self-explanatory. An experiment was carried out that led to the
successful isolation of human stem cells and that offered hope for new cures to diseases.
I guess we know that experimenting is a form of conducting research. Only this time it
was purely biological science. Even though your research will be more related to
intangible social science concepts, this does not deter us from using biological science
illustrations to pinpoint that research can help us to formulate solutions to problems in
life.
Krauss (2005: 758) on comparative epistemologies of qualitative and quantitative

research states that “epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or how we come to
know.” I would like to say that to formulate solutions, you need knowledge. You cannot
solve a problem before you know that it exists. From there you will require information
on the root cause of the problem, how it grew and became what it is. The diagnostic skills
BOCODOL 13 2008
used by medical doctors differs from that used by social scientists in that the former deals
with tangible material and may be assisted by medical tools such as a stethoscope to
evaluate a heart beat. The latter on the other hand applies intuitive imagination and
watches the behaviour of people.
So what can we say about the behaviour of motivated employees against the less
motivated? Do they exert the same commitment to work or not? My work here is not to
carry out a research on these questions, but a lot of literature has pointed out that the
positive behaviour on the part of the employees is directly related to the tangible results
in a work situation. The results may vary between organisations and there can be
instances when this perception is overruled but it could apply to a majority of situations.
Activity 1E
Read the passage and attempt the questions
On June 5, 1981, the first cases of a new and fatal disease now
known as Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) were
reported in the CDC publication Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report. AIDS was first recognised in homosexual men, but it was
soon determined that the virus that causes AIDS can spread
through hetero-sexual contact, blood and blood products, and
from mother to infant during pregnancy, delivery and breast
feeding.
1. What is your opinion about the use of human tissues to formulate solutions to fatal
diseases?
2. What could be your opinion when devising measures to curb AIDS towards:
(i) homosexual men.

(ii) sexual contact between male and female.
(iii) HIV positive mothers and pregnancy.
(iv) Blood and blood products.
1. There is nothing wrong with the use of human tissue to find solutions to fatal
diseases. We should, however, guard against possible violations of the practice
where murders may be encouraged by people who want to sell human parts for
those who need them and cannot go through the correct channels of doing so. For
instance, a convict could escape from prison and live in a hideout. If such a
person was to get sick, he may not go to hospital in fear of being caught and sent
back to prison. If it happens that he needs human tissue to survive, the escapee
may resort to stolen material to survive. How that is obtained may violate the
very noble intentions of using human tissues to save life.
2. Measures to curb HIV/AIDS towards:
(i) Abstain, be faithful to one partner or practice safe sex
BOCODOL 14 2008
(ii) Abstain, be faithful to one partner or practice safe sex

(iii) Visit the nearest health facility for advice about the Prevention of
Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV and AIDS.
(iv) Avoid contact with open wounds, as you do not know the HIV status of
people who have them. In cases of sick relatives and friends use clinical
gloves to handle wounds or call for expert assistance.
1.6 Research as a collection of information on a subject matter
As a researcher, you do not just start writing from nowhere. You need to first think about
your research topic. That could mean juggling with ideas until you get the exact location
of what you want to write about. For this you need to develop your mind such that you
could plan about all the work that you need to write about. From your research topic, you
should develop an approach on how you want it to flow. From getting a clear idea about
the topic after reading some of the material about it, you could start developing sub-
topics and headlines. That involves a systematic plan of your work, taking nothing for
granted.
If you just start writing after you have decided on a topic, you risk spending too much
time on a fraction of your work than others because you really do not know what comes
next. That could mean taking time that could have been used to write about other
components of your topic. The same applies when you start reading about the topic. You
need to break down the topic into manageable ‘chunks that can be swallowed easily
without getting yourself choked’. As you read, you should make notes of important
pieces of information that are more relevant and direct to your research topic. Thus, the
initial stage of reading should be to understand ideas surrounding your topic so that when
you read again to reinforce the ideas, you know exactly what you want.
Montgomery (1990) suggested the following steps in making a plan of your reading:
Work: Decide on what you have to do.

Deadlines: Formulate deadlines for completing the main pieces of your work.
Hours: Decide on the times and days of the week when you would study.
Tasks: Specify tasks for the time slots you have established.
Deciding on what you have to do means breaking down work between long term,
medium term and immediate objectives. Your final outcome is a completed research
project, the medium term objectives could be the units in your write up, consider how
many unit you have and the length of each unit. Alongside the units are topics that could
vary in length and significance. The immediate objectives could be the titles in each
topic. For instance, you could decide to study and write a title each time you do your
work. Remember this would not be a fixed schedule so that you are capable of extending
your studies on a longer title or so. You could need a calendar and daily planner to
achieve this.
Do not allow yourself to be idle all the time. Try hard to complete significant pieces of
work as per the set deadlines. It is better to complete earlier than to struggle with work
after time has elapsed. Since you would not have all day everyday to work on your
project, you need to set hours of work and the days when you must be available for work.
BOCODOL 15 2008
You would realise the importance of telling a friend that you are still ‘working on
something’ when invited for a drink. This is normal and everybody with a sound mind
does it, why not you.
More importantly, you need to acquaint yourself with places like the library. In the
library you get proper chance of selecting reading material; books, journals and articles.
Journals are mostly preferred in academia as firsthand sources of secondary data. They
are written by renowned academics hence may allow you proper guidance on writing
skills, critically examining literature and information on your research topic. You are also
advised to use reading and writing skills texts for more guidance.
Having identified the literature on your topic, to collect information about your research
topic, observe these steps:
(a) Read to understand
Reading to understand takes time. In the meantime you are preparing your mind for the
topic. You get clues and important information from the less important. Remember your
intention is not to grasp all that is in the text, so be selective. That gives you a framework
of what you want so that you may start searching more accurately.
(b) Think first, then note
When you start writing, avoid replicating the author’s words and phrases. Try as much as
possible to reflect looking away from the text and use your own words to produce notes.
When first getting notes, you will realise that they would be in no particular order. You
would then need to re-arrange the notes into some sequence, with headlines above details
that substantiates them. This gives you some relationships in your notes and you would
know where to look for particular information within the notes.
BOCODOL 16 2008
Activity 1F
Read through the following passage and attempt the questions that follow.
Mr John is the newly appointed manager of Gaborone Auto

Industries, a subsidiary of a multi-national firm specialising in
vehicle assembly work. The Gaborone Auto Industries has around
200 employees. The previous manager was sacked because
management wanted more output and efficiency. At the moment,
this is the least productive branch of the major firm. It is currently
operating at a loss of 3 million Pula that began accumulating 3
years back.
Mr John had time to research on the firm and made the following
observations:
(a) The factory workforce is inefficient and the company needs new
equipment to do the job. Most auto dealers in the assembly
industry in Gaborone have new and more efficient machinery to
meet technological advances.
(b) Some of the assembly work can be done more efficiently if each
employee assembled more parts than is currently the case.
(c) A recent survey shows that most employees would like to try the
flexitime working hours’ schedule.
(d) Since the installation of a new computer in the accounting unit,

there is a lot of talk that the firm intends to lay off employees.
(d) Most managers feel that there is too much specialisation, and
want more authority delegated to them.
Questions
1. What could you suggest for the title of the research paper?
2. Develop a deadline schedule on the basis of a research that you are to
conduct about the firm’s main problems.
3. Specify the days and hours in a week when you study the research
findings and write a report to management about the way forward.
4. Specify tasks for the time slots established.
5. Read and understand the case, then jot down notes in a proper sequence.
BOCODOL 17 2008
1. Inefficiency at Gaborone Auto Industries.

2. The firm’s main problems are to do with:
(a) The need for new and competitive equipment.
(b) Too much specialisation.
(c) Perceptions of ‘getting laid off’ by the employees.
(d) Decision-making (possible delegation of authority).
Work-plan schedule:
Suppose I had five days to conclude the work, I would have a schedule like
the one below. The first four (4) days would be for investigation and
collection of information about different issues as indicated in the table
below. The fifth day will be for reading and understanding together with
report writing.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Activity
Equipment X (3 hours) Data collection X (Reading)
Specialisation X (3 hours) Data collection X (Reading)
Employee Perceptions X (5 hours) Data collection X (Writing)
Decision making X (2 hours) Data collection X (Writing)
3. Question 3 is answered at Day 5.

4. The time slots are specified in the table
5. Taking notes:
(a)The need for new and competitive equipment

technological breakthroughs
more competition.
(b) Too much specialisation
employees are capable of doing more tasks
they are not allowed to do so.
(c) Perceptions of ‘getting laid off’ by the employees
Employees to be briefed about the importance of better
equipment
6. Decision making (possible delegation of authority).
(a) Consider giving more responsibility and authority to
department and unit managers
2.0 Summary
In this topic we defined research as an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry
to discover, interpret and revise facts intended to implant understanding of events,
behaviours or theories so the insight may be applied to solve practical questions.
We further explored the meaning of research by looking at the following key words and
phrases in the definitions:
Activity, diligent and systematic
Enquiry and discovery
Interpretation and revision of facts.
BOCODOL 18 2008
3.0 Self-assessment Exercise 1
1. Explain the following terms in the context of research.
(a) Research as an activity [3 marks]
(b) The concept of diligence [3 marks]
(c) Research as systematic [3 marks]
(e) Research as the interpretation of facts [3 marks]
2. Describe research as the understanding of behaviour, theories

and laws. [9 marks]
(a) Behaviour
(b) Theories
(c) Laws
Compare your responses to this activity with information given in the

relevant sections of Topic 1.
References
Aykroyd, P. 2002. The Oxford Children’s Book of Famous People. United
Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Goldstein, H. and Myers, K. 1996 “Freedom of Information: towards a code

of ethics for Performance Indicators”. In Research Intelligence. Volume 57
pp12-16.
Hodgetts, R.M. 1990. Management: Theory, Process, and Practice. United

States: Library of Congress.
Krauss, S.E. 2005. “Research Paradigms and Meaning Making: A Primer”. In

The Qualitative Report. Volume 10, pp 758-770.
Montgomery, M. 1990. Study Skills. England: Longman.
National Bioethics Advisory Commission, 1999. Ethical Issues in Human

Stem Cell Research. Vol. 1, pp 1-111.
Popper, K.L. 1963. Science as Falsification in Conjectures and Refutations.

London: Routledge and Keagan Paul.
BOCODOL 19 2008
Saunders, M. Lewis, P. Thornhill, A. 2003. Research Methods for Business

Students. England: Prentice Hall.
Sytsma, S.E. 2003. Changing Meaning: The leading Way. Central

Queensland University, Faculty of Education and Creative Arts.
Wong and Fry, P.S. Hand book of Personal Meaning: Theory, Research and
Application. (Submitted for publication)
Internet Sites visited
http://www.ri.net/schools/East_Greenwich/research.html
http://www.thetreemaker.com/last-name-origin-research.html
:www.bioethics.gov
BOCODOL 20 2008
BOCODOL 2008
Topic 2
Exploratory and Explanatory Research
Introduction
There is a lot to learn in life. First, however, we ought to accept that there is a lot we do
not know. That could open up our minds and prepare us for a long journey of finding out
what we think we do not know. Once the inquisitive mind sets in, a willingness to learn
becomes the impetus for exploration. Scientists have, from a long way back, wanted to
increase knowledge by finding answers to practical questions in our everyday life and
beyond.
Today we know that there has been exploration of the universe; a lot of things we did not
know here on earth were made known. Furthermore people of different discipline
backgrounds have gone beyond our wildest dreams to find out about other planets. We
could still, however, dream of other places and things that are yet to be explored. All
these could be understood to have much to do with the search for knowledge about things
we do not know. In essence, these events brought us to a new dimension of thinking
about oneself and the world. In research, you explore using cutting edge technology as a
specialist in a particular area. Once you have found out what you wanted, you are left
with the problem of explaining (hence explanatory) what you have to others. That is,
whereas exploratory research deals more with finding the unknown, it is complemented
by explanatory research that seeks to compare and contrast existing phenomena.
Learning Objectives
After reading this topic, you should be able to:
define exploratory and explanatory methods of research
highlight the significance of each method in the research process
explain how the knowledge could be used to find answers to practical situations
apply the knowledge gained to enhance your research project.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Exploratory research 22
2.0 Explanatory research 25
3.0 Summary 29
5.0 Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 2 30
References 30
Time
You will need 2 hours to study the topic.
BOCODOL 21 2008
1.0 Exploratory Research

Robson (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003: 96) argues that exploratory research is an
invaluable means of detecting ‘what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions
and to assess phenomena in a new light’. Research is often described as ‘exploratory’
depending on the manner in which it attempts to explain or substantiate pending issues. It
is ground-breaking – pointing us into a new direction, a new line of thinking and
explaining the existence of phenomena. Exploratory research is therefore carried out
when few or no previous studies exist, the purpose being to search for patterns,
hypotheses or ideas that can be tested to form the basis for further research (University of
Bradford, School of Management, 2006).
Have you ever thought about how Microsoft manages to keep on introducing new
computer programmes time after time? Can you imagine the kind of research conducted
in the discovery of new medicinal drugs? From the examples above, you could gather
that exploratory research should be likened to bringing into knowledge such new insight.
When Microsoft discovered the new computer programme Microsoft Professional after
Microsoft XP or when Edward Jenner administered the first smallpox vaccination in the
19th century, these brought about fundamental changes in our lives. We started
understanding computers and disease (smallpox) differently, provided we were aware of
the new developments.
Our above examples have so far been from the pure sciences. This, however, should not
give the impression that exploratory studies do not apply to social science research.
Actually, the main purpose of this topic is to equip you with skills for carrying out
exploratory research with people, their behaviour and attitudes in a social setting. We
shall illustrate that using the exploratory research paper by Trends (2002) about drug use
and professional life.
Example of Exploratory Research

(Drug Use and Professional Life Trends (2002)
As it is the norm with exploratory research, the study of drug use and professional life
began with the collection of data rather than with theory (Armstrong, 1970). 41 people
aged between 24 and 49 who have been in business for at least one year and used illicit
drugs other than cannabis at least 10 times a year were interviewed to find out how they
managed to mix drugs with every day business activities (Trends, 2002). You will realise
that here we have a sample of individuals who lead a reputable life in society as
responsible people, at the same time using illicit psychotropic drugs that the society will
not tolerate. The one thing being that they had not yet been uncovered hence the societal
opinion that they were respectable business persons. The participants were met in public
places or introduced by others within the circle that may or may not have used illicit
drugs. They were allowed full control over ensuring their anonymity and had consented
to participation. The revision of the work was done under their direction.
The purpose of the research was to find out the motivations behind the drug use and what
the participants sought after drugs, together with the obvious problem brought by living a
‘double social life’. Let us first consider the logic of drug use amid business activity and
the approach they employ.
BOCODOL 22 2008
(a) Effects sought and meaning given to drug use
The observation made was that the participants had different reasons for using drugs
depending on the individual’s state of affairs. Three (3) motives stood out though:
(i) Relaxation
Most users claimed they wanted to be relieved of psychological tension. Some argued
that they had excess energy that was perceived disturbing and possibly harmful. Others
mention accumulated pressure that had to be soothed away after a hard day’s work. For
others it was just a matter of finding a way of facing social and psychological difficulties,
something they could not obtain from legal medical prescriptions.
(ii) Working comfortably
Those who wanted to ‘tolerate work better’ argued that they actually did not take drugs in
the work place (or only on very exceptional occasions) but do so after a working day.
This, they perceived, helped them to keep up with the necessary professional challenges.
They were willing to modify their state of consciousness to combat fatigue, boredom, ill
humour and de-motivation that were considered to be the enemies of work – ‘whistle
while you work’.
(iii) “Living a double life”
The drug users understood that they were vulnerable to sanctions from the society if their
practice of taking psychotropic drugs was to be discovered. They therefore ensured that it
is done away from public gaze and could only reveal that to friends with whom they
shared the habit. As a result, a social relationship existed between fellow drug users that
also made drug acquisition more manageable. The drugs acted as stimulants, providing
users with energy to work and enjoy a social life.
(b) Logics of drug use
Armstrong categorised these in 3 ways:
(i) Private context
Armstrong discovered that the drugs were intended for exclusive use in secluded places
away from members of the public who did not use them. Otherwise the drug users would
be gathered together at some place away from the public gaze. There was, however,
recorded instances of drug use in the workplace that occurred under very exceptional
circumstances. The group involved 12 people, 7 men out of 34 and 2 women out of 7.
This use of drugs at work remained a situation that everybody wanted to avoid.
(ii) Occasional use in the work place
Eight (8) people including two women permitted themselves to use drugs in the
workplace. The quantities taken were seldom high as the users understood the
significance of staying calm whilst under the influence of drugs at work. The use usually
BOCODOL 23 2008
took place as time permitted (during quiet times or weekend) or when there were
leftovers during the weekend. The habit was nevertheless very much avoided.
On a similar situation, others did not plan to use drugs in the work place but took
advantage of the opportunity as it presented itself. Four (4) men reported to have done so
in the context of group use. They all reported to have had ‘good memories’ and also
managed to avoid being ‘too high’ for the job. The most common drug was cocaine. This
is the practice they did not want to get used to.
(iii) Regular use in private and business contexts
Seven people were reported to use drugs at work and elsewhere on a regular basis. Of
these 2 used heroin when one used MDMA and ecstacy tablets on a daily basis. Four
mentioned the continuous use of drugs during peak periods of work and where they were
required to stay up to 24 hours at work.
Nine men reported to have used drugs full time for more than a year before limiting the
use after a job loss for one of them, and reducing dependence on heroin for three other
people. The remaining five stopped without major obstacles.
There were times at work when management had to intervene to ensure that drug use
does not cause the job to suffer. It was further observed that the use of psychotropic
drugs was incompatible with the daily execution of job functions as it reduced
concentration and users could not handle significant responsibility. Workers engaged in
drug use were not willing to present themselves before the customers at a time when they
had drugs. The drugs were therefore used almost less willingly during working hours.
(c) Social Implications of using drugs in the workplace
Trends expressed the social implications of drugs in the workplace as perilous for
supervisors who work in places where the use of drugs is not tolerated. The culprits are
obliged to hide the practice knowing that once caught, it could be the end of a lucrative
career. Furthermore it becomes costly to the individual who has to be exemplary in all
respects to the subordinates as he/she should not be seen to support law infringement or
company regulations. The use of drugs also has to be hidden from superiors.
Common use of cannabis was, however, realised in workplaces that hired employees of
low average age (25-35) hence tolerated. The employees could hide the use but later
admit it to fellow employees who also happen to be practicing the same habit. The use of
other drugs that were considered more serious like heroin was mostly hidden. To the
business customers, however, all forms of drug use were hidden.
(d) Commonly used drugs (Cannabis and cocaine)
Cannabis: The reasons put across by drug users during interviews were that cannabis
was good to unwind. 28 participants used cannabis. Out of the 28, 7 admitted that it had a
therapeutic effect. Six participants smoked the drug on a weekly or monthly basis.
Another 6 never smoked or did so under very exceptional circumstances. In fact 3 of the
6 mentioned the paranoia and de-motivational effects to do with the smoking. Those who
enjoyed using cannabis consider it a lesser evil that helped them satisfy a need; to
BOCODOL 24 2008
withdraw from work a while. They also think its use is easier to regulate unlike its
possible substitutes (alcohol or heroin).
Cocaine: It was considered to instil a sense of good judgement and helped to maintain a
good image in the eyes of the people. It was considered an energiser that gave people a
‘fresh start’ after a sleepless night. All participants had used cocaine; 14 had used the
drug continuously for at least 2 months and the other 7 had used it up to 3 years. There
were 11 people who still used it regularly on weekly basis. 23 people used it occasionally
and 5 had decided to quit after a long period of use. Two people had decided to take a
break.
It was concluded that the general tendency with drug users was to avoid drug use during
working hours. The main reasons being the fear of stigmatisation and the legal risks
associated with being caught in the act of using drugs. Inasmuch as drug use was
considered to portray a positive image in public, addiction to drugs was found to bear a
heavier penalty in the public eye. The interviews were found not to air much on the
prevalence of the use of illicit psychotropic drugs but only indicating such use by a small
section of the community. In fact the most common were illicit psychotropic drugs.
Legally used drugs, though having a similar effect as illicit drugs were considered as
medicines, thus not being perceived in the same manner as the former.
2.0 Explanatory Research

Explanatory studies are concerned with the establishment of causal relationships between
variables. This is the kind of analysis commonly used in social science research, like for
instance, to establish the cause-and-effect relationship between motivation and job
satisfaction, leadership and decision making and so forth. Data acquired is then subjected
to statistical tests to quantify the social relationship.
As students in Human Resource Management, explanatory studies could be very

interesting. You may have concerns about the motivation of employees at work, how it
could be done to ensure that employees are committed to discharging work functions.
This could therefore be an opportunity that you carry out the research that seeks to
answer the question. The aspect of quantifying the relationship however could be more
appealing and fulfilling (McComb, Roh and Williams, 2006). You will, however, need
rigorous understanding of statistical techniques to carry out the study.
Explanatory research on the other hand may be quite basic seeking to gather information
on a particular subject matter and thereafter providing explanations for the information
gathered (The United Kingdom Parliament, 2004; The Mental Capacity Act, 2005; The
European Organisation for Nuclear Research, 2006; NASA, 2004). A typical example
could be the primary results of the Agricultural Census (1994) carried out in Cyprus as
tabulated below.
BOCODOL 25 2008
Example of Cyprus – Agricultural Census 1994 – Primary Results
Number And Area Of Holdings

Number Area (h)
Total 52 089 177 760
Number And Area Of Holdings Classified By Size Of Total Area Of Holdings

Number of Holdings Area (ha)
Total 52 089 177 760
Under 1.3 ha 24 945 13 175
1.3 and under 2 ha 6 362 10 158
2 and under 5.35 ha 13 007 42 082
5.35 and under 10.70 ha 5 089 36 825
10.70 ha and under 20.60 ha 1 699 23 641
20.60 ha and under 66.89 ha 838 26 937
66.89 ha and under 133.78 ha 102 9 024
133.78 ha and under and over 47 15 918
Fragmentation
Holdings Reporting Number of Parcels
Total 15 278 -
1 parcel 15 514 -
2-3 parcels 15 435 -
4-5 parcels 7 872 -
6-9 parcels 7 132 -
10 parcels and more 5 325 -
Total - 230 376
Area Of Holdings By Tenure Of Land Operated

Area (ha)
Total 177 760
Area owned or in owner-like possession 119 706
Area rented from others 58 054
Legal Status Of The Holder

Number of Holdings Area (h)
Total 52 089 177 760
Civil persons 51 164 160 294
Corporation 526 8 951
Cooperative 14 313
Government 145 1 675
Others 240 6 527
BOCODOL 26 2008
Hired Permanent Workers

Number of persons -
All persons 2 923 -
Male 1 963 -
Female 960 -
Land Use
Number of holdings Area (ha)
Total land - 177 760
Agricultural land - 120 085
Crop land - 118 408
Arable land - 83 644
Permanent crops 37 131 34 764
Permanent meadows/past 360 1 677
Wood or forest land 2 390 4 612
All other land - 53 063
Temporary Crops
Number of holdings Area under crops
Wheat 1 317 2 829
Barley 8 495 51 193
Groundnuts 355 558
Barley for grazing 1 216 3 023
Barley for hay 1 044 3 568
Permanent Crops
Number of holdings Area in compact
plantation (ha)
Apples 5 996 835
Pears 2 485 154
Peaches 5 265 523
Grapes 13 689 15 205
Oranges 6 315 2 162
Lemons 6 175 1 384
Almonds 8 360 2 355
Olives 19 985 4 633
BOCODOL 27 2008
Livestock
Number of holdings Number of head
Cattle 527 63 809
Pigs 730 354 914
Sheep 2 218 218 597
Goats 3 979 191 222
Horses 151 950
Mules and Asses 2 151 2 674
Chickens 11 237 3 705 545
Ducks and Geese 568 13 055
Turkeys 302 59 252
Quails 110 258 401
Pigeons 3 451 165 449
The tables would not make much sense without explanatory notes to help the reader. The
office of the Ministry of Finance, department of statistics and research provided the
following notes:
Explanatory Notes
Historical Outline: Cyprus had previously conducted three (3) agricultural censuses
since its independence; 1960, 1977 and 1985. The 1994 census was the fourth.
Organisation: It was organised in 1993 following the Ministry of Agriculture and the
Planning Bureau’s justifications for it and approval by the Council of Ministers. The
director of the Department of Statistics and Research (DSR) was appointed Census
Superintendent and chair of census committee. The committee had representatives from
the Ministry of Finance, Department of Agriculture, the Planning Bureau and the
Agricultural research Institute. 320 enumerators and 38 regional supervisors carried out
the field work. The work was organised from newly established district Census Offices.
Enumeration period: The census was conducted between October 1994 and January
1995.
Reference date: Land use data applies to a calendar year whereas data for crops refers to
harvested area in 1994. The data on livestock applies to October 1994.
Definition: The unit of enumeration is the agricultural holding, defined as a unit

comprising land wholly or partly used for agricultural production and operated under the
management of one person or more, without regard to title, legal status, size or location.
Livestock units without land holdings are defined in terms of units consisting of at least 5
sheep, 5 goats, or 5 sheep and goats, or 2 cattle, or 2 pigs, or 50 chickens or 50 pairs of
pigeons, or 10 rabbits, or 500 quails, or 50 turkeys, or 50 ducks, or 100 pheasants, or 30
beehives, or 5 horses, or 10 donkeys.
BOCODOL 28 2008
Coverage: The census covered all holders of agricultural land and/or livestock in the
Government controlled part of Cyprus. The coverage extended to all activities related to
agricultural production, including nurseries and greenhouses.
Frame: The area comprised land belonging to 392 villages and urban areas within 5
districts. The research adopted a stratification of 24 regions according to soil, climate and
cropping patterns. A list of holders was provided before the census.
Methods: The census was carried out on a complete enumeration basis. Data were
collected through personal interviews with holders. A post-enumeration survey was taken
shortly after completion of the census. A sample of 2460 holders, representing all
districts was randomly selected.
Activity 2A
Having gone through explanatory notes, what is their importance in research?
There is really not much to learn about explanatory studies except that they simply
emphasise the need to find information about a particular subject matter and then
provide details or reasons, just as you could be requested; as a public servant, to
elaborate on the principle of neutrality as applied in the public service. A number of
issues may be explained, an explanatory research exercise should, however, involve
projects or subjects that need more detail rather than just concepts.
3.0 Summary
From what we have learnt, exploratory and explanatory research methods may be used in
the research process to:
find out about the existence of phenomena

provide, in detail, your reasons to substantiate the phenomena.
We can therefore assert that the inquisitive techniques engaged in exploratory research as
well as the rationalisation used in explanatory studies may be applied on a daily basis to
find and explain various ideas.

1. What is exploratory research (in the context of social science
investigations and how does it differ from explanatory research? [5 marks]
2. What do you think is the importance of each method in the research

process? [3 marks]
BOCODOL 29 2008

1. Exploratory research in the social sciences is about unearthing hidden truths and
insight. It is also about creating a new line of understanding phenomena that
could have existed before. It is about showing a new direction, even when there
was direction. It is about change.
It differs from explanatory studies whose sole purpose is to elaborate or give

meaning to phenomena. Explanatory studies are seldom used to find new insight
but invaluable when there is the need to give details, describe or clarify things
that seem hidden to certain people. These things may be understood by experts in
the field. To make them understandable to all the stakeholders, it could become
necessary to conduct explanatory studies. It should be clearer now that
explanatory studies serve well to complement exploratory research in that after
‘exploration’, the need to ‘explain’ cannot be underestimated.
2. Research is about investigations and all investigations have the inherent purpose
of clarifying the findings through discussion for the benefit of those interested in
the research. The significance of exploratory and explanatory studies is mainly
for making thorough investigations that are understandable because they are
explainable’.
References
Armstrong, J.S. (1970) “How to avoid exploratory research”. In Marketing Papers. p1-6.
Cooper et al, 2004. “Explanatory Guide to the NASA Office of Space Science Education
& Public Outreach Evaluation Criteria”. In NASA. Version 3.
Cyprus, 1994. Agricultural Census – Primary Results
Explanatory Memorandum to The European Organisation for Nuclear Research

(Privileges and Immunities) Order 2006
Explanatory Memorandum to The Mental Capacity Act 2005 (Appropriate Body)

(England) Regulations 2006
McComb, J.J. Roh, D. and Williams, J.S. (2006) “Explanatory Variance in Maximal
Oxygen Uptake”. In Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. Vol 5, pp296-303.
The United Kingdom Parliament, 2004. “Higher Education Bill: Explanatory Notes”. In
Session 2003-04.
Kaplan, S.E. Keinath, A.K. and Walo, J.C. “Exploratory Research on Mentoring in
Public Accounting in Russia”.
University of Bradford, School of Management. 2006. “Introduction to Research and

Research Methods”. In Effective Learning. Pp1-38.
BOCODOL 30 2008
Topic 3
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Introduction
Research as a process that informs and educates engages the use of both numbers and
statements to provide maximum understanding of concepts that explain subjects under
investigation. Nonetheless, we still refer to research as being quantitative or qualitative
looking at the extent to which the analysis is number oriented or is able to provide a clear
explanation without much reliance on numbers.
Learning Objectives
After studying this topic, you should be able to:
explain both quantitative and qualitative research

distinguish between the two research approaches including:
explain how these two approaches affect the scientific questions asked, the
methodologies employed, and the conclusions drawn, and why this is
important to consider.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Qualitative research 32
1.1 The use of statistical techniques 32
1.2 Independence and objectivity 35
1.3 Development of theory 36
2.0 Qualitative research 36
2.1Summary of findings 37
3.0 Qualitative vs quantitative research 38
3.1 Theory/hypothesis path 39
3.2 Detail or generalisations 39
3.3 Understanding 40
3.4 Funding 40
4.0 Summary 40
References
Time
You will require 4 hours to study this topic.
BOCODOL 31 2008
1.0 Quantitative Research

The major components of a quantitative enquiry are that there should be a theory through
which the investigation will serve to prove or disprove an idea. For that would suggest
that we have a problem to tackle. The use of numbers is the cornerstone of any
quantitative analysis hence statistical techniques are quite invaluable in a quantitative
research approach.
There are basic assumptions when conducting a quantitative study:
The search for objective understanding of phenomena or subject of study

The researcher should distance himself/herself or be independent of what is
being studied
It follows the deductive form of logic, where a hypothetical situation is put
upfront. Theories and hypotheses are tested against evidence found
The objective is to develop generalisations that contribute to theory and
enable the researcher to predict, explain and understand phenomena.
Common quantitative research methods involve the use of experiments; that involve a
random assignment of research subjects to conditions and experimental controls and
surveys involving the use of questionnaires and interviews. Sampling techniques help to
make estimations and generalisations for a large population based on a smaller selection
(sample) of the population. Sampling and data collection methods are discussed
thoroughly in Unit 3.
1.1 The Use of Statistical Techniques in Quantitative Study
In order to understand social class distinctions in society for planning purposes, the US
Ministry of Trade and Industry used the Market & Opinion Research International
Limited (MORI) survey that categorised societal members into six (6) classes; Upper
middle class, middle class, lower middle class, skilled working class, working class and
those at the lowest levels of subsistence. Figure 1.1 below has the results of the survey.
Table 1.1: Social Grades by class distinctions (DTI, 2005)
Social Grades
Social Class Occupation of Percentage of
Chief Income Population
Earner
A Upper Middle Class Higher managerial, 2.9
administrative or
professional
B Middle Class Intermediate 18.9
managerial,
administrative or
managerial
C1 Lower Middle Class Supervisor or 27.0
clerical and junior
managerial,
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administrative or
professional
C2 Skilled Working Skilled manual 22.6
Class workers
D Working Class Semi and unskilled 16.9
manual workers
E Those at the lowest State pensioners, 11.7
levels of subsistence etc, with no other
earnings
If you were to analyse the results, one would realise that the key distinctive factor here is
the “occupation of chief income earner”. According to the table, people holding a high
status in society are selected by their occupations. The ‘upper middle class’ category for
instance, belongs to the ‘higher managerial’ positions. The pensioners who have no other
earnings occupy the lowest echelons (E).
To understand the proportions of these classes in society, MORI came up with

percentages of the class distinctions in society. I hope you would agree that the class
distinctions would be almost worthless for planning purposes if we did not know the
extent to which they affect the total population. This is a key factor in qualitative studies
– the quantification of the subject of study such that it becomes easier to relate with and
lends to more precision and understanding.
Adding the percentages together, from the upper middle class to the lowest levels, you
should get a total of 100%. Now this enables you to use other forms of quantitative
analysis like the pie-chart, bar charts or line graphs – whichever method you deem most
appropriate for better understanding by those reading or making use of your research.
Below are presentations of the data in different statistical techniques – pie chart, line
graph and bar chart.
11.7, 12% 2.9, 3% A

18.9, 19%
16.9, 17% B
C1
C2
D
27, 26%
22.6, 23% E
Fig. 3.1: Exploded view of a Pie Chart showing social class distinctions
Supposing you opted for a line graph, it could be something like Fig. 1.2 below. Whereas
the pie chart bears the precise proportions of class distinctions by percentage, that
information needs a closer look at the line graph to deduce. The line graph provides
BOCODOL 33 2008
numbers in a range format, hence not that precise. Some people could read it differently
or simply make approximations.
Social Class Definitions
Percentage of Population
30
25
20
15 Series1
10
5
0
A B C1 C2 D E
Class
Fig. 3.2: Line Graph of Social Class Definitions
Social Class Definitions
30
Percentage of Total
25
Population
20
15 Series1
10
5
0
A B C1 C2 D E
Class
Fig. 3.3: Bar Chart of Social Class Definitions
The bar chart above is much similar to the line graph than the pie chart. It would require
individual precision to get the exact reading. So, which method of presentation would be
more user-friendly? It could be up to the researcher. A good research exercise must
however be simpler to read and understand.
Another qualitative presentation of statistical data could be through the use of tables as in
table Fig 3.1. It is not much different to that given by MVA Consultancy (2006) when
they reported the behaviour and attitudes to water use in and around the home. 58% of
the selected population had the following response when asked about the seriousness of
water shortage in the area where they lived.
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Table 1.2: Seriousness of water shortage in your area (Ragin, Nagel and White, 2004)
Response Percentage
Very serious 11%

Quite serious 27%
Not very serious 31%
Not at all serious 27%
Don’t know 5%
(Base 2005)
The information might be simpler to find or read in a table. A line graph (Fig. 3.4) with
all the details however could also denote statistical skill on behalf of the researcher. Thus
apart from a simple presentation of data, your tutor or whoever going through your
project, especially if you are a student, would be interested in the display of skill. It gives
most lecturers and teachers pride to realise that what they have been trying to relay to you
all this time did make a difference in the way you do things. Complex items could mean
that you took your time to do your work. Most lecturers and tutors would be willing to
reward the evidence of investing in time and energy to do your work thoroughly. Where
you think the complexity may eat out of the benefits of simplicity, however, you will
know what to do.
Water shortage in your area
35%
30%
25%
Percentage
20%
Series1
15%
10%
5%
0%
Very Quite Not very Not at all Don't
serious serious serious serious know
Extent/degree of water shortage
Fig. 3.4: Water shortage in your area
1.2 Independence and Objectivity in Quantitative Research

When you conduct a quantitative study, like all research exercises, what is not required is
the tendency for the researcher to point all those interested in the research to wherever
he/she wants. The purpose of research is to obtain invaluable information about certain
aspects of our lives that we are not familiar with or do not know them at all. It is not
about seeking for the opinion of the researcher. There should be evidence that the
researcher went into some difficulty locating information about the perceptions of people
BOCODOL 35 2008
towards the shortage of water as per Fig. 1.4. Opinions about the shortage of water in a
village can only be obtained from the villagers. This does not at all stop the researcher
from devising the best method to obtain such information. Interviews and questionnaires
are commonly used to do that. The appropriateness of the data gathering tool will depend
much on the targeted population. In a town, for instance, the majority of the people might
be literate enough to fill questionnaires without supervision and that would mean the
researcher would be far away from influencing the research responses. The scenario may
not apply to the villagers with little education as the questionnaires might be complex to
them. Anybody who lends a hand is likely to influence their responses. It is thus
important if the research is to be a true reflection of what the targeted population think
that the researcher be independent from the study. This would also afford the researcher
the chance to evaluate the responses and render personal opinion on the findings. His/her
assessment would most likely be objective, though open to criticism from those who do
not share the opinion.
1.3 Development of theory
In quantitative research, theory is developed as a result of statistical analysis. Statistical

relations may point towards the existence of strong relationships between two variables.
The remainder of the research exercise would then be to explain the relationship, test
and/or substantiate it using different quantitative methods. At this point also, you will
find it necessary to apply qualitative analysis to discuss and explain the statistical tests.
2.0 Qualitative Research

The alternative to the quantitative approach is the qualitative style where the researcher
views the phenomena to be investigated as personal (Ragin, Nagel and White, 2004).
Methods of data collection could involve personal accounts, unstructured interviews and
participant observation to gain an understanding of reasons and motives for peoples’
attitudes, preferences or behaviours (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003). The use of
case studies, where the researcher explores an entity or phenomenon through time and
activity; collecting information via a variety of procedures in a given time period are
common in qualitative studies. It could also engage ethnographic studies that are to do
with a detailed description of a cultural group or individuals sharing a common social
experience, location or other social characteristic of interest (DTI, 2005). For example,
you could decide to study about street kids in Gaborone, rape victims or the culture of an
ethnic group in a specified location. Ethnographic studies are similar to
phenomenological studies that are also a method of qualitative enquiry centring on the
intense study of human experiences over a long period of time.
Qualitative research places little importance on statistical support for the formulation of
hypotheses and does not seek to develop statistically valid samples (European
Commission, 2006). The phenomena being studied is understood in its natural context
and requires that the researcher uses the ideas and opinions obtained from participants as
they are, rather than invent own view point. The hypothesis or theory is generated from
these accounts.
According to Ragin, Nagel and White (2004), the assumptions underlying qualitative
research are:
BOCODOL 36 2008
Accepting that there are realities in any given situation i.e. those of the
researcher and individuals being investigated or research subjects, the audience
or readers interpreting the results. All these should be included in the study
Interaction between the researcher and research subjects occur and the aim is to
minimise the distance between the two. That means the researcher should try by
all means to understand the subjects and avoid subjectivity in the research.
The research is value-laden and the researcher must take that into consideration.
Research is context bound
Inductive forms of logic are used and theory is produced from the participant’s
point of view rather than being imposed by the researcher.
The objective is to uncover and discover patterns or theories that help explain a
phenomenon of interest
Accuracy is arrived at by verifying the information received from research
participants or by the use of other sources of information (e.g. collecting
information using different sources).
In May 2006, the European Commission - Directorate General Communications

commissioned a study in 25 Member States into the perceptions of the European citizens
about the future of Europe. The main objectives of the study were to:
assess the perceptions of and attitudes towards the European Union

explore perceptions of EU achievements and failures
analyse citizens’ expectations of the union
analyse their attitudes regarding the functioning of the Union and its institutions
evaluate more widely information needs and expectations regarding citizens’
involvement, in the light of the above mentioned themes.
Three target groups were identified:
Average citizens: men and women, aged between 25 and 65 years, from average
socio-professional categories (self-employed craftsmen/small shop owners,
middle level managers, (non-managerial), office employees, manual workers).
Young citizens: men and women, aged between 18 and 24 years, not yet engaged
in working life, most of them from the same social strata as in the preceding
group.
Eurofragile citizens: men and women, aged between 25 and 65 years, most of
them from the same social strata, expressing ambivalent attitudes towards the
European Union in their answers to a few filter questions of the recruitment
questionnaire.
2.1 Summary of Findings
Participants declared general feelings of uncertainty and deep worries in group

discussions;
France, Germany, Netherlands and Portugal perceived the future to be gloomy and
sad. A similar climate was evidenced in Finland, Sweden, Belgium Luxembourg and
BOCODOL 37 2008
Italy although theirs was more pinned to the socio-economic and political context
leaving a better future to personal endeavours.
Spain, Greece, Ireland, United Kingdom, Denmark and Austria displayed mixed
feelings about the future; hopes and fears.
In the ‘new’ member states, fears about the future of Europe were observable in
Cyprus, Poland, Slovakia and Latvia. Malta, the Czech Republic, Hungary and
Estonia showed mixed feeling of optimism and pessimism. Moderate and better
optimism were recorded from the Slovenes and Lithuanians.
Young citizens were found to be less worried about the future in most countries:
Belgium, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Estonia and Latvia.
Slovenia, Slovakia, Hungary and Lithuania displayed a similar trend to a lesser
degree. This did not hold for young citizens in Netherlands, Spain, Portugal and
Austria who viewed the future as pessimistic.
Italy, Luxembourg, Sweden, Slovakia and three Baltic states showed relations of
pessimism and ‘eurofragility’. Hungary, Malta, Estonia and Czech Republic had
balanced fears of optimism and pessimism.
Activity 3A
What would you say about the future of Europe on the basis of the findings above?
Using the qualitative research assumptions as guidelines, write your discussion on the
lines provided below.
One could argue that there was a general feeling of worry and fear about the future of
Europe. Most young citizens displayed feelings of discontent and pessimism. Feelings of
optimism were quite low. Of the many states making up Europe, these were suggested at
Slovenia and Lithuania.
3.0 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Compared

Neil (2006:1) differentiated qualitative and quantitative research approaches in the table
below.
Table 1.2: Comparing qualitative and quantitative research
Qualitative Quantitative
“All research ultimately has a qualitative “There’s no such thing as qualitative data.
grounding” Donald Campbell Everything is either 1 or 0”Fred Kerlinger
The aim of qualitative analysis is a In quantitative research we classify
complete, detailed description features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain
what is observed.
Recommended during earlier phases of Recommended during latter phases of
research projects. research projects.
BOCODOL 38 2008
Researcher may only know roughly in Researcher knows clearly in advance what
advance what he/she is looking for. he/she is looking for.
The design emerges as the study unfolds. All aspects of the study are carefully
designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering Researcher uses tools, such as
instrument. questionnaires or equipment to collect
numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or Data is in the form of numbers and
objects. statistics.
Qualitative data is rich, time consuming Quantitative data is more efficient, able to
and less able to be generalised. test hypotheses, but may miss contextual
detail
Researcher tends to become subjectively Researcher tends to remain objectively
immersed in the subject matter. separated from the subject matter.
It is worth noting that in reality, the distinction between the two approaches is not that
rigid. In fact, a good research exercise would follow a mixed method approach that
engages either of the approaches to complement each other. Numbers alone would not
make much sense without a detailed description to explain them. In the same light, you
would need numbers to substantiate descriptive analysis.
The way you intend to conduct your research has a bearing on the type of approach to
follow. There are four (4) basic ideas to consider when venturing into qualitative or
quantitative research:
3.1 Theory or Hypotheses Path
How you come up with your theory or hypotheses is important in the determination of
whether to use the qualitative or quantitative approach. Qualitative research works best if
you are to be more experienced with the phenomenon you are interested in (Dixon-
Woods et al, 2004). There are instances when one would jump from doing a literature
review on a topic of interest to writing a research proposal with theories and hypotheses
based on present thinking. This denies the opportunity to familiarise with the
phenomenon of interest. There are times however when you should get involved and
spend time within the relevant environment to be able to come up with a fresh
perspective on the area of study. This could also afford time to study the cause and effect
relationships and the generation of new theories and hypotheses born of the
environmental interactions. The basis for qualitative research is the need for direct
experience with the phenomena. This however does not deter the application of
quantitative approaches after some tentative theory or hypothesis has been generated
(Silbey, 2003). The gist is to know when to continue with a qualitative study or turn in to
a complete quantitative approach. A mixture of the two seems more practical and
informative.
3.2 Detail or Generalisations
Qualitative research works for a detailed analysis. This does not mean you cannot obtain
a detailed quantitative study. This could occur when there is lot of quantitative data to be
analysed. A lot of quantitative data, however, also tends to limit the analysis (Saunders,
BOCODOL 39 2008
Lewis and Thornhill, 2003). For instance, if you were to collect quantitative data on a
single variable, the data you can get are simply not limited (e.g. descriptive statistics,
correlation, regression etc.). The data is also easier to generalise, for all you need to do is
come up with aggregate statistics like mean or median.
In qualitative research, there is the need to organise data and categorise it. Since there are
numerous ways in which the data may be categorised, this becomes a challenge. The
detailed information that is often associated with a qualitative study enables you to
describe phenomena. Sometimes it could even involve narrating a story after meeting
well informed participants. On the other side, it could be hard to strike a compromise
between submissions from a host of experts. That is why some qualitative studies do not
generalise but provide rich detailed information.
From these you will find the necessity for a mixed approach. Whereas qualitative
research excels at providing summaries for large amounts of data and generalisations
based on statistical methods, qualitative research helps you ‘tell a story’ from the
participant’s point of view.
3.3 Understanding
Both quantitative and qualitative studies provide for understanding. The degree of
understanding however differs, depending on the topic of discussion. For example, if you
are to discuss topics like God, the death penalty, religion and so forth, you are likely to
want to go for a qualitative study. For these are complex and sensitive issues. A
quantitative study would probably do nothing more than summarise a few cases like how
many people have been affected by the death penalty, what do the majority of Batswana
say about it or with respect to God; what do the Christians in Gaborone say about him
(classifying them and applying statistical tests). The trend however is that if you are to
develop a deeper understanding of these complex topics, in-depth interviews are probably
the most viable method.
3.4 Funding
It takes a lot of effort to convince prospective sponsors to fund a social research than a
pure science research at the same time it makes little sense to propose a research exercise
that will not take-off because of shortage of funds. This challenge affects a qualitative
research more than a quantitative one. The reasons being that qualitative research is more
time consuming, labour intensive and its results may not be easily generalisable meaning
that the whole research applies only to a particular problem. This renders qualitative
research very expensive. What can you say about a mixed approach?
4.0 Summary
Quantitative research
Seeks to understand phenomena more objectively

Numbers are used to quantify and understand the subject
BOCODOL 40 2008
The researcher is independent as he/she is expected not to prejudice research

findings
The ultimate objective is to allow for objective generalisations about the subject
matter.
Qualitative research
The subject of study is more personal hence the researcher infuses own opinion
about the subject of investigation.
Theory/hypothesis is a result of the subject’s point of view.
The objective is to locate new insight in the understanding of the subject matter.

1. What is quantitative research and how does it differ from a qualitative approach?
[5 marks]
2. List four assumptions underlying a qualitative study. [4 marks]
3. Donald Campbell asserts that “All research ultimately has a qualitative
grounding”. Analyse the phrase on the basis of your understanding of quantitative
research.
[10 marks]
1. Quantitative research is a research approach that uses mostly numerical data
(often in the form of statistics) to prove or disprove theory or hypotheses. A
qualitative approach on the other hand starts with building the theory or
hypotheses on the basis of critical analysis of existing information about a
particular subject matter.
2. Some of the assumptions of a qualitative study are as follows:
Accepting that there are realities in any given situation i.e. those of the
researcher and individuals being investigated or research subjects, the
audience or readers interpreting the results. All these should be included in
the study.
Interaction between the researcher and research subjects occur and the aim
is to minimise the distance between the two. That means the researcher
should try by all means to understand the subjects and avoid subjectivity
in the research.
The research is value-laden and the researcher must take that into
consideration.
Research is context bound
3. Both qualitative and quantitative research approaches involve the use of theory to
analyse data. A quantitative researcher, for instance, should not simply
extrapolate numerical data or conduct statistical tests and fail to give a
theoretical/qualitative analysis to explain them. For not all analysis may be
BOCODOL 41 2008
quantified. At certain points in time, there could be the need to assert and
critically examine phenomena less rigidly. This in turn provides the researcher
with the opportunity to explain social characteristics and behaviour that may not
be understood using numbers or quantities.
6.0 References
BMJ. 1995. “Qualitative Research: Reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an
introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research”. In BMJ. Vol.
311, Pp42-45.
DTI. 2005. “Findings from Qualitative and Quantitative Research”. In Science in Society.
Dixon-Woods et al. 2004. “The Problem of Appraising Qualitative Research”. In

Developing Research. Pp223-225.
European Commission. 2006. “The European Citizens and the Future of Europe:
Qualitative study in the 25 Member States”. In Eurobarometer. Pp1-77.
MVA Consultancy. 2006. “Using Water Wisely: Quantitative Research to determine

consumers’ attitudes to water use and conservation”. In Report for Consumer Council for
Water in Association with WRC.
Neil, James. 2006. “Qualitative versus Quantitative research: Key Points in a classic
debate”. In Research Methods. Pp1-2.
Ragin, C.C. Nagel, J. and White, P. 2004. “Workshop on Scientific Foundations of

Qualitative research”. National Science Foundation. Pp 1-148.
Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A.2003. Research Methods for Business Students.
Harlow: Pearson Education.
Silbey, S.S. 2003. “Designing Qualitative Research Projects”. In NSF Workshop in

Qualitative Methods in Sociology. Pp1-4.
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qual.htm
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qual.htm
BOCODOL 42 2008
Topic 4
Basic and Applied Research
Introduction
There are times when we feel the need to explore and gather knowledge relating to
different phenomena or object of study without due concern for the purpose or benefits of
the research. This kind of approach is known as basic research. It allows us the simplicity
of research that is conducted without hurry and in a relaxed atmosphere. It is particularly
useful when you want to apply your mind fully to the subject of study to make ground-
breaking discoveries that may become useful or that could simply serve to elevate your
knowledge and understanding of the world around you.
Some people argue that research should be more focused and directed towards finding
solutions to existing problems, not merely to satisfy a curious mind. This approach is
known as applied research. It is based on the premise that we currently have more
problems to consider hence no time to lose on ‘trial and error. In this topic we shall look
at the two research paradigms in more detail.
Learning Objectives
After reading this topic, you will be able to:
define basic and applied research
illustrate the use and application of these research methods to practical
situations.
Topic Contents List
1.0 Basic research 44

2.0 Applied research 47
3.0 Comments on pure and applied research 53
4.0 Summary 54
References
Time
You will need 2 hours to study this topic.
BOCODOL 43 2008
1.0 Basic Research

Basic research, otherwise known as fundamental or pure research serves to provide
knowledge and understanding of the relations among variables. It is driven by the
researcher’s curiosity or interest over the object or subject of research. Normally it is
conducted on ad hoc basis without any practical purpose in mind. This, however, does
not rule out the possibility of serendipitous benefit that may arise. For the most part, it
serves to facilitate the generation of a theory that may later be explored using other
research methods to gain practical meaning and application of research findings to real
life situations. It has been said that basic science investigations may probe for answers to
questions such as
How did the universe begin?

What are protons, neutrons and electrons composed of?
The first question is common in both scientific research and the quest for general
knowledge that many people have raised concern about it. It has been a subject of
discussion by the learned and those curious about the existence of mankind. The second
question about protons, neutrons and electrons is more science based and has been
explored to the extent that it would not be difficult to find literature about it in your
public or college library. The point, however, is that all discoveries have been made after
the generation of interest by different people. We can therefore say that they were once
elements of fundamental or basic research.
A typical illustration about basic research could emanate from the current concern about
HIV/AIDS. Whereas most of us may be familiar with the definition of the disease and its
causes, there is still controversy relating to finding the cure. Some people are even
questioning the use of anti-retroviral therapy. We are nevertheless aware that some basic
information about HIV/AIDS is available that assists in development planning for those
affected by the disease. The United States National Institutes of Health (2006:1) availed
the following information:
According to the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS

(UNAIDS), approximately 38.6 million people worldwide are
living with HIV/AIDS, and more than 4 million people were
newly infected in 2005- about 11,000 each day. In the United
States, more than one million people are living with HIV/AIDS,
with one fourth of the people unaware of their status, and
approximately 40,000 new infections occurring each year.
Worldwide, more than 25 million people with HIV died since the
pandemic began, including more than 520,000 in the United
States. In 2005, there were an estimated 2.8 million deaths
worldwide due to HIV/AIDS.
If one was curious about the cure for AIDS, the above information constitutes basic
research only, in as much as it does not provide the needed solution. The information
may, however, be significant to guide us about where to find HIV/AIDS cases. For we
need to get closer to our research subjects/objects and study them in order to obtain
relevant information before any subsequent research may be entertained. The information
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above does not provide guarantee for short-term practical gain as far as finding the cure
for HIV/AIDS is concerned. You however can generate a theory to the effect that there is
no cure for HIV/AIDS which is likely to be proven. Should you explore further into the
possible drugs that could cure HIV/AIDS and be successful, there will be no doubt that
you started off with the basic information above. That is why basic research is said to
provide the foundation for further research, sometimes applied research. Dr William
Jeffrey (2006:2), Director of the U.S National Institute of Standards and Technology
whilst addressing the Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation and the Sub
Committee on Technology, Innovation and Competitiveness said that “In today’s global
economy, the ability of the United States to remain competitive relies increasingly on our
ability to develop and commercialise innovative technologies.”
Yount (2006:2-3) provided useful insight about common sense, authority,

intuition/revelation and experience below. We are at liberty to critically analyze his
submission and perhaps derive personal understanding on the basis of what he said. You
may be thrilled to realise that in the social sciences, most of what is required of a
researcher is personal opinion that mostly differs from one individual to the other. Read
through the cases and make your comments in the spaces provided.
Common sense
Common sense refers to knowledge we take for granted. We learn

by absorbing the customs and traditions that surround us – from
family, church, community and nation. We assume this
knowledge is correct because it is familiar to us. We seldom
question, or even think to question, its correctness because it just
is. Unless we move to another region, or go to school and study
the views of others, we have nothing to challenge our way of
thinking. It’s just common sense!
But common sense told us that “the earth is flat” until Columbus
discovered otherwise. Common sense told us that “dunce caps
and caning are effective student motivators” until educational
research discovered the negative aspects of punishment. Common
sense may well be wrong.
Authority
Authoritative knowledge is an uncritical acceptance of another’s

knowledge. When we are sick, we go to the doctor to find out
what to do. When we need legal help, we go to a lawyer and
follow his advice. Since we can not verify the knowledge on our
own, we must simply choose to accept or reject the expert’s
advice. It would be foolish to argue with a doctor’s diagnosis, or
a lawyer’s perception of a case. This is the meaning of “uncritical
acceptance” in the definition above. The only recourse to
accepting the expert’s knowledge is to get a second opinion –
from another expert.
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As Christians, we believe that God’s Word is the authority for our

life and work. The Living Word – God Himself - within us
confirms the Truth of the Written Word. The Written Word
confirms our experiences with the Living Word. Scripture is a
valid source of authoritative knowledge.
However, we spend a lot of time discussing Scriptural

interpretations. Our discussions often deteriorate into conflicts
about “my pastor’s” interpretations. We use our own pastor’s
interpretation as authoritative because of the influence he has had
on our own life. (We can substitute any authoritative person here,
such as a father or mother, Sunday School Teacher, or a respected
colleague.)
But is the authority correct? Authoritative knowing does not

question the source of knowledge. Yet differing authorities
cannot be correct simultaneously. How do we test the validity of
an authority’s testimony?
Intuition/Revelation
Intuitive knowledge refers to truths which the mind grasps

immediately, without need for proof or testing or
experimentation. The properly trained mind “intuits” the truth
naturally. The field of geometry provides a good example of this
kind of knowing. Let’s say that I know that line segment A is the
same length as line Segment B. I also know that Line segment B
is the same length as line segment C. From these two truths, I
immediately recognise that line segments A and C are equal. Or,
in short hand,
If A=B and B=C, then A=C
I do not need to draw the three lines and measure them. My mind
immediately grasps the truth of the statement.
Revelation is knowledge that God reveals about Himself. I do not

need to test this knowledge, or subject it to experimentation.
When Christ reveals Himself to us, we know him in a personal
way. We did not achieve this knowledge by our own efforts, but
merely received the revelation of the Lord. We cannot prove this
knowledge to others, but it is bedrock truth to those who’ve
experienced it. Problems arise, however, when we apply intuitive
knowing to ministry programmes. “Well, it’s obvious that
regular attendance in Sunday School helps people grow in the
Lord.” Is it? We work hard at promoting Sunday School
attendance. Does it actually change the lives of the attendees? Is
it enough for people to think it does, whether or not real change
takes place? Answers to these questions come from clear-headed
analysis, not from intuition.
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Experience
Experiential knowledge comes from “trial and error learning.”
We develop it when we try something and analyse consequences.
You’ve probably heard comments like these: “We’ve already
tried and it failed.” Or another: “We’ve found that holding
Vacation Bible School during the third week of August, in the
evening, is best for our church.” The first is negative. The speaker
is saying there is no need to try that ministry or program again,
because it was already tried. The second is positive. The church
has tried several approaches to offering Vacation Bible School
and found the best time for them. Their “truth” may not apply to
any other church in the association, but it is true for them.
They’ve tried it and it worked…. or it didn’t.
Much of the promotion of new church programs comes out of this

framework. We say, “This programme is being used in other
churches with great success” (which means our church can have
the same experience if we use this program). How do we evaluate
program effectiveness? What is success? How do we measure it?
2.0 Applied Research

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions. It can be exploratory or
descriptive. It is normally done on the basis of basic research such that sometimes it is
difficult to pinpoint where basic research ends and applied research begins. Both
academic and industrial institutions may fund the carrying out of the research so long as
they are interested in it. It could be used to formulate solutions for considerable areas of
expertise (College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources):
Plant breeding
Pest control
Crop breeding
Forestry
Medicine
Astronomy
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Fig. 1: A rocket launch could be one of the most self-explanatory applied research examples
(http://www.iist.unu.edu/¬alumni/software/other/inria/rocq/eng3.htm)
Pertinent questions in applied research could be to do with:
(i) How can a country protect a specific crop from pests?

(ii) What is the most effective and efficient vaccine against influenza?
(iii) How can communication among workers in large companies be improved?
Thus to answer the questions, you ought to find out information directly relating to a
specific matter of concern. For instance, if the crops the first question is about is maize,
you may not find a solution if you were to study millet or cassava. You will need to
conduct your research on a maize field, identify the pests and perhaps study how they
breed so that you may later formulate a pesticide that may be directed to stop the from
breeding. There could be different ways of solving the problem. Your research will focus
on the method you intend to follow.
The question about the most effective and efficient vaccine against influenza concerns
weighing the efficiency and effectiveness of different vaccines meant for the same
problem. You may not necessarily have to invent a new vaccine unless it is deemed
necessary to do so in the absence of a vaccine that satisfies the condition above in the
market. Whatever the approach you follow, the gist is to provide a solution to the
problem put forward.
The same approach applies to the question about communication among workers in large
companies; your aim would be to focus on communication problems and the formulation
of strategies to curb the problems. Note that it is not about communication in general, but
seeks to address communication problems in selected companies (large companies). You
will therefore need to identify such companies, their communication problems and finally
devise means of how to arrest the problems.
Bhorat (2005) observed that applied research institutions serve nine (9) principal
purposes:
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(a) Inform Policy and Policy-Makers
Applied research as informing policy and policy makers in this light does not take into
consideration the chances of influencing policy that may occur as a result of new
discoveries in the policy making agenda. It rather captures the root element of locating
policy problem issues and sharpening our understanding over the issues to provide
exhaustive and valuable baseline information. The next step would be to close observable
information gaps as well as finding more about conventional wisdom within the premise
of the policy. Rigorous economic tools are used to reach an end that complements and
improves the quality and orientation of the decision-making process for the organisation
concerned. In other words, you cannot insist that applied research was conducted when in
the actual sense the direction suggested by the research exercise was not put to practice.
(b) Distil and disseminate knowledge
Bhorat (2005) laments that quite often applied research exercises tend to produce bulky
policy reports that decision makers find laborious to read and understand. These reports
end up gathering dust and taking much of shelf space than was originally intended
without providing the much needed assistance to policy and decision makers.
The aspect of ensuring that the process of information dissemination is pursued with
vigour remains a very important issue that happens to be neglected. Information
dissemination in research involves the publication of working papers, policy briefs and
perhaps in addition; a websites where the information may be downloaded. Where these
areas are not addressed, the research impact is seriously reduced by the fact that research
beneficiaries such as donor agencies and other stakeholders would have little or no access
to research information that could boost the decision-making process. It is thus highly
recommendable that a significant portion of resources is dedicated to the dissemination of
research information to the wider clientele. This requires a well-functioning marketing
division.
On the other hand, there is the pending need to distil information and reduce the
monotony that is often tied to the voluminous, bulky and time consuming process when it
comes to the digestion and understanding information to inform the policy process. It is
necessary that before the information is disseminated to the different customers, it is
broken into short pieces and bits that are easily understandable. This does not mean
destroying the essence of the contents, but requires concise precision that lends
information to more understanding and better grasp. Here you ought to pick up the key
factors within the information base and transform it into a single page or a maximum of
three pages so that all those interested in it may find time and energy to peruse it and
perhaps discuss it amongst them. A typical example could be our national vision (Vision
2016). It has the complete and short versions. The short version, however, has all the
information that you find in the complete version except that it may not be that detailed.
This short format allows the reader to obtain a grasp of more details and understanding
than the laborious complete version.
Thus if your distilled ideas are strong and pertinent, they will pervade through the policy
community. The permeation could result in quicker policy impact. Decision makers are
likely to use your short notes in their daily confrontations with those who may not
support the policy or simply do not understand. Any research institute that is policy
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oriented needs to capture the central idea that, not only are the policy ideas important, but
also the manner in which they are presented to policy-makers.
(c) Provision of human capital
It is common for research institutions to source graduate students from academic

departments that they relate with on the basis of relevant knowledge acquired for
research work. The students could be trained to become research specialists in the long
run. Most of the time, however, the students conduct research work not on full time basis
but simply as a way of facilitating the completion of dissertations. In the process, some
are likely to exit the research environment and join other disciplines on full time basis.
This mostly depends on the funding and the possible career choices made by the students.
In developing countries where shortage of research expertise is common, the students’

career path may be managed such that when they complete varying programmes of study,
they are placed in different public sector organisations to continue with the research
work. The research institutions therefore act as a half-way station between students and
the organisations to which they are placed to continue with their research career. In this
light, we can say that applied research assists in the provision of human capital.
(d) Capacity building
The aspect of capacity building is closely connected to that of provision of human

capital. It is common in the developing world for government ministries and departments
to lack capacity to conduct policy-related research in areas relevant to their mandate. This
should not be misunderstood to suggest that government ministries and departments
should specialise in research work. The point is that there is need for informed policy
decisions and these bodies should have competent staff to understand and appreciate
research knowledge if they are to submit to its invaluable recommendation to policy. It
seems however that ministries and departments are often overstretched to meet these
demands or do not have the expertise to do so. It is in this light that research institutes
should be observed to bridge the gap by providing research related training through
workshops and extension courses. If we were to consider, as an example, the delivery of
courses or workshops related to poverty and inequality, you could realise that most of the
people working within departments that ought to take care of that may not be well versed
with the subject area and that hinders the making of sound policy to address the anomaly.
Thus if research institutes can take it upon themselves to train policy makers on these
areas, not only will they appreciate the knowledge, they would be able to track
performance and provide useful information for strategic decisions. The policy makers
would be better informed to shape policy within their respective areas of influence.
(f) The intermediary in national policy debates
The benefit of applied research as an intermediary will depend mostly on its objectivity
and the manner in which it is perceived present neutral advice and information to national
policy debates. Applied research in this particular case plays the role of an adviser with
no vested interests in the issues discussed. It serves to re-direct policy in the right
direction amid the varying interests of parties and organisation with competing interests.
This however is often possible for some time. As the issues become more complex and
organisations begin to understand the research’s important position in guiding policy,
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they are likely to demand that it focuses on specific issues where they expect more
benefit at the expense of others. The scenario is particularly common where there are
strong interest groups and as a result of funding that is likely to come from some of the
organisations. This process, in the long run, is likely to impact on the research integrity as
organisations begin to visualise the research institute in various ways. Dominant interest
groups can have the research institute doing most of its work whilst others become
disgruntled. It is important for the research institute to consider these opposing views and
in the light of funding, try as much as possible to balance the demands made by its
sponsors and other interest groups.
(g) Membership of research networks
Research institutes may have a network based on formal or informal understanding.

Formal networks usually work at regional or sub-regional level whilst the informal
relationship to research may come from country or international levels.
The formal networks are quite often difficult to facilitate because of their nature of
working around strict deadlines and time schedules. There may be a project that a
regional or sub-regional research centre shares with others in a geographic area. While
this may lend the opportunity to different ideas, the time schedules and deadlines may not
suit those who work on it equally, hence the difficulties in collaboration and possible
project failure.
Informal networks on the other hand are flexible and often depend on individual
researchers actively sharing research ideas and information. This kind of collaboration
may not bear quick results earlier but in the long run, there is the likelihood of
understanding concepts, subjects and phenomena in an international fashion. Any
information that a research institute may not be aware of in the international arena are
quickly passed over by an effective international research net work. This assists more in
standardising the level of understanding worldwide and facilitates the provision of
quality research results with a wider understanding. The benefits of a country network are
associated more with the long term development of human resources at a far costless
exercise than anticipated. Using only the internal pool of knowledge may limit the scope
of the research or escalate research cost as the researchers may have to move physically
to train overseas so as to bring home international knowledge and skills. This is also
likely to happen only when there is experienced shortage of information that is deemed
obtainable abroad.
In the understanding of both internal and external research networks, the general idea is
that there is need to facilitate and coordinate research networks so as to obtain maximum
research experience and assistance as may be required.
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(h) Provision of a regular conventional understanding
The significance of conventional understanding has been alluded to above. It is

emphasised here to refer to the level of international understanding by policy-makers.
This includes, amongst other things, the need to set standards on worldwide
understanding, for instance, macroeconomic policy, trade, labour market, financial and
other indicators. You will find that some countries may not have a well functioning
statistical agency to circulate the information. It becomes the duty of a strong research
institute to gather relevant data and make it available to policy-makers for sound decision
making. There are also instances when certain data may not be available through the
statistical agencies. The Development Policy Research Unit (DPRU) in South Africa, for
example, provides data on employment distributions by sector and occupation – data that
is obtainable through the manipulation of unit records and additionally data that the
Statistics South Africa (SSA) may not provide.
Applied research helps to bridge this knowledge gap.
(i) Access points to international researchers
Research institutes are ideally placed to facilitate the sharing of information between
researchers from various international bodies, be they other research institutes or simply
organisations interested in a particular body of knowledge. Others are institutes
possessing specialist knowledge of countries to which research institutes undertake their
operations. You will find that research institutes may not have the country experience but
possess immense knowledge in specific areas, the knowledge that could be adapted for
the needs of the countries at the same time allowing the research institutes to learn more
about the countries. It is therefore a two-way process that allows both parties to benefit
from the interactions.
The most important part of the collaboration could be that the researchers who do not
have expertise of the foreign country to which they are to be engaged should be seen to
bring some element of expertise in the area of study so that they are not observed merely
as researchers with nothing better than what is locally available. The internal community
should reap some benefits from the collaborations. This could occur only if there is a
purposeful skills transfer strategy in place. Whilst it is normally made certain that such a
strategy is available on paper, it is rare to find it in practice. The idea here should be to
formalise the sessions where a particular technique is taught to operationalise the transfer
followed by published material and the sharing of notes between participants.
The other strategy could be to ensure that external researchers prepare for workshops
with local policy-makers. The benefits are fresh perspectives on certain areas by the
international researchers that are transferred to the local environment. Caution, however,
needs to be exercised to ensure that the researchers understand the audience.
Alternatively the workshops could be organised by a local research institution with
speakers from the international community. This could assist in building institutional
reputation, but more importantly it could avail foreign knowledge to the local
environment.
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(j) New methodologies and approaches
One of the benefits of applied research is the manner in which it helps shape new
methodologies and approaches to boost policy decisions. This is particularly so if the
research is conducted in a place with immense information like the university. There
could be ample information available through literature including the latest journal
articles and text. There is, however, also more information from interactions between
university staff and particularly through lecturers teaching graduate courses. For instance,
a lecturer teaching research econometrics may gain invaluable information from students
better than any research project could. This is, however, only useful to applied research
to the extent to which it assists policy makers to take new direction in policy formulation
and perhaps implementation. A more robust analysis is needed to accomplish this.
You could be aware that the Botswana Government has re-introduced the Financial
Assistance Policy (FAP) for farmers. The question that could arise could be whether the
new FAP will deliver better than the old. More people could be concerned about what
could have led to the abandonment of the policy in the first place that will not affect the
policy now. In brief, the new FAP should be able to deliver something that was not
available in the past. That could mean better understanding of the policy by the targeted
population and better implementation by the policy administrators. In the initial decision
to bring back the policy, it could suggest that perhaps a more robust rationale for the
policy was delivered to Parliament that convinced the policy makers that its revival
would be worth it. On the other hand it could point to the fact that the policy makers are
now more informed about the policy than before. They have therefore decided to break
new ground for the success of the policy.
3.0 Comments on Pure and Applied Research

As much as we tried to explain the difference between pure or basic research and applied
research, we do realise, however, that the dividing line may be significantly blurred such
that at times it could be difficult to pinpoint when basic research ceases and applied
research begins. For applied research is mostly the outcome of investment in basic
research. There is no time when you may simply operationalise. There is got to have been
an idea that flourished to substance - from intangible to tangible. There is an argument
that ‘finer’ minds go for pure research when the less able plod along and ‘apply’ (Current
contents, 1974). This could be particularly true for social scientists where policy making
is about a subject of group discussions. There is the likelihood that those who brought in
sound ideas may not necessarily be the implementers. The credit may however, as
observed from the recipient’s point of view, belong to those who are seen in action. As
the Setswana idiom translates “Go balabala ga ngwana ga se botlhale”. Little do we
realise that sound advice breeds good ideas hence understanding and opportunity. In the
same light, there is nothing wrong with accepting that ideas alone could be worthless.
The solution therefore lies in collaboration; that is, converting ideas to action.
Further it could be realised that what constitutes basic research from one stand-point may
be applied research on the other. As much as an idea carefully crafted constitutes
knowledge as an asset, putting the idea into practice may not be an end but a beginning of
chain of research processes. Those could be basic or applied in terms of individual entity
BOCODOL 53 2008
point of view. As far as the debate goes on, the difference between applied and basic
research remains a question of semantics.
4.0 Summary
In this topic you learnt that research might be basic or applied. Basic research (also
known as pure research) is designed to gather knowledge and understanding of the
natural and social phenomena. It is exploratory as it is driven by the researchers curiosity,
interest and intuition. Basic research provides foundation for applied research. Applied
research on the other hand focuses on the use and application of knowledge acquired
from basic research for problem solving and to evaluate practical issues. You have noted
that the distinction between basic and applied research is not clear-cut because some
stages of basic research provide the foundation for applied research. In other words, the
end part of basic research may form the beginning of applied research. I hope you have
also noted the principle purpose of applied research as outlined by Bhorat (2005).

1. What is basic research?
2. Outline and elaborate on the importance of basic research to a farmer before the
ploughing season.
3. What could be the best way for open and distance learning to make a positive
impact in the lives of Batswana? Highlight the role played by BOCODOL in this
exercise.
4. The debate on the differences between basic and applied research rages on. What
is your opinion about the differences? Is there really a difference or not?
6.0 Answers Self-assessment Exercise 4

1. Basic research could be regarded as preliminary investigation that is done before
a major research exercise. It could be less costly as it is done without expectation
of immediate gains but could lead to important discoveries.
2. To a farmer before the ploughing season, basic research could mean going tom
the fields before the early rains and inspecting the soil. Most farmers would
prefer to till the soil and prepare for the rainy season. Where it becomes evident
that it would be a drought season, the farmer could simply withdraw and wait for
the next season when ample rainfall would be anticipated.
3. BOCODOL could conduct a basic research exercise to find out if Batswana are
willing and able to take advantage of the opportunities that open and distance
learning presents. This could be done by conducting oral interviews with people
who could not go through the normal education schools channel who would be
willing to upgrade skills and educational background. Where the research
findings point to the possible need by the participants to upgrade skills,
BOCODOL could then embark on a major research exercise to pinpoint the
problem and area of opportunity. BOCODOL will then offer education as
required by those affected to close the skills gap.
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References
Bradford University, School of Management, 2006. “An Introduction to
Research and Research Methods”. In Effective Learning Service. Pp 1-38.
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, 2001. “Applied

Research: College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources”. College of
Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. Pp 1-9.
Current Contents, 1974. “Some comments on Pure and Applied Research-

Simulated by a List of Works Cited by Applied Chemists”. Essays of an
Information Scientist. Vol 2, pp 184 – 187.
Bhorat, H 2005. “The Role of Applied Research Institutions: A South African

Case Study”. In Paper for the International Conference “African Economic
Research Institutions and Policy Development: Opportunities and
Challenges”. Pp 1-12.
GAO. “Applied Research and Methods”. In GAO. Pp 1-2.
National Institutes of Health, 2006. “HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet”. Pp 1-2.
Reid, M.A. and Barrington, H. 2003. Training Interventions: Promoting

Learning Opportunities. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development.
William Jeffrey, 2006. “Importance of Basic Research to United States’

Competitiveness”. In Testimony of William Jeffrey Before the Committee on
Commerce, Science and Transportation Subcommittee on Technology,
Innovation, and Competitiveness, United States Senate. Pp 1- 7.
Yount, R. 2006. “Scientific Knowing”. In Research Fundamentals. Unit1, pp

1-18.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research
http://www.lbl.gov/Education/ELSI/Frames/research-basic-defined-f.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/research
BOCODOL 55 2008
BOCODOL 2008
Topic 5
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research
Introduction
Choosing a research method for your project could be one of the most challenging
features of the research process. The manner in which you arrive at the research method
to use could demonstrate the effort you put into the whole work. It shows how you intend
to answer the research question. Different research designs will have advantages as well
as disadvantages on particular issues depending on your approach. A cross-sectional
research approach will therefore differ from the longitudinal style, mainly on the basis of
the time-span considered to follow each research approach.
Learning Objectives
On completion of this topic, you should be able to:
define cross-sectional and longitudinal research
make a clear distinction between the two research approaches
highlight the significance of each approach in the research process
describe the use of the approaches in research work.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Cross-sectional research 57
2.0 Longitudinal research 60
2.1 Purpose of longitudinal research designs 61
2.2 Challenges of longitudinal studies 62
3.0 Prospective vs retrospective longitudinal research designs 63
4.0 Summary 66
References
Time
You will need 2 hours to study this topic.
BOCODOL 56 2008
1.0 Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves the measurement of variables and cases within a
narrow span of time so that the measurements may be viewed as simultaneous (King,
2001). Data are collected at one point in time on several variables such as gender, income
and education. This has the following advantages:
Saving time and material resources as there is only one period of data
collection
The research participants are also not bothered on several occasions
The researcher is in a better position of not having to hold onto the
participants over a long period of time which could be very costly
It is thus ideal for students who are given a chance during the long school
breaks to conduct research and submit by the end of the break.
The disadvantages could be:
That it is less helpful in the study of human development that involves a lot of
changes that must be accounted for.
It may not provide for the study on intra-individual change and restricting
inferences to group changes; the same process that contributes to its weakness
when studying developmental issues.
Example of overweight and obesity among Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) employees
“Kuwait is a small Arabian country situated in the upper north eastern part of the Arabian
Gulf (Al-Asi, 2003:431)”. It is well-known that in the last three decades, the lifestyles of
the Kuwaitis and other inhabitants of the country had changed dramatically. To carry out
a cross-sectional study, Al-Asi picked the periodic medical examinations period to obtain
demographic details, frequency and duration of physical activity, history of chronic
diseases and medication. He also recorded participants’ blood pressure, body mass index
and fasting glucose.
3282 out of 3900 managed to complete the study. 85% of the participants were male,
62% field workers and 38% office workers. The overall prevalence of overweight and
obesity amongst the workers was aggregated at 75% of which 79% of the number were
male and 56% females. What do you think qualifies the research for a cross-sectional
study?
The reason could be that the researcher was not interested in carrying out a study
pointing to the lifestyle changes in the past to the present. Whereas there could have
been ample information to enable the study of life for the selected population in detail
and over some period of time to find out more about the cause of overweight and obesity
among the company employees, the researcher had already decided on his research
approach. It was to be cross-sectional, and that meant it would capture data relating to a
short specific time for all the participants. All the information we could be thinking about
now may have led to the consideration for other approaches. For instance, a longitudinal
study would allow for additional time to cover a wider scope.
BOCODOL 57 2008
You could now be wondering about the researcher’s decision to engage in a cross-
sectional study other than other research approaches. One could argue that he was a
university student who had a single break to do the work. He could also have been just an
individual who had a short time to conduct the research. Alternatively, one could just
decide on a cross-sectional study to save time and money; after-all why take long when a
short route is available? There is nothing to suggest that the research failed to cover other
areas that could have been part of it. In essence, evidence points to the fact that the
researcher knew what he had to do and did it well with minimal expenses. What other
reasons can you suggest?
Some of the cross-sectional research examples include:
Andersen-Randberg’s (1999) cross-sectional study of older twins and centenarians in

Denmark - that sought to find out whether their physical ability declined with age. He
chose the time for the research to be “February to April 1995” (Ibid, 1999:374).
Sleeper et al (2006) studied the design of a large cross-sectional study to facilitate future
clinical trials in children with the fontan palliation of which prospective data collection
for each subject was to occur within “a 3-month period” (Ibid, 2006:428).
The design of a cross-sectional study should therefore primarily consider the subject
matter and the passage of time over which the research will adequately cover the
information required. Key points to note are that the time should be short and the process
of data collection should not extend over different time spans. If it is to be repetitive, it
should refer to the same time span, simply covering aspects left out or information
mistakenly uncovered.
Let us take this hypothetical example.
Four standard 7 pupils at Ipeleng Primary School had the following scores in their first
three (3) months of the year.
Pupil January February March Average

Score
Alfred 75 80 76 77.00
Batho 83 80 77 80.00
Cecilia 87 73 80 80.00
David 76 71 78 75.00
The averages of the four (4) reflect pupil term performance. The report that will be sent
to the parents will show only the averages for the term, not the three-month trend as
indicated above. Supposing the monthly scores were to be provided to the parents as
well, what difference would that make?
It could be to the parent’s advantage because then he/she will be better informed about
the child’s performance at school. One could recognise when the performance went down
or improved. For instance, Alfred’s parents would realise that he had his highest mark in
February (80%). Otherwise he had been consistent at around 75-76%. Now it could even
be much better if they knew how the rest of the class performed against Alfred. Is he the
best in class at the average of 77%? How many pupils are there in class? If he is not the
best, how far is he from the pupil who attained the first position in class? Is there room
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for improvement looking at his performance? Those are the questions parents could like
to know about the performance of their children at school.
The bottom-line is that the period for which the performance is drawn is short. Even
though there are other scores, the cross-sectional study decided to use only the averages
such that there was no time spent keeping up with pupil performance over the 3 months
other than to simply retrieve a database of their performance for the term. A single term,
however, would not indicate how the pupil would perform during the year as the marks
may not be consistent.
Activity 5A
Below is the record of five Geology students’ performance at the University of Botswana
who wrote all the four (4) tests in a month.
Student Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

Thabo 63% 80% 66% 77%
Julius 77% 67% 57% 80%
George 74% 58% 60% 80%
Modise 70% 61% 78% 75%
Moagi 76% 72% 80% 67%
Questions
1. As part of your cross-sectional study, you are to analyse the performance of

Thabo against Julius and provide feedback to the school principal. (5 marks)
2. Provide a general performance report for the five students. (10 marks)
1. In test 1 Thabo scored 63% against Julius’ 77%, a difference of 14%. The second
test saw Thabo scoring higher at 80% compared to 67% obtained by Julius. That
represented a 13% difference. On aggregate, Julius was still 1% higher than
Thabo. Thabo beat Julius further in the third test when they scored 66% and 57%
respectively. That meant that Thabo was now 8% above Julius. Julius, however,
reduced the margin to 5% by scoring 80% against Thabo’s 77%. On average,
Thabo stood at 71.5% against Julius’ 70.25. That represented a tight competition
between the two (2) students that was nevertheless in favour of Thabo.
2. All in all the 5 students average performance stood as follows for the month:
Student Average
score
Thabo 71.5
Julius 70.25
George 68
Modise 71
Moagi 73.75
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2.0 Longitudinal Research

Powers and Knapp (King, 2001) describe longitudinal studies as an approach that
involves investigations using one or more groups of participants studied at several points
in time to study developmental variables. The same participants should be observed for
continuous assessments at specific age levels with repeated measures. Data are collected
for each variable at a point in time for comparison between and among the participants to
find inter-individual and intra-individual changes.
Let us take an example of the performance of a class of 10 students at junior school

within a period of 3 years.
Table 1: Student performance in 3 years
Student Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Average

(Marks) (Marks) (Marks) Score
A 75 80 76 77.00
B 83 56 74 71.00
C 56 73 80 69.67
D 64 57 56 59.00
E 57 75 70 67.33
F 90 80 80 83.33
G 62 73 45 60.00
H 65 59 78 67.33
I 72 67 63 67.33
J 78 74 80 77.33
By way of analysis, student A’s marks fluctuated a bit over the last three years. He scored
75% in the first year. His performance improved when he scored 80% in the second year.
He, however, could not maintain the steep rise in performance. By the third year he was
at 76%. Third year performance, though less than that of the second year was higher than
first year performance. Thus by the end of the third year, we could conclude that student
A’s average score stood at 77%. By way of qualitative analysis, one could argue that
student A was, on average, a 75% and above material. We shall assume the analysis to
represent student A’s intra-individual performance.
Comparing him with other students (inter-individual performance), he should be rated

third in class after students F (83.33) and J (77.33%). The mean class score of 69.93 and
the median score of 68.55 are however below A’s average score of 77%. This means that
in the current class of 10 students, student A may not be considered an average performer
but an above average student. The performance of most students is within the above 60
mark as observed by the 67.33 mode score.
It could have been possible to obtain the same data for other classes within the school at
the same level so that we may compare them with that of student A. Another possibility
is that of having additional variables such as “term performance” for which scores could
help us trace intra and inter student performance with an improved degree of accuracy.
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2.1 Purpose of longitudinal research designs
The two primary purposes of longitudinal research are:
(a) To describe patterns of change
A pattern represents the way or manner in which change occurs. It is almost pointless to
talk about change when you may not specify how it occurs. A change pattern helps all
those trying to understand it to have a point of reference and provides for better analysis
of the change. If we are to refer to our earlier student performance analogy, the intra and
inter analysis of the change sort of gives you a pattern about student A’s performance in
the past 3 years as an individual and a student in the class of 10.
3-Year Student Performance

100
90
80
70
Percent 60 YEAR 1 (Marks)
YEAR 2 (Marks)
50
YEAR 3 (Marks)
40
Average Score
30
20
10
0
A B C D E F G H I J
Student
Fig. 5.1: Line Graph of student performance in 3 years
A quick look at the graph under student ‘A’ shows that he obtained his highest score at
year 2.Year 1 and 3 scores were close and both below year 2 score. The year 2 score,
because of its impact on years 1 and 3 led to a better average score above years 1 and 3
scores.
Activity 5B
Using the same analysis as above, compare student A and student F on the basis of
information from Fig. 2 and write your analysis. Discuss your analysis with the tutor.
BOCODOL 61 2008
(b) To describe the direction and magnitude of causal relationships between

variables
The direction of a relationship between variables concerns whether there are improved
relations (forward or upward movement) or the relationship could be dwindling (going
down) depending on the variables of discussion. We could argue that student A’s marks
displayed a steady relationship despite the differences that occurred between the years.
This is because the marks did not (on average basis) move away (increase or decrease)
from the 75% mark by a large margin. Consider the marks scored by B. B moved from
83% in year 1, down to 56% by year 2 - a difference of 27%. If we were to expose the
difference in terms of the relationship direction, it would most definitely be downward or
backward. A forward relationship in terms of class performance should symbolise
improvement in performance. That is what happened when B scored 74% at year 3.
A positive difference of 18% was recorded.
What kind of student would you think of B in terms class performance? Is he an 83%,
56% or 74% material? We cannot be in a position to err on that unless we discuss the
magnitude of the relationship. The magnitude represents the strength of the relationship.
We earlier rated A at around 75% because the fluctuations in his performance were
minimal i.e. within the 75-80 range. Student A scored 75% and 76% in years 1 and 3.
A major difference occurred in year 2 when he obtained 80%. The total difference
recorded was 5% or less. Such fluctuations are normal hence we can err that ‘student A’
is within the range of 75%-80%. Student B’s performance on the other hand is
unpredictable. Differences of 27% and 18% are really high such that we may conclude
that the degree of performance relationship is quite low. It becomes difficult to find B’s
range of performance. Sometimes you could even wonder whether it was the same
student assessed within the 3-year period as well as whether his marks were correctly
recorded.
Activity 5C
Assess the magnitude of the class performance relationship between students F and G?
Write your assessment in the lines below. Discuss the analysis with your tutor.
2.2 Challenges of longitudinal studies
Longitudinal research designs; due to the length of data collection, have several
disadvantages and challenges. Participant attrition seems to be the main factor behind
longitudinal study failures (King, 2001). It is often difficult and costly to maintain
contact with participants and research personnel over the entire duration of the research.
For the very reasons, large numbers of research personnel may be required to maintain
contact with multiple participants as well as to collect and analyse data (Bryson, Powers
and Warner-Smith, 2004). The personalities of the different players in the research
process are most likely to affect the outcome and research results in numerous ways. For
instance, the efforts of solid research personnel could be vividly observed through the
data collected and the quality of the analyses (Ortega and Iberri-Shea, 2005). There will
also be clear complementary relationship between such research personnel and
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participants, with participants’ willingness to provide the required data as a sign of

harmonious relations.
The mere fact that longitudinal studies take long to conclude means that the whole
research process is subject to socio-economic and political factors that affect all those
involved Stutzer and Frey, 2003). The question then is who would take up the
responsibility to correct the situation? Mostly the research personnel, as new as they may
be to the environment, they are tasked with the accountability and responsibility to ensure
the success of the project in spite of the changing environment.
At times it could become necessary that old measures; that could be obsolete, be replaced
with new ones to keep up with the changing business environment for the success of the
project (Choy, 2002). The irony for the changes, however, remains:
It would not be longitudinally impressive to make comparisons of the past and

the present without accounting for the changes.
It could lead to compromises of settling for conjecture about the results of the
study.
Where the changes were technology driven, there may be the need to purchase
new equipment to transfer the data.
New equipment could be costly.
Statistical techniques may assist us account for lost quantitative data but not
qualitative data.
This calls for capturing the demographics of research participants. These may be used to
distinguish the effect of attrition on data loss. They also help provide for error on the
basis of participants who remained for the course of the study (Saunders et al, 2003). The
basic idea should be the understanding that missing data on whatever the cause may
seriously jeopardise the research findings.
3.0 Prospective vs Retrospective Longitudinal Research

Designs
The nature of non-experimental prospective research design is such that the researcher
begins with a hypothesis of the presumed situation and follows it to find the cause(s).
Where the research is longitudinal, the researcher will study the phenomena over a
reasonably long period of time (Stutzer and Frey, 2003). This allows the researcher to
watch as situations unfold with time; the causes of the changes, setbacks and
developments encountered for a true reflection of events (King, 2001).
Retrospective research designs on the other hand apply when the current phenomena of
study relates to events that occurred in the past (Choy, 2002). To be able to understand
such situations fully, one would need to dig deeper into the past and source the
relationship of events as they occur. It is like finding pieces of a clay pot that broke a
long time ago. You will find the first piece and then the other until you have the complete
pot in your hands.
It has been argued that only prospective research should be considered as longitudinal
study because the evidence of time taken to study developmental issues is quite evident.
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A retrospective study could rely on past information and be completed in a short space of
time. For instance, learning a language other than the mother tongue has been considered
quite complex (Ortega and Iberri-Shea, 2005). To qualify the statement, one could argue
that the intensity of the difficulty could be borne out of the mode of study. If you are to
learn from someone orally, some might find it easier or difficult. Others would prefer to
learn, say English, from a textbook that one could read anytime so long as he/she has it.
Menard (King, 2001) argued that perhaps the best approach is a combination of
retrospective and prospective research designs that will make a complete longitudinal
study. On the basis of his argument, I propose we look at the following interview
scenario that came under the heading “Qualitative Longitudinal Research: Exploring
ways of researching lives through time”. The writer of the article is unknown. It is about
Helen.
Helen’s parents separated when she was three. Initially, at

her father’s insistence, she was in a shared residence
arrangement, split every two or three days and spending
every weekend with her father. But by the time of her first
interview Helen, aged eight, and her older brother were, at
their own request, spending less time with their father.
Interview 1
Helen (aged 8):
Bren: What’s it like for you when you’re going off to Dad’s?
Helen (aged 8): I sometimes feel a bit sad, being with my mum only for weekdays ‘cos I
haven’t stayed with her for the weekend. I didn’t really want to go to my dad’s because I
didn’t really want to get car sick and get even more bad in my tummy…. Usually I feel
poorly after I’ve been to my dad’s.
Bren: Do you think you’d like to change it at all in the future?
Helen: It depends how horrible my dad gets, say he gets much more horrible, or say he
gets much nicer and kinder. So it depends on that.
Interview 2
Helen (aged 11) has decided to end the visits:
Helen: When I used to see him first of all, it was every weekend…Ad then I started
seeing him three weekends out of four…Then he moved (200 miles) away for work and
then he moved back, six miles from here and I started seeing him more. And I didn’t
really like it…I did ask him if I could just see him three weekends out of four but then he
insisted that I stay there on Fridays….And then I went to him last Thursday night and I
left on Friday… I was meant to be staying the whole weekend…..I’m not seeing him
anymore….
Jennifer: Have your feelings about the divorce changed over the years?
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Helen: Yeah definitely because I realised, I found out, you know, about my dad, because
I didn’t really – well, I did know, but not like, know as in completely understand, …’cos
Dad was not treating Alex very well. That was when I started to see him less. And when I
realised that I actually had the choice, if I wanted to, I didn’t have to go…
Jennifer: What’s it been like living in your family?
Helen: Sometimes I wish that I wasn’t – that it could be a different life…if I look at
somebody else’s family, I would rather be in their place, ‘cos I would love their
parents…. I wouldn’t love just mum.
Jennifer: If you could have one wish, what would that be?
Helen: Well I would probably say that I wish I had never known my dad. Because then
Alex and I would never have to know what went on.
A closer analysis of the interview should remind you of a qualitative approach to

longitudinal studies. It is qualitative in the sense that we ought to forego the use of
numbers and concentrate on making logic out of what has been provided.
Perhaps the crux of the matter at this juncture concerns whether the longitudinal study
could be considered prospective or retrospective. The interview at both levels, i.e. when
Helen was 8 and 11 years all bear reflections of the past, present and the future. Helen
had not had good experiences whilst staying with her father and in the initial interview
she was willing to give her father another chance to improve the relationship. We are not
provided with the duration of the relationship before the first interview. There is,
however, reflection that there was some time when the relationship existed and according
to Helen, was not pleasant. In the final interview, it is clear that Helen had not liked
staying at her father’s place to the extent that she had made the decision to end the visits.
Her decision to do so rely very much on past experiences coupled with the latest. This is
an example of retrospection in a longitudinal study. At the same time one would argue
that after the first interview, what transpired could be observed as a prospective scenario
because it focused on a number of years into the future. The change in the relationship
between father and daughter was precipitated by events that the daughter disliked about
staying with her father. They unfolded well as time passed by to the extent that in the end
there was nothing left for the daughter to consider staying with her father. In this light,
one is inclined to suggest for a combination of retrospective and prospective approaches
for a thorough longitudinal study.
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4.0 Summary
Cross-sectional studies
Cross-sectional research involves the measurement of variables and cases

within a narrow span of time.
Data are collected at one point in time on several variables.
Advantages
Saving time and material resources as there is only one period of data
collection.
The research participants are also not bothered on several occasions.
The researcher is in a better position of not having to hold onto the
participants over a long period of time which could be very costly.
It is ideal for researchers who do the work at a specified short space of
time.
Disadvantages
It is less helpful in the study of human development that involves a lot of

changes that must be accounted for.
It may not provide for the study on intra-individual change and restricting
inferences to group changes; the same process that contributes to its weakness
when studying developmental issues.
Longitudinal Studies
A research approach that involves investigations using one or more groups of

participants
Participants are studied at several points in time to study developmental
variables.
The same participants should be observed for continuous assessments at
specific time periods with repeated measures.
Data are collected for each variable at a point in time for comparison between
and among the participants to find inter-individual and intra-individual
changes.

1. What is a cross-sectional study and how does it differ from longitudinal
research?
(5 marks)
2. Give three examples of cases involving the use of both
cross-sectional and longitudinal studies in real life situations. (3 marks)
3. It is argued that prospective rather than retrospective studies constitute
longitudinal studies, what is your opinion? (10 marks)
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1. Cross-sectional studies are to do with the study of phenomena over a short period
of time. Data is collected once at a particular point in time such that there is no
need to keep in touch with research participants after the process of data
collection. It is more economic and less time consuming. Longitudinal studies on
the other hand take long to set up and conclude as they deal with developmental
issues over a long period of time. They are therefore time-consuming, need more
resources and require that the researcher maintains contact with participants
over a long period of time.
2. Cross-sectional study cases
(a) It is meant for studies intended to be concluded with less costs in a short
space of time. Examples are:
Assessment of third-term student performance at Ipeleng Primary
School.
A 3-month study of Bees and Bee Farming at Tuli Block
The introduction of PBRS in the Botswana Public Service.
Longitudinal study cases
(b) The study of economic, socio-political and environmental issues that

normally take long (years) to conclude, for example:
Drought and its effect amongst farmers in Pandamatenga

The spread of HIV and AIDS in Kanye
The movement of Basarwa to New Xade.
3. Prospective longitudinal studies reflect on a hypothetical area of study for which

information may not be available at the time. The work of the researcher is to
watch over the beginning of events about the chosen situation and develop a track
record. Retrospective studies on the other hand are historical. They could be
about phenomena that not succinctly known but information may be available
from past records. The researcher may therefore gather past records to provide a
valuable piece of research work.
It may be argued that both prospective and retrospective research designs are
longitudinal because the information provided helps us to understand phenomena
over a specified period of time. The only difference could be that with prospective
studies, the researcher may have first-hand information about the phenomena.
Retrospective studies mean that the researcher gather information readily
provided by those who tracked it before hand. This may lead to somewhat less
accurate information as the researcher may need to err in order to explain and
substantiate the phenomena in question.
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References
Al-Asi, T. 2003. “Overweight and Obesity among Kuwait Oil Company employees: a
cross-sectional study”. In Occupational Medicine. Vol 53:
pp431-435.
Andersen-Randberg, K. et al. 1999. “Declining physical abilities with age: a cross-

sectional study of older twins and centenarians in Denmark”. In Age and ageing. Vol, 28,
pp 373-377.
Bren. (Anon). “Qualitative Longitudinal Research: Exploring ways of Researching Lives

through Time. In Interpreting processes through QL Interview Data.
Bryson, L. Powers, J. and Warner-Smith, P. 2004. “Using Population Data for

Longitudinal Research: Possibilities and Problems”. In Australian Population
Association: 12th Biennial Conference, Canberra, Australia.
Choy, S.P. 2002. “Access and Persistence: Findings from 10 Years of Longitudinal
Research on Students”. In American Council of Education: Centre for Policy Analysis.
King, M.P. 2001. “Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research Designs Issues In the
Studies of Human Development”. In Graduate Research in Nursing. Pp1-7.
Ortega, L. and Iberri-Shea, G. 2005. “Longitudinal Research in Second Language

Acquisition: Recent Trends and Future Directions”. In Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics. Vol, 25, pp 26-45.
Sleeper, L.A. et al. 2006. “Design of large cross-sectional study to facilitate future
clinical trials in children with the fontan palliation”. In American Heart Journal. Vol,
152(3), pp 427-433.
Stutzer, A. and Frey, B.S. 2003. “Reported subjective Well-being: A Challenge for
Economic Theory and Economic Policy”. In Keynote Lecture, SOEP Anniversary
conference, Berlin.
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BOCODOL 2008
Unit 2
Principles of Research
Unit Team
J Dikinya
M Seeletso
M Tlotleng
A Ntuma
C BOCODOL
BOCODOL 2008
Unit 2
Principles of Research
Overview
It is common to receive advice about how to travel from one place to another. Such
advice could be exceptionally good if it came from someone who had first-hand
experience of the destination. It is however not less common that, perhaps out of concern
and the need to help a fellow human being, a person who has never been to a place may
also provide invaluable information that you could use wisely to get what you want or
reach your destination.
Whereas the two kinds of persons alluded to above would both have provided some form
of assistance, you would treasure a succinct approach that is universally acceptable and
worth talking about because it was not obtained in a manner that should not be disclosed.
As you would realise, we take a similar path in the process of moulding a dedicated
researcher. A researcher whose behaviour and work are beyond reproach as far as
academic integrity is involved. With these remarks, I welcome you to the second unit of
Research Methods.
In this unit, we introduce you to the desired conduct and behaviour required of a
prominent researcher. Topic 1 examines the code of ethics that researchers have to abide
with to avoid causing unwanted harm to the society. The code of ethics that researchers
should stick to as they carry out their research will be discussed in Topic 1 as well.
Topic 2 will cover the violations of academic integrity. This includes dishonesty or any
form of misconduct the researcher may wish to undertake. Finally we will study Topic 3
which will look at plagiarism. This is the use of another person’s work without giving
due credit or acknowledgement. Activities, followed immediately by suggested feedback
have been included to help you check your level of understanding regarding the content
you will have just studied.
BOCODOL 69 2008
Aims of This Unit

This unit’s aims are to:
introduce you to the basic principles of ethics in research

emphasise the importance of good academic conduct and behaviour
indicate how you would go about and write a well researched report that
embodies the observance of professional conduct and research ethics.
Unit Structure
This unit is composed of 3 topics to facilitate easier learning as follows:
Topic 1: Basic Ethics in Research

Topic 2: Violations of academic integrity
Topic 3: Plagiarism
Time
You will need about 30 hours to study this unit, including all its related activities.
BOCODOL 70 2008
Topic 1
Basic Ethics in Research
Introduction
In every household, community or place there are acceptable ways that people ought to
subscribe to if they are to continue to live together peacefully. The bible teaches that a
good son looks up to his father, just as a good citizen is expected to respect and abide by
the law. The bible and the law are not in isolation with societal norms and practices that
could have existed before. Amenson (2000) argues that “…it’s not our Christian
responsibility to live an ethical life and it’s not our Christian responsibility to live a
lawful life.” Thus Christianity, the law and an ethical life could be seen as three (3)
different ways that people may choose a way of life.
If we are to understand morality as conformity to ideal human conduct as prescribed by

society (Economic and Social Research Council, 2006), the state here could represent a
ruling authority with a binding rule of conduct recognised by the citizens. Ethical
conduct, on the other hand represents a common view that may govern an individual or
group within the society (Ermine et al, 2004). For instance, Scientists could be members
of the science society who are also citizens of a country, thereby subjected to the law of
the land. Some scientists are also Christians. One could possibly ask the following
question - how could the 3 authorities exist side by side with different rules and
regulations? We find the answer within the morality of a people. Where people agree to
live together and develop an ideal code of conduct, whatever comes thereafter may be
fitted within the existing code in a way that minimises conflict and promotes co-
existence.
Research, like all other disciplines subscribes to a code of ethics to ensure that
researchers do not cause unwanted harm to the society. As a researcher you will be
expected to stick to the research code of ethics and demonstrate to have observed the
required principles in your research project. This topic will thus give you an insight to the
basic principles of ethics, including the principles of confidentiality, privacy and
informed consent that you will need for a robust research project.
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Learning Objectives
After working through this topic you should be able to:
explain the basic ethics or principles of research

explain theories based on people’s intentions and consequences of their actions
explain the factors that influence privacy and confidentiality in research
explain what informed consent entails.
Topic Contents List

1.0 What is research ethics 73
2.0 Privacy and confidentiality 77
3.0 Informed consent 80
4.0 Summary 82
6.0 Suggested Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 1 83
Time
You will need about 8 hours to study this topic.
BOCODOL 72 2008
1.0 What is Research Ethics

Ethics have been described as “the study of right from wrong in human conduct.”
(http://www.jgsee.kmutt.ac.th/exell/General/Ethics.htm: 06/10/2006). The Economic &
Social Research Council (ERSC, 2006) perceives this as the essence of morality, though
morality, according to Amenson, is a static concept that does not change with time,
ethical conduct does. So, what is the difference between ethical conduct and morality?
Can people differentiate right from wrong?
We know with certainty that people are seldom aware of what is right or wrong on the
basis of past experiences. Some things might never have occurred if we knew that doing
so would not be right and everybody was convinced of that. To refresh our memories,
situational factors like war, famine and starvation have in the past obscured us from
moral uprightness and as a result intolerable harm were committed against humanity. As
common sense would suggest (Yount, 2006), what could be particularly ‘right’ to one
individual might as well be considered ‘wrong’ by another. The results of action on the
basis of ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, if we are to adopt Amenson’s standpoint, would neither make
a wrong right nor a right wrong. Morality would be independent of a man’s action,
otherwise it would be amenable. For the benefit of an understandable standpoint, we
could say that you never know right from wrong until the result of your actions
communicate it. Thus whereas morality exists, it is invisible and intangible just as right
and wrong. This leaves us a major problem of determining when something is right or
not. It is the ethical problem.
(a) Understanding Research Ethics

Actions are considered right or wrong on the basis of the intentions of people and
whether the consequences are good or bad. We, however, still remain with the problem
of determining good from bad. Is there a clear distinction between good and bad? In the
quest for the solution to the question, theories have been developed on the basis of
intentions of the people and consequences of their actions.
Now let us examine the theories based on intentions of people.
(i) Theories based on intentions of people

There are people who believe that absolute good exists because actions, regardless of the
consequences, are right when they are in agreement with natural law (general ethics
website - 2006). The theory is based on the assumption that people have inborn qualities
that enable them to determine what is right from what is wrong. According to religion,
there are prophets and sacred books such as the bible that carry authority from God to
help us to judge good from bad. Unfortunately, nowadays religions are quite widespread
such that we do not even know which religion would give us God’s authority and the
sacred understanding of these. This is particularly so in that we have read of prophets
who could not determine the good from bad. As a result, a lot of people were led astray.
The theory of inborn qualities also fails to impress because there are no established
standards. Without standards, it is almost impossible to predict one’s course of action
before bad things happen.
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One interesting theory based on the intentions of people is that by Emmanuel Kant. Kant
(Maccarelli. 2007) argued that “What a person should do and what a person wants to
do are often not compatible.” The premise for the opinion is that quite often than not,
people obtain immediate gratification from what they want to do, rather than what should
be done. It is common to shy away from duty or responsibility that has long term positive
gains simply because it could mean being inconvenienced at the moment. The central
theme of Kantialism is that people want a continuous flow of happiness now and in the
future rather than some inconvenience on the way.
Morality, however, being the root of ethical behaviour, emphasises that you do
something because it is right regardless of the benefit or inconvenience. That is to say, I
should go to church because it teaches self-discipline, duty and responsibility even if I do
not want to. The long run could be that I will grow up to be a good citizen and of value to
my society. What if I do not want to go to church? The immediate benefit could be
watching my favourite sport on TV or enjoying life with friends somewhere on a Sunday.
The two activities would make me happy on that day. They, however, have nothing to do
with tomorrow when my schedule could be different. If, however, I maintain the same
lifestyle for a long period of time, the chances are that the future could become less
meaningful. I would be spending a lot of valuable time on activities that have no
investment.
The basis for ethical principles is mainly to try and curb frequent bad experiences
through the use of consistent and universal truths that are made available to all people.
We need to be able to predict that a good citizen who also understands the law would not
take pleasure from breaking the law. We want to emphasise that everybody in Botswana
knows that it is wrong to drive on the right lane in a two-way road. We, however, have
not succeeded. The problem being that questions arise as to whether it is right or wrong
to do so. If it is wrong to drive on the right, why do they do it in the United States? The
bottom-line rests upon whether the people agreed to the arrangement or not. That is, are
the traffic laws universal and consistent to enable people to deduce the right intentions
from wrong ones?
(b) The Ethical Dilemma
Roger Poole (Ermine et al, 2004) coined the term ‘ethical space’ to refer to an imaginary
point of interaction between two (2) entities with different intentions. Cullison (2006)
derives an argument from disagreement on the basis that different cultures have different
moral beliefs. Considering that people from these varieties of cultures do meet and often
have to live and thrive together though still as different entities, we could argue that this
creates us an ethical space on the basis of their different motives aligned to the cultures
they subscribe to. This, however, still would not describe what ethics are. The significant
factor would be that the ethical space, at this moment still void, amid the desire to
co-exist for mutual interdependence should persuade the people to want to arrive at a
central point where the cultural differences may be harmonised. We are not yet at the
point where we could argue that one particular culture is right and the other is wrong.
The ethical space therefore could be understood to stand for an opportune place of
harmonious interaction that also has a potential for chaos and destruction.
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Try this activity to apply the knowledge you have so far learnt.
Activity 1A
1. What is your opinion about the traffic law relating to driving in Botswana as
explained above?
2. List five similar conflicting issues that may cause the ethical dilemma.
3. Kagiso tested HIV positive four (4) years ago. He is now proving to be weak and sick
most of the time. His mother, who is very fond of him, advises him never to believe
people who say he will not recover. According to such people, sooner or later Kagiso
will die.
Analyse these opinions on the basis of Kantialism:
(i) The opinion put forth by Kagiso’s mother.

(ii) People who say Kagiso will die.
1. The first duty and responsibility of all citizens is to obey the law of the land. The
traffic law may not be philosophically justifiable but symbolises an agreement
made by the people of Botswana to a particular rule or way of doing things. The
people are therefore under obligation to obey the traffic law.
2. Other issues that could be of ethical concern may have to do with:

(i) Polygamy.
(ii) Marital power clause in the law of marriage in Botswana.
(iii) Gay and Lesbian rights.
(iv) Female tribal leaders or chiefs in some cultures.
(v) Culture and tradition in modern day Botswana etc.
3. (i) Kagiso’s mother may be thought of, on the one hand, as an optimist or
simply a mother who shows pity to an ailing son. It is good advice to restore
hope when the future looks bleak and unrewarding. HIV/AIDS, however, is
a serious disease (or at least considered so) for which people may expect
realistic answers to be able to make informed decisions. In the light of the
foregoing, one could argue that perhaps the mother should not overdo the
optimism thing. Instead she could sooth the son’s agony by diverting his
concentration to other meaningful things in life. Conversations such as “My
son, we are like flowers that blossom in the morning and die in evening. All
that lives will die one day. Death belongs to us all.” It is a Kantialist
approach to face facts, not because you want them if not due to the
obligation you feel should be allowed people who could be terminally ill.
(ii) It does not demonstrate moral uprightness to tease those who are about to
experience an unfortunate incident. When Kant emphasised that what we
want may not be necessarily what should be applies well to this scenario. It
could be that those who did not like Kagiso wanted to bring him more
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misery. If not, they were not sensitive at all to his situation. The essence of
morality is that you do something that will not cause you discomfort. It is
far-fetched that somebody may find it normal when sick to be told that he or
she will soon die. There is a high probability that even those uttering the
words feel the discomfort from what they say. There is the likelihood that
the people referred to above had motives beside ethical or moral behaviour.
Let us proceed and look at theories based on consequences.
(b) Theories based on consequences

Some ethical theories say that an action is right if it has good consequences and
wrong if it has bad consequences. Among the theories based on consequences of
action, some argue that an action is right if it produces good consequences for the
majority of the people affected (utilitarianism). This has been a debatable area
concerning the rights of the minority. For instance, can the government ignore the
livelihood of a minority population to destroy the forest in order to build a large
dam for the majority of the people?
Whereas consequentialism relies on the weight of the consequences of actions,

there have been unsettled issues regarding the kind of consequences that could
count as good, the beneficiaries of moral action and the judge of moral action.
Some people have argued that lying is bad, regardless of the consequence whilst
others believed lying could be necessary in some instances to avert disaster or bad
things from happening. To a consequentialist, however, lying would not be the
main issue to consider. What matters is the result of shedding a lie. In other
words, it could be allowed in circumstances where it is needed.
Perhaps we should now be thinking about the beneficiaries of moral action. We said that
where good consequences arise, the actions of people might be considered good.
Sometimes we make the judgement that certain results were good and others were wrong.
The point is who are the beneficiaries to decide right from wrong? Do they share
sentiments of judgement made by other people? What could they possibly say if they
were involved in the decision-making agenda? These are some of the pertinent but
difficult questions of the consequentialist approach. Actions considered good might as
well be unwelcome to others. Some people may adopt actions as good because they allow
more pleasure, others may prefer a long life of success that may not be that pleasurable.
Some people may simply want to have beautiful things. Another way could be to focus
more on non-material goods like liberty. In most circumstances a basket of ‘good’
consequences is preferred.
To illustrate your understanding do the following activity.
Activity 1B
Discuss the following as to whether they are good or bad:

(i) Education.
(ii) Teenage pregnancy.
(iii) Tough examinations.
(iv) Human rights.
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(i) Education could be regarded as good for human development because it helps
individuals to acquire relevant skills and competences needed for a better life. In
today’s competitive world, the less educated find themselves without a source of
livelihood. Employers seek qualitative traits from people that help them to
perform given job tasks. Without those such people find it difficult to find
employment hence may not stand to the challenges of fierce competition against
those with better education.
In other circumstances, it could be argued that education may be a source of bad

character where the educated may use the education to swindle the less
privileged. Thus education may be seen as a tool that may be used to generate
both good and evil. An example could be the training given to armies who cause
unwarranted harm just because they happen to have the technological know-how
to amass weapons. Can you think of other disadvantages that arise as a result of
knowledge and skills?
(ii) Teenage pregnancy could be seen as an evil or a bad thing when the young and
future leaders are subjected to unwanted parenthood before they are adults. They
may not have the capacity to raise children because they have not planned for
raising families. They may not have the material resources because pregnancy at
an earlier age means they are delayed to go to school and later find work.
Sometimes it becomes too late for them to re-start the future.
(iii) Tough examinations, observed from a positive point of view, could help one to
learn more and prepare for difficulties that occasionally are part and parcel of
life. On the other hand, they could be bad for all of us when we fail and lose hope
in life.
(iv) Human rights, like the right to life, means that everyone should be afforded the
chance to stay alive. Countries are expected to uphold United Nations
conventions that encourage this positive motive and sign agreements that bind
each of them to ensure that human rights are not treated as privileges that may be
enjoyed by a few.
They may, however, not be of much benefit where those afforded the chance to
live take advantage to deny others the same rights. For instance, in Botswana we
have the death penalty that is mostly used against those who take life.
We have been looking at theories based on intentions and consequences. In the next part
of the topic we will study about the issues of privacy and confidentiality in research.
2.0 Privacy and Confidentiality

The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) defines confidentiality as
providing access to information to a select number of people by granting them authority
to do so (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidentiality). This is usually done to provide
security and ensure that information may not be put in the wrong hands where it could be
abused. Professions such as the military, law and others require that some information
may be kept secret, for instance, for national security or to protect a client. In such
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instances, laws and policies that call for penalties upon those violating the provisions are
designed. A soldier may not divulge confidential information to enemies as this may
jeopardise the security of the country. In the same way, a lawyer may not talk freely
about clients’ cases without giving undue advantage to those on the opposite side.
In research each individual is entitled to privacy and confidentiality both on ethical

grounds and in terms of the protection of their personal and sensitive data under the Data
Protection Act of 1998, (Canterbury Christ Church University, 2006). Research
participants are therefore under no obligation to disclose or provide data under any
circumstances, time or extent unless on own will after making reasonable judgements to
do so. A research process should therefore provide for standards of privacy and
confidentiality to protect access, control and dissemination of personal information.
Research proposals should uphold the principles aligned to privacy and confidentiality of
sources and data provided.
(a) Protection of data from unwanted access
The United Kingdom’s Data Protection Act (DPA) of 1998 provides for security of
information relating to living people. It protects individuals against divulgence of
personal information without consent. This means that people are afforded the right to
object when they feel that information relating to personal history, that may put them at a
disadvantage, may be disclosed. Its provisions include the following;
Data may be used for the specific purpose for which it was generated
Data about an individual must not be disclosed to other parties without their
consent
Individuals have the right to access information about themselves
Personal information may not be kept for longer than it is necessary
Personal information may not be transmitted outside set boundaries
All organisations dealing with personal information are expected to register with
the Information Commissioner
Entities holding personal information are expected to have security measures in
place to guard against unwanted access.
(b) Non-disclosure Agreement (NDA)

In some situations, individual entities can go into non-disclosure agreements where two
or more parties agree to share certain confidential information that may not be allowed to
other entities. That could go to the extent where the existence of the NDA may not be
disclosed. This may help provide security for important business information shared by
the parties. Common NDA premises include the ones listed below:
The parties to the agreement are known

The definition of what constitutes confidential information between the parties is
clarified
There is restriction on the use of the confidential data
Data may not be transferred in violation of national security
The time period for the confidentiality is known
Data is kept safe from abuse
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Data may only be disclosed to entities that are within the agreement
Parties within the agreement abide by the set rules and regulations to protect the
data from disclosure.
(c) Protection of sources
Protection of sources relates to the right to secrecy accorded to people who provide
confidential information. There are laws, for example, that ensure that journalists were
not compelled to disclose their sources of information. This has been found
recommendable for the preservation and nurturing of democratic values such as the
fundamental freedom of expression, thereby encouraging transparency and helping guard
against abuse of power. This has brought in recognition of the fact that unless
information sources are protected, people might not be willing to come forth with desired
information for fear of being victimised.
Now l would like you to pause here for a while to reflect on what you have learnt by
doing the following activity.
Activity 1C
(i) What are the three key issues in the protection of information from unwanted
access?
(ii) Suggest two conditions necessary for a non-disclosure clause to function?
(iii) How would you ensure that your research participants remain confidential in case
they are against the disclosure of their names after providing you with
information?
(i) Key issues to save guard information provided:
Ensure that data provided by research participants is protected from people who
may use it to harm or sabotage the research in any way
Where data is obtained from business partners or associates, a non-disclosure
agreement may be signed to ensure that only the parties to the agreement have
access to the information
You may also consider the use of false identities to protect your data sources.
(ii) Two conditions of a successful non-disclosure clause could be to:

Know the parties to the non-disclosure agreement
Put in place mechanisms to restrict access to data provided.
(iii) Confidentiality of research participants by adopting the following measures:

Use letters or numbers to refer to your participants e.g. A and B or participant 1
and 2
Where names are used, you may consider restricting access to information using
some of the methods described above.
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One very important principle in research work is that of informed consent. The next part
of the topic shall discuss this principle in more details.
3.0 Informed Consent
The basis of a good research piece is that it accords respect to participants as persons
with some degree of autonomy and that those who may not afford to be autonomous are
protected from abuse. This renders the principle of informed consent a significant pillar
in the research process. The main item within this principle is that participants provide
research information or whatever is required from them voluntarily and not under undue
coercion. Voluntary consent can only occur when would-be participants are provided
with full details about the research so that they may decide to participate or not to
participate. In this line, according to National Bioethics Advisory Commission (2001),
the informed consent deliberation centres around three elements as stated below;
(a) Disclosure of information to prospective research participants.

(b) Ascertaining that they understand what is said to them.
(c) That prospective participants volunteer to participate and are not coerced into it.
The criteria above are unconditional such that the benefit that may be due to participants
may not deter them from making a decision of their choice. This requires that the
presentation of information is done in the manner that lends prospective participant to
full understanding. The information is adapted to participants’ unique characteristics. For
this purpose, a procedure to verify the understanding is recommendable and undue
influence and coercion should be avoided.
The informed consent principle permeates the major part of the research process in that it
should be seen to work in the manner in which the research is designed, the selection of
the research population sample, in data collection and whatever the circumstances that
may impact in the research process. A good research will indicate areas where consent
ought to be sought, how he or she will go about to cater for the process and provide the
rationale for the consent sought. That will ensure that the research process is not only
informative but also caters for the personal needs of the participants as autonomous
individuals.
Do the next activity to check your understanding of what you have just studied.
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Activity 1D
Thabo wanted to find out about the relationship between rewards at work and the
willingness of the employees to perform given work tasks. What do you think should be
included in the following aspects of the research process?
(i) Research design

(ii) Sampling.
(iii) Data collection.
(iv) How should he cater for unforeseen research needs?
(i) Research design

The research would be about rewards and the willingness of employees to discharge job
tasks, or simply put – employee motivation. Employees are likely to be asked questions
orally or through the use of a questionnaire – survey procedure. In the context ensuring
that whatever goes into record, employees are not somehow victimised, protection
against potential harm must be part and parcel of the research design. Employees may
feel that access to records by management should be avoided to avoid psychological
insecurity that may lead to tension at work between the two. We also need to bear in
mind the possibility that where the research recommendations bring about some benefits
or harm, even those who did not participate in the research are likely to be affected. This
is because changes in the reward procedures at work are set for all employees. The
consent process may thus require that all employees be consulted.
(ii) Sampling
Sample decisions impact on the meaning attributed to research findings. The size of the
sample must therefore be considered and justified to ensure that it leads to results that
can be generalised to the entire employee population. The sample could lead to less
representation of the workforce if, say, it constitutes 20% of the workforce. We may not
use the 20% to make a convincing judgement as to whether the employees feel the
presence of a positive, moderate or negative relationship between rewards and the
degree to which job tasks are carried out. The advice is that a larger sample is normally
recommended, say 75% and above.
(iii) Data Collection

The way you as a researcher collect data has a significant impact on the kind of
responses you are likely to get. A survey procedure like a questionnaire may mean that
participants are free to express themselves in the absence of the power relationship they
could normally experience when the interview method is used. Methods like observation
of participants may simply lead to biased findings. For example, employees would need
to be told exactly when the research would be conducted. With that in mind, they are
likely to provide misleading behaviour that disappears immediately the exercise is
concluded. They could act like rewards to motivate and vice-versa.
(iv) Unforeseen needs

Clear plans must be in place to address particular needs that may arise during the
course of the research. This is only possible where prospective participants are fully
informed and are part of the decisions relating to what should be done. There could be
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the need to disclose that employees do not value the reward schemes in place so that
necessary action is taken to improve things. It is best if the decision to do so takes into
consideration the need to seek participants and general employee consent.
The activity you have just completed brings us to the end of our topic. To remind
ourselves of what we have studied about in this topic, let us go through the summary
below which highlights the main ideas in the topic.
4.0 Summary
In this topic we have learnt that like other existing disciplines, research subscribes to a
code of ethics to govern researchers and ensure that researchers do not cause unnecessary
harm to the society. We also learnt about the theories based on intentions of people. We
further learnt about Kantialism, a theory based on intentions of people propounded by
Emmanuel Kant. Kantialism, as this theory has become to be known, points out that
people want a continuous flow of happiness now and in the future rather than some
inconvenience on the way.
It is in this topic that we studied about morality in research as well as about theories
based on intentions of people. We again learnt about theories based on consequences of
people’s actions. We continued to study about other principles of research that include
privacy and confidentiality, protection of data from unwanted access, non-disclosure
agreement, protection of sources and informed consent.
Now go through the following self-assessment exercise. It is aimed at helping you know
how much you have understood while studying the topic.

1. The Christian duty of all children is to obey their parents so that they may live
long and enjoy the benefits of goodwill. Reconcile this principle with the basis for
morality and ethics.
2. Utilitarianism as an ethical principle requires that good actions should benefit the
majority of the population. Assess this principle with regard to minority interests.
3. Some ethical theories assert that one cannot associate bad results with good
intentions. Mention the theories and provide your opinion for or against the
theories.

1. The basis for Christianity has always been the need to do good so that one
could benefit from it. Parents are known to provide care and guidance to their
children. Christian parents are therefore seen to be leaders in the aspect of
morality and good ethical practice that goes a long way to benefit the society.
The society is made up of different players; children and adults from different
backgrounds. Christianity desires that all these players recognise one another
in the way they live and interact. They should all work towards harmonious
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relations between each such that we may build a society where all people
enjoy the benefits of goodness. It is particularly the children who are seen as
important as they represent the future of the society. A society that has good
children has a bright future from the potential goodness within its children.
2. Utilitarianists argue that a society is more important than an individual. The

premise for this argument is that the society may not depend on the interests
of one individual at the expense of a majority of the people within the society.
The sense here is that it is better to save more people than to a few. It is
therefore imperative that where we have varying interests, priority should be
given to the interests that are shared by a significant number of people than to
sideline them on the basis of the interest of a select few. We can still have a
society without the few whose interests are not shared by the majority. We,
however, stand to lose the very fabric of society if it is seen to be under the
control and allegiance of a few.
3. These are theories based on the consequences of our actions or

consequentialism as they are commonly known. The basis for these theories is
that when you plan to do ‘good’, it is the ‘good’ that is anticipated and it is
‘good’ that we should get. It is argued that where good intentions are, they
should be followed by a good plan that is meticulously executed. An example
could be providing education to children with the hope for future competence
and goodwill in the way they would be of benefit to society. We are, however,
aware that of all the children we educate, they have not benefited the society
with equal competence and goodwill. More so in that others have in turn went
out to do certain negative things that defeat the purpose for which their
education was intended. That is why we still talk about leaders and dictators
as well as several malpractices related to different professions. For example,
of all Accountants trained, others are involved in the false reporting of
accounting information.
It is therefore difficult to assert that good actions would necessarily be

followed by good consequences.
References
Amenson, C. 2000. Morality, Ethics and the Law.
American Academy of Pain Medicine. 1999. Basic Principles of Ethics for the Practice
of Pain Medicine. Glenview: American Academy of Pain Medicine.
American Business Media. 2002. Code of Professional Research Ethics & Practices. The
Association of Business Media Companies: American Business Media.
Caldwell, C. 2005. Learning from Business Ethics. In The Journal of College &
Character. Vol VI, No. 7.
Canterbury Christ Church University. 2006. An Introduction to Ethics Issues and

Principles in research Involving Human Participants.
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Cullison, A. 2006. Ethics in Research. West Virginia University: Department of

Philosophy.
Ermine, W. Sinclair, R. Jeffery, B. Indigenous Peoples’ Health Centre. Saskatoon, SK.

2004. The Ethics of Research Involving Indigenous Peoples. In Report of the Indigenous
peoples’ Health research Centre to the Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics.
Indigenous Peoples Health Research Centre.
Economic & Social Research Council. 2006. Research Ethics Framework.
Medical Research Council. 2003. MRC Interim Guidance on Ethics of Research

Involving Human Material Derived from the Nervous System. In Research using Human
Nervous System Material: Interim Guidance.
National Bioethics Advisory Commission. 1999. Ethical Issues in Human Stem Cell
Research. In Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory
Commission. Vol I (Rockville, Maryland).
National Bioethics Advisory Commission. 2001. Ethical and Policy Issues in Research
Involving Human Participants. In Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics
Advisory Commission. Vol I (Bethesda, Maryland).
NJSHA Code of Ethics. 2005.
Puma Policy Brief. 1998. Principles for Managing Ethics in the Public Service: OECD
Recommendation. In Public Management Service.
The University of Michigan. 2003. Standard Practice Guide. The University of

Michigan: Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs.
The University of North Carolina. 1990. Policy and Procedures on Ethics in Research.
Greensboro: The University of North Carolina.
The University of North Carolina. 1994. Policy and Procedures on Ethics in Research.
Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina.
University of Kansas. 2000. The Honor System of the School of Business.
Wade, W. and Forsyth, C. 1994. Administrative Law. New York: Oxford.
Yount, R. 2006. Scientific Knowing. In Research Fundamentals. Unit I.
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Topic 2
Violations of Academic Integrity
Overview
Welcome to Topic 2 of Unit 1 of your Research Methods course. This topic will be on
violations of academic integrity as regards research. The Policy and procedures on ethics
in research for The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (1994) asserts that:
“Public trust in the integrity and ethical behaviour of scholars

must be maintained if research is to continue to play its proper
role in our University and society. It is the policy of The
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill that research
carried out by its faculty and staff is characterised by the
highest standards of integrity and ethical behaviour. It is
further the policy of the University to inform fully all affected
parties where misconduct in research sponsored by, or under
the administrative supervision of the University has occurred.”
In the field of research, where diligence and integrity are considered the prominent
principles of scholarly conduct, one does not simply find information about a particular
subject matter and submits it. The requirement is that knowledge should be provided
about the information resources without bias. You cannot, as a researcher, adopt as your
own the ideas of other people. That is to say you are not allowed to be dishonest in any
way. You are expected to show all information sources.
Information may be obtained from various sources, for example, it could be obtained
directly from individuals through interaction by oral interviews, questionnaires or texts
written by others. The essence is that all these sources need to be acknowledged in the
body of the research text and at the references section of the research paper. In practice,
however, this is seldom the case such that we end up with problems of ideas that sort of
come from nowhere.
All members of the academic fraternity are expected to conduct themselves in an ethical
manner in their academic work. As you embark on the process of conducting research,
bear in mind not to forget to note and indicate appropriately your data and information
sources.
Cases involving violations of academic integrity are quite rampant. These involve
dishonesty or misconduct in various ways that include the following:
Cheating, where at times scholars submit work belonging to others as their own
Falsification, where the outcome or results of a research finding may be provided
in a manner different from the data captured
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Tampering, where some scholars may go on the loose to damage educational

materials as a way of stopping other scholars from accessing it. In the end,
academic institutions may not be able to differentiate students on the basis of
academic performance
Plagiarism - which involves the use of other people’s ideas without
acknowledging the source
There are also miscellaneous offences that fall outside the scope of the violations
enumerated. They occur on a case by case basis.
The purpose of this topic, therefore, is to explain in detail the offences mentioned above
such that you may understand them fully to be able to comply with the ethical code of
academic conduct. We will have the opportunity to deal with the above listed offences
one at a time. Plagiarism has proved to be the main and common form of students’
violations of the academic code of ethics, and as such will also be dealt with separately in
another topic.
Learning Objectives
After studying this topic you should be able to;
explain the code of academic conduct in research
discuss the implications of cheating
discuss fabrication, falsification and forgery in relation to research
explain the consequences of tampering with information in research.
Topic Contents List
1.0 The code of academic conduct 87

2.0 Cheating 87
3.0 Fabrication, falsification and forgery 88
4.0 Tampering 89
5.0 Summary 90
Time
You will need about 8 hours to go through this topic and all its related activities.
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1.0 The Code of Academic Conduct

St. Francis Xavier University (2006) asserts that an academic community flourishes on
the basis of five fundamental principles of integrity:
(a) To advance the search for truth and knowledge by realising intellectual and
personal honesty in learning, teaching, research and service. This rule or principle
recognises the contribution of each individual scholar to the pool of knowledge in
a rational way. It does not tolerate situations where ideas of others are passed as
original ideas by those who are reluctant to produce theirs. For that would not be
honest.
(b) Creates a climate of mutual trust, encourages the free exchange of ideas and
enables people to reach their potential. Academics are supposed to be free to
share personal ideas without the fear that those who happen to be there could later
claim the ideas as theirs. It is, however, not wrong to make use of other people’s
ideas. The requirement is that you should acknowledge the source.
(c) It is standard bound and has set procedures and expects fairness in
interactions amongst students, faculty, staff and administrators. An academic
institution must display a high degree of impartiality to be able to recognise the
work of everybody and acknowledge it without fear or favour.
(d) Recognises the participatory nature of the learning process and honours and
respects a wide range of opinions and ideas. This principle is self-explanatory.
(e) Upholds personal responsibility and accountability and depends upon action in
the face of wrong doing. It would not be proper to keep quite when some
academics use foul play of any kind to attain recognition. Those who do so must
be brought to book and disciplinary action instituted.
These are clear principles that discourage academic misconduct of all kinds and serve to
uphold the realisation of true individual potential that is the basis for societal growth.
Please bear in mind that other institutions may have their own codes. In reality, however,
there will be no significant difference from the above academic code of ethics.
2.0 Cheating
Rutgers University (2006) defines cheating as “the use of inappropriate and
unacknowledged materials, information, or study aids in any academic exercise.”
This alludes to the use of books, conversation, calculators or any form of academic aid in
academic exercises. The above academic materials and aid are often barred from use in
examinations. In severe situations cheating may take the form of using the services of
companies or other people to produce write-ups of assignments given to a scholar who
will then submit such as her or his own work. The bottom-line is that the work submitted
will not indicate to the academic institution, the knowledge and potential of the scholar
(Student Academic Conduct, 2006; Jones et al, 2001). Thus, at the end of the academic
year, when scholars are certificated in recognition of individual performance, where
BOCODOL 87 2008
cheating was involved, the institution will misplace trust and confidence upon somebody
who does not have the skills and knowledge to do what the recognition bestowed upon
him or her. Imagine what this would mean to an employer who spends a lot of money on
a recruitment process only to end up with somebody who is certificated but not educated
(California Polytechnic State University, 1988). What impact would this have on the
general economy where a majority of those employed come from this dishonest act?
According to the Educational Testing Service (ETS, 1999), 73% of all test takers,
including prospective graduates and teachers agree that most students cheat at some
point. 86% of high school students agreed to this. This problem has become more
common because in the past, the less capable students were likely to cheat. Nowadays
even above average students are known to cheat. The justifications they often submit
were that they cheat because they saw others doing it and felt they could be seriously
disadvantaged if they do not do so (Carrell, Malmstrom and West, 2006). Research has
shown that the primary reasons for cheating emanate from campus norm, that is, no
honour code, penalties not severe and less support for academic integrity in training
institutions including little chances of being caught (Teixeira and Rocha, 2006). In the
process we end up with high grades at schools rather than education. The question is
what is desired; education or high grades?
Say your opinion on the issue of cheating by doing the following activity.
Activity 2A
Your best friend is having trouble doing her BOCODOL assignment and needs a ‘C’ to
keep her scholarship. She asks if she can copy off your assignment paper “just this
once”. You agree since you think you are not doing wrong. Is this cheating?
Yes. By allowing someone to copy off your assignment, you are guilty of providing the
information. She may get the ‘C’ she wants but that will not be a true representation of
her academic capability. You are therefore cheating.
3.0 Fabrication, Falsification and Forgery

Fabrication, falsification and forgery are closely related terms. Whereas fabrication
relates to the intentional invention and unauthorised alteration of any information or
citation in an academic exercise, falsification deals more with altering information and
forgery relates to imitations and counterfeit documents, signatures and the like (Student
Academic Conduct, 2006). From this definition one could assert that falsification and
forgery both fall under the umbrella that is fabrication.
Take an example where the analysis of one sample in an experiment is used in several
other analyses as though the latter samples had a lot in common with the first (Rutgers
University, 2006). This would constitute a falsified analyses in that the other ‘analyses’
are personal inventions. In reality there has never been subsequent analysis since the first.
This act is similar to a situation where a quotation obtained from a book appears in the
book you are reading. The author of the current book had cited the source appropriately.
You want to make use of the same quote. Instead of citing the original author, you pass
the quote as belonging to the author of your book (Code of Good Research Conduct,
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2006). That would be wrong because the author of your book did not indicate ownership
of the quote. The proper way is to cite the original author and state that it was obtained
from another text other than that of the original author.
Fabrication extends to selective reporting of information or omitting conflictive data for

deceptive purposes. An example could be failing to include a substantial account of the
method by which data were gathered or providing false responses to suit your analysis. In
some instances academic records have been forged to omit the necessary information in
an official document such as a school report.
Clearer examples of falsification instances include the following:

(a) Providing false research results.
(b) Alteration of transcripts or other academic records.
(c) Submission of false credentials.
(d) Making false representation on an application for admission.
(e) Requesting the extension of a deadline citing reasons known to be false, including
submitting false documentation supporting that request.
Check your understanding by doing the following activity.
Activity 2B
Modise wanted to be admitted for the Diploma in Human Resource Management

(DHRM) at BOCODOL. The requirement was that prospective applicants must have
a Certificate in Human Resource Management (HRM). Modise was a Junior
Certificate holder and did not have the required certificate. His paternal uncle’s son
who had the same first and last name as his had the certificate in HRM. So he went
ahead and stole the certificate, made certified copies and applied to BOCODOL. He
was admitted. Would you consider this to be fabrication? Give reasons for your
answer.
Yes. The HRM certificate does not belong to him. He also does not have the required
knowledge of HR issues. The essence for entry requirements to a programme of study are
for the required knowledge, not merely for a piece of paper (certificate). It is a
competence requirement.
4.0 Tampering
St. Francis Xavier University (2006) explains tampering as follows:
(a) Unauthorised access to, use of, or alteration of computer data sets, including course,
student, faculty, alumni, public and corporate records.
(b) Gaining unfair advantage by using software and computer tools that inhibit the use
of the resources by others.
(c) Damage to or destruction of library materials or laboratory resources.
(d) Wilful or negligent damage to the academic work of another member of the
University.
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In brief these are offences that give unfair advantage to one scholar at the expense of
the other. These are real issues common to all academic institutions in the world. In
some instances, tampering would have to do with students who legitimately obtain
library books but do not return them even after they have completed an assignment
simply because they would not want other students to have the same benefit from the
books. The process is highly discouraged because, as you may be aware, the academic
institution will not be able to make a good judgement in the selection on the basis of
academic records (Academic Integrity Policies and Procedures, 2006). Good students are
likely to stay behind unnecessarily.
Here is yet another activity for you to think about.
Activity 2C
James and Isaac are both part-time students doing the certificate in Small Scale
Business Management with BOCODOL. Their Tutor, Mr. Baker gave them a book on
research methods to share. It was handed to Isaac and was to use it for a fortnight to
help him with the research exercise that was to be handed in in a month’s time. The
book was really good and he benefited a lot from it. Upon completion of his work in a
week, he kept the book until the last day of the month when due date for submission
of work had arrived. It was then that he met James and apologized for the delay citing
that he had to go to Johannesburg and had not yet read the book. Would you consider
this as an instance of tampering?
Yes. The reasons provided by Isaac for the delay are false. He should have handed the
book to James in a fortnight to allow him time to use it. Mr. Baker, when looking at the
work of the two might think that Isaac was a better student than James on the basis of
their work only. This will give Isaac an unfair advantage over James.
Congratulations to you as this part bring us to the end of yet another topic of Unit 2. Let
us now recap what we studied about by going through the summary below.
5.0 Summary
In this topic we studied about violations of academic integrity. We looked at a number of
policies and procedures that have to be upheld in the academic field. We have studied
about cheating, which we said was about submitting part or all of the academic work
belonging to another as one’s own. Examples of cheating include the following:
Submitting a purchased or work written by others

Working with someone on an assignment that you are supposed to do yourself
Writing a test or examination posing as somebody else to give undue advantage to
him or her
Copying or using any unauthorised material during an examination
Obtaining a copy of a test script before it is administered
Engaging in any dishonest academic behaviour.
We have again studied about fabrication, falsification and forgery which we said involve
the following:
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The production of false research results, exercise or other assignment

Altering a test result or examination record after it has been submitted
Making a false representation on applying for admission to an academic
institution
Requesting for the extension of a deadline by giving false reasons.
Under this topic we also studied about tampering, which we said involves the following:
Unauthorised access to, use of, or alteration of computer data sets including
course materials and other records
Gaining unfair advantage in the use of academic materials
Wilful damage to academic resources after use to deter other scholars from
benefiting from the same resources
Wilful damage to the academic work of another student.
To test your understanding of this topic please answer the self assessment exercise that
follows. When you are done, check your answers against the suggested ones just below
the exercise.

1. What is cheating as an academic offence? How can it be reduced in academic
institutions?
2. Fabrication is a term that refers to instances of falsification and forgery in academics.

Define falsification using explicit examples.
3. Tampering is “academic vandalism”. Explain tampering in the literal meaning of

vandalism.

1. Cheating involves the following:
(a) Submission of purchased or somebody else’s work as one’s own.

(b) Collaboration on an assignment which an instructor did not specify for
working together.
(c) Copying during tests and examinations and the use of unauthorized aids.
(d) Impersonating another student in a test or examination or allowing the
impersonation to occur.
(e) Knowingly helping another to engage in academically dishonest
behaviour.
Cheating may be reduced in academic institutions if we could all take

care of our academic responsibilities and avoid dishonest behaviour. We
need to understand and take cheating as a personal foul. When you cheat,
you are likely not to go away with it because the ‘A’ you get for a work
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that is not yours does not make you exceptionally intelligent. It can serve
to expose you when put in a class of real ‘A’ students. It can also subject
you to serious problems when entrusted with ‘A’ material work that you
cannot manage.
Finally, academic institutions ought to put in place Academic Codes of

Conduct to discourage all forms of misconduct in academic institutions as
regulatory instruments. Those caught cheating should be seriously
disciplined as a lesson to the rest of the academic fraternity.
2. Falsification is about altering information. It may take the following examples:
(a) Altering research data or results, exercises or assignments.

(b) Altering transcripts or other academic records for any purpose.
(c) Submission of false credentials.
(d) Providing false information on application for a place of study.
(e) Requesting the extension of a deadline for reasons known to be false.
3. Tampering involves any act of academic misconduct that lends undue advantage
to one student at the expense of the other. Typical examples of the acts of this
nature relate to the hiding of educational materials such as books by some
students to destruct other students from accessing the same material. It could also
relate to unwarranted delays on the returning of loaned library material because
the student wants to buy time against those awaiting the material. This is very
common in institutions of higher learning such as colleges and universities.
The most serious form of tampering occurs where scholars may go to the extent of
altering computer data sets so that other students may not have access to the
computer when the programme of study is computer based. Damage to library
materials after use may also occur to ensure that other students do not have the
same benefit. Other scholars can go to the extent of wilfully damaging another’s
work so that it may not be submitted and by the time the work is re-done, the
deadline for submission may have long passed. These are the closest examples of
academic tampering that go hand in hand with vandalism, hence the term
“academic vandalism”.
References
California Polytechnic State University. 1988. “Revised Resolution on cheating and
plagiarism”. California: California Polytechnic State University.
Carrel, S.E. Malmstrom, F.V. and West, J.E. 2006. “Peer Effects in Academic
Cheating”.
Educational Testing Service. 1999. “Cheating is a personal foul”. In Cheating Fact

Sheet.
Jones, L.R. et al. 2001. “Academic dishonesty, Cheating, and Plagiarism”. Melbourne:
Humanities and Communications Department, Florida Institute of Technology.
BOCODOL 92 2008
St. Francis Xavier University. 2006. “Academic Integrity Policies and Procedures”.
Rutgers University. 1997. “Policy on Academic Integrity for Undergraduate and

Graduate Students”. New Brunswick Campus.
Student Academic Conduct. 2006.
Teixeira, A.C. and Rocha, M.L. 2006. “Academic cheating in Austria, Portugal,
Romania and Spain: a comparative analysis”. In Research in comparative and
International Education. Vol 1, No. 3.
The University of Manchester. 2006. “Code of Good Research Conduct”. Manchester:

The University of Manchester.
BOCODOL 93 2008
BOCODOL 2008
Topic 3
Plagiarism
Overview
Welcome to the third and last topic of your Research Methods Unit 2. This topic will be
on plagiarism. You will get to understand what plagiarism means in details as you
interact with this topic. At some point in your diploma programme, you will be requested
to conduct research or carry out some project work for which you will be required to
write a long essay of say 15 to 50 pages. You are likely to have more freedom to choose
the topic you want under the supervision of your tutor who will also advise you
accordingly. The freedom to select your topic may lead you to wide reading, perhaps in
search of more information for the long essay. This may, however, become less helpful if
you should collect a lot of disjointed information without a central idea. The most
important thing is to actively involve your mind to develop a theme that will guide you to
the topic of your choice.
Once you have the topic, you must select from whatever the information you have
collected, the kind of information that goes along with your topic. You would probably
have books, journals, articles, websites and other related sources. You may also have the
opportunity to interview a few individuals, depending on your approach to collecting
data. These various sources of information are important and you should make note of
them as you will need them for the text references as well as on the bibliography or
references section at the end of the research project.
The procedure outlined above will greatly assist you to avoid one of the most common
and unacceptable practice amongst many students and scholars alike, which is
plagiarism. This topic is purposely arranged to try and guide you on how to go about
citing your information sources within the body of your essay and the final aspect of
producing all your references at the end of the work. We hope you will find it
informative and guide you to a successful research essay.
BOCODOL 94 2008
Learning Objectives
define plagiarism
describe the different types of plagiarism
explain the consequences of plagiarism
explain what to do to avoid plagiarism.
Topic Contents List
1.0 What is plagiarism 96

2.0 Different types of plagiarism 96
3.0 How to avoid plagiarism 101
4.0 Summary 102
Time
You will need about 8 hours to study this topic and all its related activities.
BOCODOL 95 2008
1.0 What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism has been defined as the use of another person’s work without giving credit
(University of California, Davis, 2006). The Council of Writing Programme
Administrators (2003) asserts that “In an instructional setting, plagiarism occurs
when a writer deliberately uses someone else’s language, ideas, or other original
(not common knowledge) material without acknowledging its source.” In Writing
with sources (Jones et al, 2001), plagiarism is defined as “passing off a source’s
information, ideas, or words as your own by omitting to cite them – an act of lying,
cheating, and stealing.” It could be observed from these submissions that the definition
of plagiarism anchors on ownership of information by unjustifiable means and that may
rightfully be likened to stealing because whatever you have that does not belong to you is
not yours. The credit for acquisition of the information is still vested with the rightful
owner who should have somehow given it to you so that it may be called yours. In the
absence of the owner’s consent, academically you may still borrow the information for
use but do not forget to indicate that it is not your personal property by clear referencing
or acknowledgement of the source.
Plagiarism can also be viewed as the theft of intellectual property that involves the use of
written and unwritten original ideas and concepts, texts, notes, designs, computer
programmes and others. It could be intentional, in some cases for malicious purposes.
Other cases, especially those relating to students, are mostly cases that could have been
avoided had students been accordingly taught and understood plagiarism and its effect on
intellectual property. The bottom-line, however, is that those assessing students’ work,
for instance tutors and instructors will have no idea about the motive behind acts of
plagiarism and where the school or any institution has an academic code of conduct,
plagiarism constitutes a serious offence. For this, academic institutions are required to
investigate cases of plagiarism with vigour and make stern decisions to confront it on the
basis of applicable institutional policies (Carroll and Appleton, 2001).
2.0 Different Types of Plagiarism
Jones et al (2001) pointed out four common types of plagiarism that I would like us to
discuss in-depth in this topic. These different types are:
(a) unauthorised and/or unacknowledged collaborative work
(b) attempting to pass off work belonging to another as your own
(c) the use of a text that is not properly paraphrased
(d) the use of text that is properly paraphrased but improperly cited.
Let us now discuss these different types in more details one by one.
(a) Unauthorised and/or unacknowledged collaborative work

It is highly encouraged that students do seek opinions of others whilst doing
research or any other academic exercises. Likewise tutors, instructors and the
whole institutional management understand that the process is likely to lead to
similar opinions on the part of students’ work. For instance, where your course
instructor realises the existence of similar phrases, quotations, sentences and/or
parallel constructions, this may be the sign of collaborative plagiarism. The
important aspect of the work is not to deny that you did discuss with fellow
BOCODOL 96 2008
students and attended classes where your course instructors could have given you
information on a similar topic. The issue here is that whatever the information
acquired, the sources should be given due credit for ideas. You are therefore to
acknowledge advice, comments or suggestions that you received from others.
Take a careful look at what follows below. These are examples that would also
help involve you during your study of this topic.
Example 1
If you could have been there when Nelson Mandela narrated about his life during
the apartheid South Africa, you could have heard him say the following words:
Source text “From the first day, I had protested about being forced to
wear short trousers. I demanded to see the head of the
prison and made a list of complaints. The warders ignored
my protests, but by the end of the second week, I found a
pair of old khaki trousers unceremoniously dumped on the
floor of my cell. No pin-striped three-piece suit has ever
pleased me as much.” Mandela (2004:460)
In the example above, the source is accordingly cited hence it will not be plagiarism that
we borrowed an interesting paraphrase from Mandela. Let us have a look at the
plagiarised version below.
Plagiarised From the first day, I had protested about being forced to wear
version (1) short trousers. I demanded to see the head of the prison and
made a list of complaints. The warders ignored my protests,
but by the end of the second week, I found a pair of old khaki
trousers unceremoniously dumped on the floor of my cell. No
pin-striped three-piece suit has ever pleased me as much.
The plagiarised version of the text has no attribution, citation, acknowledgement or

quotation marks. Anybody reading a text like this will think that it is the student’s
original idea and work.
(b) Attempting to pass off work belonging to another as your own

An attempt to pass-off one’s work as your own constitutes plagiarism. It does not
matter whether you submit all the work done by somebody else as your own or a
portion thereof. The point is that the work does not belong to you and by
submitting it falsely as your own, it is ‘stealing’. Examples of such instances
could involve borrowing, downloading, buying, receiving, copying or using
academic material from others as your own.
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Example 2
Suppose a student read Mandela’s Long walk to Freedom and wanted to borrow from it.
If the passage shown below is an indication of the student’s use of the work of Nelson
Mandela, then there must be an academic offence involving plagiarism. The student
managed to use quotation marks that indicate that the passage was taken from some
source. The source is, however, not cited hence plagiarism.
Plagiarised “From the first day, I had protested about being forced
version (2) to wear short trousers. I demanded to see the head of the
prison and made a list of complaints.”
The use of any material taken from a source without citation or improperly cited is an act
of plagiarism. The source could be a broadcast over the radio, a voice recording
instrument, published and unpublished works of others. What could have been a good
way of borrowing from Mandela?
The author could be cited as follows:
On describing prison attire, Mandela (2004) indicated

strong dislike for shorts and argued for all prisoners
to be issued with trousers.
As you may realise, here the author is not quoted word for word. The author’s words
have been avoided. Instead, his idea was grasped and reproduced in a different context.
This is called paraphrasing and encourages originality in the interpretation of ideas and
lends to more understanding. Tutors and instructors would prefer a student who reads and
explains what was read and learnt rather than little understanding and complete
reproduction of other people’s ideas. The student did not have to use quotation marks as
the manner in which the sentence is constructed is totally his or her own idea. The
student uses reported speech to indicate that clearly, the idea belongs to Mandela in his
2004 text. The name of the text together with Mandela’s initial(s) and the publisher will
appear at the end of the essay in the references section.
Take a careful look at version 3 below.
Plagiarised “From the first day, I had protested about being

version (3) forced to wear short trousers.” Mandela (2004)
In version 3 above the student accordingly provided quotation marks as well as the text’s
year of publication. The page number where the passage came from was left out. The
second sentence from the phrase was also deliberately omitted from the text and nothing
was indicated to that effect. This is one of the most common forms of plagiarism done by
students. It could indicate that the student may not be familiar with the citation of
information sources and since it is a primary requirement, the student is likely to be
seriously penalised.
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(c) The use of a text that is not properly paraphrased

The use of paraphrases could be one way of how you would want to present your
ideas. You should, however, be careful enough to avoid situations where you fail
to acknowledge the source. You are also to avoid unwarranted ownership of
words and ideas that do not belong to you.
Example 4
Margaret Mead (Princeton Writing Programme, 1999) argued that warfare:
Is an invention like any other of the inventions in terms of

Original which we order our lives, such as writing, marriage, cooking
version our food instead of eating it raw, trial by jury, or burial of the
dead, and so on. Some of this list any one will grant are
inventions: trial by jury is confined to very limited portions of
the globe; we know that there are tribes that do not bury their
dead but instead expose or cremate them; and we know that
only part of the human race has had a knowledge of writing as
its cultural inheritance. But, whenever a way of doing things is
found universally, such as the use of fire or the practice of some
form of marriage, we tend to think at once that it is not an
invention at all but an attribute of humanity itself.
A number of students used the passage, below is their work.
Student A
We know that there are many cultures that do not have
Plagiarised warfare and therefore it seems that warfare is an invention
version like any other of the inventions in terms of which we order
our lives, such as writing, marriage, cooking our food
instead of eating it raw, trial by jury or burial of the dead.
The student may have used own words in the beginning but the words in italics are direct
from Mead’s text. Since the words belong to another author, they should have appeared
in quotation marks and the original author specified accordingly. We may not take it for
granted that anybody could have the same idea. In addition that should not stop us from
acknowledging the source. The passage is therefore plagiarised.
Student B We know that there are many cultures that do not have
warfare, and therefore warfare seems to be just another
invention, much like marriage, or cooking food, or burying
Plagiarised the dead, After all, we know that some cultures do not bury
version the dead. Yet whenever we find a behaviour occurring
universally, we think that it is not an invention, but an
inevitable part of the human race.
Here the student attempted very much to make Mead’s idea seem like his original idea or
an idea that is commonly known hence may not be credited to Mead. He, however, also
went too far by using Mead’s examples of cooking, marriage and the burial of the dead.
BOCODOL 99 2008
Chances are that one may not be able to come up with this kind of a paraphrase without
Mead’s influence.
Student C One way of deciding whether or not a cultural behaviour is an

invention is seeing how pervasive it is to other cultures. We are aware
of wide variations in such behaviour as marriage, nurturing children,
or division of labour by gender, so we know that these behaviours are
not inherent to all humans. Likewise, we know that warfare does not
exist in many cultures, supporting the idea that it is merely an
i i
We see a lot of material that has been added to supplement the idea put forth by Mead.
The student displays more understanding, perhaps from reading other texts or interacting
with other people about the subject matter. The passage was therefore considered not
plagiarised.
Student D
The case that warfare is nothing more than an invention is made
strongly by the anthropologist Margaret Mead, who compares such
aggressive behaviour with marriage, cooking food, and burying the
dead. These behaviours, like warfare, are not practiced universally,
and so can justly be called an invention. Only when something is
practiced universally, Mead says, do we conclude “that it is not an
invention at all but an attribute of humanity.”
The student begins by citing Mead’s case about warfare in comparison with other human
behaviour quite clearly. The paraphrase ended with a quotation from Mead’s text and the
student accordingly acknowledged Mead as the author. The passage was seen as not
plagiarised.
(d) The use of text that is properly paraphrased, but improperly or not cited
Sometimes plagiarism is about failure to cite information sources or improper citations.
We will use examples from the University of California, Davis (2006):
‘[A totalitarian] society… can never permit either the truthful

Original recording of facts, or the emotional sincerity, that literary
version creation demands. …Totalitarianism demands… the
continuous alteration of the past, and in the long run … a
disbelief in the very existence of objective truth.’
Suppose that two (2) students, E and F wanted to make use of the information from the
paraphrase as per the illustrations below:
Student E
A totalitarian society can never permit the truthful
recording of facts; it demands the continuous alteration
Plagiarised of the past, and a disbelief in the very existence of
version objective truth.
BOCODOL 100 2008

This is an example of combining pieces of the author’s language. There are no citations.
It is clear plagiarism.
Student F
A totalitarian society can’t be open-minded or allow the
truthful recording of facts, but instead demands the
Plagiarised constant changing of the past and a distrust of the very
version existence of the objective truth. (Orwell).
The student has simply left out some of the words in the passage and combined some into
what became a complete passage. The words used belong to the original author who is
not properly cited. This is plagiarism.
The correct way of using the passages should have been as in the earlier examples:
Appropriate Orwell believed that totalitarian societies must

paraphrase suppress literature and free expression because they
cannot survive the truth, and thus they claim it does
not exist. (Bowker, 1984:336-337)
Proper In his biography of George Orwell, Gordon

citation Bowker discusses the themes of 1984, quoting a
1946 essay by Orwell: “Totalitarianism
demands… the continuous alteration of the past,
and in the long run… a disbelief in the very
existence of objective truth.” (Bowker,
1984:337).
3.0 How to Avoid Plagiarism
According to Purdue OWL (2007) “The key to avoiding plagiarism is … you give
credit where it is due.” This could be somewhat an unfamiliar territory to new students
and those who have not had the opportunity to write long essays using various
information sources. This first question concerns the time when one realises that ‘credit’
is due. Apart from that there could be several ways of citing sources that students need to
familiarise themselves with before they could be considered for proper citing. The
University of Harvard has the Harvard referencing style. Some Universities have adopted
this style for use. Others have decided to come up with their own, and wherever you are,
you just have to learn the applicable referencing style.
However, Carroll (2002), University of California, Davis (2006), Princeton Writing

Programme (1999) and the Council of Writing Programme Administrators (2003) all
point to the golden rules to avoiding plagiarism:
BOCODOL 101 2008

(a) Document words or phrases obtainable from various information sources such as:
people
books, newspapers, radio, TV, movie, advertisements etc.
diagrams, pictures, illustrations
electronic media of various types.
(b) The important thing is to cite any source of information other than your own. Thus
you may not be required to cite when writing:
personal experiences
your own lab results
using your own artwork and other personal works
using generally accepted ideas, statements, personal observations or facts.
(c) When writing an academic paper one should take note of the following:
Avoid using others’ work with minor changes

Ensure that you cite words, phrases and so forth that were found somewhere else
and not originated by yourself
Whenever you are not sure whether you should cite or not, the idea is to err on the
side of caution, hence cite. Your instructor will be able to advise you later
Always revise, proofread and finalise your paper before making a submission.
Congratulations to you learner as this part brings us to the end of Topic 3, and most
importantly it brings us to the end of Unit 2 of Research Methods. Let us remind
ourselves about what we have learnt in this topic by going through the brief summary
below.
4.0 Summary
In this topic we learnt about plagiarism. We learnt that plagiarism is about the use of
someone else’s work without acknowledging the source. This could include ideas,
language, recorded data and others. We have again learnt that nowadays plagiarism is a
great concern as it amounts to cheating or ‘stealing’ other people’s hard earned work. It
leads to dishonesty and can provide misleading information. Most importantly,
plagiarism may lead to devaluation of other people’s works.
We have again learnt that to avoid plagiarism one should always cite her or his
information sources or should use their own words and ideas. In this topic we also learnt
that to avoid plagiarism one should always avoid using as her or his own, other people’s
works with minor changes. He or she should either acknowledge that as other people’s
works or be original.
Now check your understanding of this topic by answering the following self assessment
exercise. Once you are done check your answers against those given below and see how
much you have got right.
BOCODOL 102 2008


Safe Practices
Read over each of the following passages, and respond as to whether or not it uses
citations accurately. If it doesn’t, what would you do to improve the passage so be
properly cited?
1. Last summer my family and I travelled to Kasane, which was quite different from
the rural area I grew up in. We saw a lot of wildlife at the Sedudu area and spent
two nights at Mowana Safari Lodge.
2. Batswana want to establish democracy, ensure justice for all, domestic and
regional tranquillity, provide for common defence and promote general welfare.
3. I find it ridiculous that 57% of high school students think their teachers assign
too much work.
4. Questions a, b and c are all linked to Martin Luther King’s “Letter from the
Birmingham Jail”:
(a) You deplore the demonstrations taking place in Birmingham. But your
statement, I am sorry to say, fails to express a similar concern for the
conditions that brought about the demonstrations. I am sure that none of
you would want to rest content with the superficial kind of social analysis
that deals merely with effects and does not grapple with underlying
causes. It is unfortunate that demonstrations are taking place in
Birmingham, but it is even more unfortunate that the city’s white power
structure left the Negro community with no alternative.
(b) Martin Luther King wrote that the city of Birmingham’s “white power
structure” left African-Americans there “no alternative” but to
demonstrate (“Letter from the Birmingham Jail” Para. 5)
(c) In “Letter from the Birmingham Jail,” King writes to fellow clergy saying
that although they “deplore the demonstrations taking place in
Birmingham, your statement fails to express a similar concern for the
conditions that brought about the demonstrations.”
5. My friend Lorato told me that she loves living so close to Bock 9.
6. Batswana are guaranteed the right to freely gather for peaceful meetings.
BOCODOL 103 2008


1. Author talks about personal experiences using own ideas hence needless to cite
anybody.
2. It is not common knowledge that Batswana would want democracy and all that
is said. The information depicted above is most likely to have been obtained
from some source; either a text, oral hearing or others. The source should be
cited to avoid plagiarism
3. The 57% of students with the perception that they are assigned more work can
only be obtained from some source. That source should be cited.
4. (a) We could need to cite the source (Letter from Birmingham Jail) and
provide the year (if provided) when the letter was written.
(b) The text is fully referenced.
(c) The statement in quotation marks is not complete. Some words were left
out in the middle. There is the need to show omitted words through the use
of ellipses (…) in order to complete the quotation.
5. The sentence is complete. We cannot cite better than provide the name of the
person who brought up the idea.
6. We need to indicate the source of the guarantee to free gathering, for

instance, the constitution or other law. Otherwise it is not a common
statement that may be used without citing some source.
BOCODOL 104 2008

References
Arbor, A. 1998. “Plagiarism”. University of Michigan Libraries.
Babbie, E. 1998. “Plagiarism”. Social Science Research and Instructional Council.
Carroll, J. 2002. “Dealing with plagiarism”. Oxford Center for Staff and Learning
Development: Oxford Brookes University.
Carroll J. and Appleton J. 2001. “Plagiarism: A Good Practice Guide”. Joint

Information Systems Committee: Oxford Brookes University.
Council of Writing Program Administrators. 2003. “Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism:

The WPA Statement on Best Practices”. Creative Commons.
Jones, L.R. et al. 2001. “Academic Dishonesty, Cheating and Plagiarism”. Humanities
and Communication Department, Florida institute of Technology.
Princeton Writing Program. 1999. “Plagiarism”. Writing Centre.
Purdue OWL. 2007. “Avoiding plagiarism”. Purdue University.
University of California, Davis. 2006. “Avoiding Plagiarism”. Office of Student

Judicial Affairs.
BOCODOL 105 2008

Unit 3
Research Proposal and Data
Collection
Unit Team
J Dikinya
M Seeletso
M Tlotleng
G Lesetedi
A Ntuma
C BOCODOL
BOCODOL 2008
Unit 3
Research Proposal and Data Collection
Introduction
Data collection remains one of the pillars of the research process. Without data there is
no chance of making any meaningful assessment. It will therefore, be true for one to
conclude that you would not yet have started on your research except if you have begun
thinking about your research topic. That is possibly as far as you would have gone. Data
can be collected on any topic for whatever the purpose you have in mind. The basic
requirement, however, is that you should know when to start the process and how you
should go about it.
It is imperative that when one does a research, he or she has to start off with a research
proposal. A research proposal is a road map describing what you, as a researcher, wants
to achieve and how you will do that. This is done by going through the different elements
and stages as we shall learn in Topic 1.
Sampling from the population of your choice based on the topic of your research is a
critical step forward that must be done according to recognised and established
procedures. In this unit, you will also be taken through the necessary steps to help you
find the suitable population and sample. You will also be taken through the various data
collection techniques or methods so that you are able to choose the right methods for
your research.
On completion of this unit, you are expected to start working on your search proposal.
You are also advised to start consulting your tutor at every stage of writing this research
proposal.
Aims of This Unit

The aims of this unit are to:
help you understand the functions of a research proposal
enable you to understand the elements and stages of writing a research proposal
help you understand the processes of sampling and data collection
enable you to derive a sample from a selected population
help you to use your sample to collect suitable and adequate data for your
research topic
enable you to establish the relationship between sampling and data collection
enable you to combine the process for a smooth and quality research process.
BOCODOL 106 2008

Unit Structure
This unit comprises three topics as follows:
Topic 1: Writing a research proposal

Topic 2: Sampling
Topic 3: Process of Data Collection
Time
You will need about nine hours to study this unit.
BOCODOL 107 2008

Topic 1
Writing a Research Proposal
Introduction
In order to write a research proposal, it is important that you know and understand what
we mean by research - in general. At this stage it is assumed that you already know what
research is. Simply put, a research is what we do when we have a question or a problem
we want to resolve. According to Maylor and Blackman (2005), “Research is a process
of finding out information and investigating the unknown to solve a problem”. In other
words, for you to conduct a research there must be a problem, a question or an issue that
you want to resolve.
According to Maylor and Backmon (2005) there are four key issues involving the
research process and these are:
Defining your research

Designing your research
Doing your research and
Describing your research.
In all these key research issues the underlying theme is the investigation of questions.
Research is focused on relevant, useful and important questions. Without a question,
research has no focus, drive or purpose. For you to come up with the answer to the
question it is necessary that you define your research, (i.e) what question am I
investigating and how do I find the information needed to answer the question. In
addition you should also design your research. This involves selecting an approach or
strategy in order to find this information to answer the problem or question that you want
to solve. After you have deigned your research, the next step is to conduct the research
and the final stage is describing. It is during the final stage that you are able to answer the
research question. This stage requires that you answer the question by interpreting your
research findings and making recommendations. Steps 1 and 2 in the research are
referred to as the plan or scheme to answering your research question. This is known as a
proposal.
A research proposal is the written plan or road map for the research project. Proposals are
written to enable a researcher to design, organise and implement his or her project. The
proposal is a description of what you, as a researcher, will do, why it should be done,
how you will do it and what you expect the results to be like. To the researcher a
proposal is essential for ensuring that careful consideration is given to why the research is
needed, and the methods that will best suit the purpose of the study. A proposal serves
two purposes, on one hand it promises success for the project and on the other it is also
evidence of your potential as a researcher. It is, therefore, very important from the very
beginning that your proposal is well thought out and well written. This must be so as it
will form the backbone of a successful research report. After undertaking the research,
the proposal is then transformed into a report.
BOCODOL 108 2008

Learning Objectives
describe what a research proposal is

identify the main functions of a research proposal
list and explain the key elements of a research proposal.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Introduction to research proposal 109
2.0 The functions of a proposal 111
3.0 The elements of a proposal 112
4.0 Steps in the development of a research proposal 113
5.0 Summary 117
7.0 Answers to self-assessment Exercise 1 118
Time
You will need about three hours to study this topic and all its related activities.
1.0 Introduction to Research Proposal

In this part of the topic we will study about a research proposal – what it is, its functions
and its elements. The core of any research is a question or a problem to be studied in
order to come up with an answer. Having selected or been assigned a problem, the
researcher faces a multitude of additional questions that may include the following:
(i) How should the research problem be conceptualised?

(ii) Has there been any previous work on the topic and if so what findings
have resulted from that work?
(iii) How might the data relevant to the problem be collected?
(iv) Why is one mode of data collection preferred over others?
(v) How are the data to be analysed and in what form will the findings be
released?
The best way to deal with these questions is to write a research proposal – which is
actually a design committed to paper. It describes what you intend to accomplish and
how. A proposal is a statement of one’s research ideas and plans complete with
justification and explanations about how decisions among alternative designs were
made. Good research is systematic, comparative, cumulative and communicated. The
preparations of a written proposal forces the designer to face-the hard questions, make
explicit the projected comparisons, show how the work will be cumulative and lay out in
stages precisely how it will be conducted.
A research proposal is also described as a document that presents a plan for a project to
reviewers for evaluation. It is similar to a research project but it is written before the
BOCODOL 109 2008

research project begins. It describes the research problem and its importance, and gives a
detailed account of the methods that will be used and why they are considered
appropriate, (Neuman, 2007).
Let us now study about the research proposal in more details.
(a) What is a Research Proposal?

A research proposal is a detailed outline for your research project and is the
presentation of how you are going to answer your research question. All research
proposals must address the following questions:
(i) What do you plan to accomplish?
(ii) Why do you want to do it?
(iii) How you are going to do it?
The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have
an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the
major issues, and that your methodology is sound. The quality of your research proposal
depends not only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your
proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because
the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and
compelling. Being clear about these things from the beginning will help you complete
your report in a timely fashion. A vague or weak proposal can lead to an often-
unsuccessful research exercise. A well thought-out proposal forms the backbone for
conducting research and will ensure that the research is conducted efficiently and
economically. Your research proposal should address the following questions:
What is your general topic?

What questions do you want to answer?
Why do you want to do it?
What is the key literature and its limitations?
What methodology do you intend to use?
When do you intend conducting the research?
How much resources (time, money, personnel etc) will be required to conduct the
study?
Activity 1A
Find four reports or articles, which can qualify to be called research proposals.
Do they meet the questions listed in (a) above?
Discuss your answer with your tutor. Note that the article you selected qualifies to be a
research proposal if it has the following:
A detailed background describing the current status of the subject and justifying
the need for the research project
Objectives of the research
The scope and methodology of the research project
Resources or facilities to be used
Outcomes and deliverables
The time frame or schedule
References.
BOCODOL 110 2008

Understanding the functions of a proposal is very important and this will be further
explained in the very next part of the topic.
2.0 The Functions of a Proposal

Research proposals have a variety of functions, some of which depend on such factors as
whether external funding is sought. Each proposal needs to be tailored to meet the
particular requirements of the research project for many reasons that include the
following:
(a) To aid planning. No matter what the scale or nature of a research project, the
preparation of a proposal is an invaluable aid to the planning of the overall
project. The discipline imposed by having to set down thoughts on paper ensures
that all the stages are considered and allowance is made for everything.
(b) To guide the project. Once the research has begun, pressing day-to-day concerns
can easily obscure its overall decision. A good proposal can prove invaluable at
this stage as it helps to put things into context and should explain the relevance of
different activities. Similarly the proposal can provide the shape for the final
report, and in particular can indicate the audience at which the report and any
other dissemination activity can be directed.
(c) To demonstrate competence of the researcher in conducting research. This is

the main function of a proposal for research leading to academic or professional
qualifications. The proposal principally provides the applicant with a means of
showing their familiarity with the subject of research, and other issues pertaining
to research e.g. methods to be used and relevance of other works.
(d) To obtain financial support for the research. It will be necessary to prepare a
proposal if it is intended to seek financial support for the research. This will be
the case if the application is made to an external funding agency or through a
research committee. The proposal has to argue the case for awarding the money
and show that the researchers are likely to make good use of the funds. Those
funding the project or sponsors will use the proposal as the basis for
accountability. Sometimes it becomes part of the contract between the funding
agency and the researcher. The proposal should also describe the organisational
plan, i.e., the work schedule or sequence of events and requisite resources that
will be involved in conducting the research or effecting the development
contribution, as well as indicate what the applicant is likely to make to the overall
costs of the project.
BOCODOL 111 2008

Therefore, it is important that the proposal reflects the following:

Demonstrates clearly that the proposed research falls within the terms of
reference of organisations from which funds are sought
Organisations must be convinced for the need to research. This should
come out clearly in the proposal. Evidence of need-recommendations
made in previous research reports, official reports etc.
It must be shown how the proposed research fits in with other research on
related topics.
Activity 1B
Looking at the four reports or articles, which you found, do these meet the proposal
functions listed. Take each report and state which function(s) it meets and which it does
not.
Feedback on this activity depends on the reports that you have collected. First it is
important to establish if the proposal meet the terms of reference of the organisation. The
functions listed must address the terms of reference. The benefits must be clearly spelt
out to the funders or donors.
The need for this project must be clearly stated in the research statement and the goals
or aims of the project.
Evidence of the need for this project must also come out from the literature review.
The proposed methodology show how the proposed research fits in with other related
subjects or topics.
You are again advised to discuss feedback to this activity with your tutor.
The next part of the topic will discuss the elements of a proposal.
3.0 The Elements of a Proposal

There is no single format for research proposals. This is because every research project is
different. Different disciplines, donor organisations and academic institutions all have
different formats and requirements. There are, however, several key components which
must be included in every research proposal. The specific research problem will dictate
what other sections are required.
Research proposals use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether you have done
a customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a health care survey or a
marketing research survey. All have the same basic structure and format. The rationale is
that readers of research reports (i.e., decision makers, those funding the research project,
etc.) will know exactly where to find the information they are looking for, regardless of
the individual report.
A good proposal has elements which are important for effective presentation. The
specific format and content of the elements may vary, depending on requirements in the
solicitation or announcement. It is also important to remember that the elements will not
always appear as separate sections or in the order listed here (Walonick, 2005).
BOCODOL 112 2008

(a) Introduction
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context
for your research problem. This is the place where the statement of the problem is stated
and why the problem should be investigated. It is in this section that the objectives of the
study, the research questions and the significance of the study are outlined. This section
also includes the background or the context for the research. The researcher may also
wish to include a description of the structure of the proposal so that the reader knows
what to expect within the report.
(b) Literature review

A review of the appropriate literature is another component of a research proposal. In this
section the researcher provides some indication of strengths and gaps, as well as the
degree to which the literature will support the research.
(c) Research design or Methodology

The population, sample design, methods of data collection and analysis is specified in
this section. Justification on the methods chosen is also critical at this point.
(d) An indication of cost is presented in a well-researched budget.

The budget helps a lot, as those funding the research project need to know exactly how
much they will have to pay for a particular research project.
(e) A calendar with dates or deadlines for the several stages of the research is a must
have for researchers.
A calendar normally helps in the overall coordination of the research as everyone
involved knows the schedule of the events of all the stages of research. The calendar
helps you, as a researcher, to estimate how long the project will take.
Activity 1C
List the elements of the research proposal. Reviewing the articles you selected in
Activity 1A and 1B, do the proposals contain the elements you listed?
Discuss feedback to this activity with your tutor. Before you do this, check if all the
elements of the research proposal as discussed above are outlined in the articles you
selected.
4.0 Steps in the Development of a Research Proposal

There are various steps to follow in the development of a research proposal. The steps
include selecting a research topic, identifying the research problem, formulating research
objectives, reviewing literature, selecting the research strategy, preparing a work plan and
preparing a budget (Aliyu, 2007, Maylor and Blackman, 2005).
Let us discuss these steps in more details.
Step 1: Selecting a research topic

The first step in research is to choose a topic. The topic should be challenging and prove
to be worth of receiving the resources for the researcher to go and collect information so
BOCODOL 113 2008

as to provide an answer to a question or provide a solution to a problem. A research topic

can evolve from contact or observation of the external world, theory or previous
researches (Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000). As a researcher, it is very important that you
choose a topic that would allow you to gain skills that you could later use in life.
Step 2: Identification and description of the research problem

The goal in this step is to produce a clear statement of the problem to be studied. A
statement of a problem must explicitly identify the issues on which the researcher
chooses to focus. It should also contain what is to be achieved with the results of the
study, that is the gap to which your study will contribute knowledge.
The first major section in a research proposal is the research problem or the statement of
the problem. Framing the research problem is one of the biggest challenges in proposal
writing. The statement of the problem is the foundation for the further development of
the research proposal (research objectives, methodology, work plan, budget, etc.). It also
makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own
study design can benefit. In addition, a statement of the problem enables you to
systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken
and what you hope to achieve with the study results. The statement of the problem should
include a brief description of the nature of the problem. In addition, an analysis of the
major factors that may influence the problem should be presented as well as a discussion
of why certain factors need more investigation if the problem is understood to be fully
investigated. Without a clear statement of the problem, the research will be confused and
ambiguous. It is not possible to satisfactorily proceed to the next stage of the research
process without such a statement. The following general questions can be used as a guide
in the formulation of a statement of a problem (Bouma and Lin, 2005):
(i) What are the major concepts? (ii) What is happening here? (iii) What are the issues?
Below is an example of a statement of problem:
Rural to urban migration is an extremely prominent feature of the urbanisation process.

Although much has been documented about it and the various forms it take, the gender
aspect has not received the attention it deserves. What has been established in most cases
is the fact that migration is gender-selective but the extent to which this is the case as
well as why this may vary in certain places has not been widely investigated. Not much is
known about female migrants relative to their male counterparts. Bias is due to the fact
that women have often been looked upon as non-migrants or associational migrants who
move as part of a family, therefore, not interesting enough to be researched on. Several
studies have shown that women also move on their own to find work or for other reasons,
and the number of women moving into towns has been on the increase. This study will
try to fill in this gap in the data whereby women migrants are overlooked. Despite the
focus on women urban dwellers the study will adopt a gender approach in assessing the
urban-rural linkages as a survival strategy, in that it will study both men and women.
Source: G.N. Lesetedi, A Proposal on “Urban-Rural Linkages as A Survival Strategy

Among Men And Women In Botswana, 2007”)
BOCODOL 114 2008

Activity 1D
1. Based on the example given of a statement of a problem. Answer the following
questions:
(a) What are the major concepts?
(b) What is happening here?
(c) What are the issues?
2. Select a topic of your choice according to the guidelines given in 4.0 and based on
that topic formulate a statement of problem.
1. The major concepts are

The urbanization process
Gender
Migration
Rural to urban migration
Non-migrants or associational migrants
Survival strategy
What is happening here?

The gender aspect of migration is overlooked in the urbanisation process. Women
migrants are regarded as non-migrants or associational migrants i.e. they come
to the urban area as part of a family never on their own. Several studies have
shown that women also move on their own for various reasons.
What are the issues?

This study will try to fill in this gap in the data by adopting a gender approach i.e.
focusing on both men and women. The study will also assess the urban-rural
linkages that they adopt as survival strategies.
2. The statement of the problem should include the following:

what is already known about the problem, i.e. a brief description of the nature
of the problem.
an analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem should be
presented
a discussion of why certain factors need more investigation if the problem is
to be fully understood.
what is the study going to address in order to understand the problem.
The statement of the problem should not be more than two paragraphs.
Step 3: Establishing Research Objectives

During this stage details of what is to be accomplished by the research is spelt out in
advance and in detail. This step is closely related to the second step of identifying the
research problem. Both address the reasons for conducting the research.
The formulation of research objectives is heavily dependent on a clear statement and they
should be closely related to the statement of the problem. A research objective states the
goal of a study, which it is intended to describe and also summarise what is to be
BOCODOL 115 2008

achieved by the study. In a proposal they are usually two types of objectives. These are
the general and the specific objectives.
The general objective of a study states what researchers expect to achieve by the study
in general terms. It is the very purpose of the study. The specific objectives are the issues
to do in order to achieve the general objective. In reality the general objective is broken
down into smaller, logically connected parts and these are referred to as specific
objectives.
Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development of your research
methodology and will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilisation
of data. The formulation of objectives assists in the narrowing down of the study as well
as in organising the study in clearly defined parts or phases. It also helps the researcher to
just collect data which is necessary in the addressing of the problem under study.
The objectives should be measurable and achievable and that is why action verbs (e.g.
examine, determine, identify) are usually used when formulating them. The use of vague
non-action verbs such as to appreciate, to understand and to study should be avoided.
They should be clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are
going to do, where, and for what purpose. Objectives should cover the different aspects
of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence.
Below is an example of general and specific objectives. It also includes the title of the
study. This example is based on the statement of the problem presented in step 2.
Topic: Urban-Rural Linkages as A Survival Strategy Among Men And Women In

Botswana.
General Objective: The primary purpose of this study is to examine the nature of
linkages that urban residents maintain with their rural kith and kin within the context of a
rural-urban continuum taking a gender approach.
Specific Objectives
Examine the way that men and women maintain urban rural linkages as a survival
strategy
Discuss the nature of urban-rural linkages maintained by both men and women
residing in urban areas
Analyse the relationships that emerge between urban and rural dwellers.
Activity 1E
Formulate general and specific objectives from the statement of a problem you made in
Activity 1D. Are these objectives measurable and achievable?
Check with your tutor if your general objectives are focused on the primary purpose of
your study. Your objectives must be specific, measurable and achievable.
BOCODOL 116 2008

Step 4: Literature Review

At this stage the researcher reviews whatever has been published that appears relevant to
the research topic. In reviewing the literature, the researcher is able to determine what is
known about a subject and identify possible gaps. In addition, in reviewing the literature
the researcher can identify unanswered questions and in the process generate useful
questions. As a researcher you will be able to challenge certain ideas if you do not agree
with them and say, with evidence from research, why you disagree with such. Through
the literature review, one is able to find out the methodologies and instruments utilised in
similar studies.
Step 5: Research Methodology

Step 5 in the development of a research proposal is deciding on the design of the
proposed study and the justification for the choice of the selected design. This section
explains how you plan to undertake your research in order to answer the problem
understudy. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the
completion of your project. This section should contain sufficient information for the
reader to determine whether methodology will answer the research question. The issues
addressed in the methodology include the data collection instruments, the actual
administration of the instrument and the data processing procedures. It is under this
section that the work plan as well as the budget is outlined.
5.0 Summary
In this topic you studied about writing a research proposal, which we said is a roadmap
describing what you, as a researcher, want to achieve and how you would achieve it. We
looked in details at the functions of a proposal which we said include helping in planning,
in guiding the project, in demonstrating competence of the researcher and in obtaining
funding for the research project. We again studied about the different elements of a
proposal. In this topic we did look in details at the steps or stages one has to consider
when developing a research proposal.

1. Briefly discuss the following concepts within the context of research.
(a) Proposal
(b) Topic
(c) Objectives
(d) Methodology [12]
2. Describe the functions of a research proposal. [8]
3. Outline the steps in the development of a research proposal. [8]
BOCODOL 117 2008


1. Concepts within the context of research:
(a) Proposal
A proposal is the written plan for the research project. Proposals are written to enable a
researcher to design, organise and implement his/her project. The proposal is a description
of what you will do, why it should be done, how you will do it and what you expect will result.
To the researcher a proposal is essential for ensuring that careful consideration is given to
why the research is needed, and to what methods will best suit the purpose of the study.
(b) Topic
The first step in research is to choose a topic. The topic should be challenging and prove to
be worth of receiving the resources for the researcher to go and collect information so as to
provide an answer to a question or provide a solution to a problem. A research topic can
evolve from contact or observation of the external world, theory or previous researches.
(c) Objectives
A research objective states the goal(s) of a study, which it is intended to describe and also
summarise what is to be achieved by the study. In a proposal they are usually two types of
objectives; the general and specific objectives. The general objective of a study states what
researchers expect to achieve by the study in general terms. It is the very purpose of the
study. While specific objectives are the issues to do in order to achieve the general objective.
(d) Methodology
Methodology addresses issues of the design of the proposed study and the justification for
the choice of the selected design. This section explains how you plan to undertake your
research in order to answer the problem understudy. It will provide your work plan and
describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project. This section should
contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology will answer
the research question. The issues addressed in the methodology include the data collection
instruments, the actual administration of the instrument and the data processing
procedures. It is under this section that the work plan as well as the budget is outlined.
2. Functions of a research proposal
To aid planning. No matter what the scale or nature of a research project, the
preparation of a proposal is an invaluable aid to the planning of the overall project.
The discipline imposed by having to set down thoughts on paper ensures that all the
stages are considered and allowance is made for everything.
To guide the project. Once the research has begun, pressing day-to-day concerns can
easily obscure its overall decision. A good proposal can prove invaluable at this
stage as it helps to put things into context and should explain the relevance of
different activities.
To demonstrate competence of the researcher in conducting research. This is the
main function of a proposal for research leading to academic or professional
qualifications.
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To obtain financial support for the research. It will be necessary to prepare a

proposal if it is intended to seek financial support for the research. This will be the
case if the application is made to an external funding agency or through a research
committee. The proposal has to argue the case for awarding the money and show
that the researchers are likely to make good use of the funds.
3. Steps in the development of a research proposal
Step 1: Selecting a Research Topic

The topic should be challenging and prove to be worth of receiving the resources for the
researcher to go and collect information so as to provide an answer to a question or provide a
solution to a problem. A research topic can evolve from contact or observation of the external
world, theory or previous researches.
Step 2: Identifying the Research Problem

A statement of a problem must explicitly identify the issues on which the researcher chooses to
focus. It should also contain what is to be achieved with the results of the study; that is the gap to
which your study will contribute knowledge.
Step 3: Establishing Research Objectives

During this stage details of what is to be accomplished by the research is spelt out in advance
and in detail. This step is closely related to the second step of identifying the research problem.
Both address the reasons for conducting the research.
Step 4: Literature Review

During this step, the researcher reviews whatever has been published that appears relevant to the
research topic. In reviewing the literature, the researcher is able to determine what is known
about a subject and identify possible gaps. In addition, in reviewing the literature can identify
unanswered questions and in the process generates useful questions. Through the review, one is
able to find out the methodologies and instruments utilised in similar studies.
Step 5: Research Methodology

Step 5 in the development of a research proposal is deciding on the design of the proposed study
and the justification for the choice of the selected design. This section explains how you plan to
undertake your research in order to answer the problem understudy. It will provide your work
plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project. This section should
contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology will answer the
research question. The issues addressed in the methodology include the data collection
instruments, the actual administration of the instrument and the data processing procedures. It is
under this section that the work plan as well as the budget is outlined.
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Topic 2
Sampling
1.0 Introduction
The process of data collection requires that, first you should know the kind and quantity
of data you need to collect for your research. You cannot collect data on everything as
you would not have time to do so. You also would not be able to generate a clear focus of
what you want to do in that manner. You ought to have a topic and systematically decide
on how much data could be used to meet you research strategy and this is where
sampling comes in. Sampling helps you to select the required data from a lot of other
data that may be available and sharpens your focus on the subject matter or topic of your
research.
Learning Objectives
After studying this topic you should be able to:
describe the purpose of sampling and identify situations where sampling would be
useful
identify the major sampling procedures
identify the major sources of bias within sampling
identify the major strengths and weaknesses of each of the sampling procedures
use each of the major sampling techniques and evaluate the relative strengths and
weaknesses of each
determine how large a sample would be needed to estimate population
characteristics at a designated level of accuracy
describe strategies for dealing with non-respondents in surveys.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Overview of sampling 121
2.0 The Need for Sampling 121
3.0 Factors Affecting the Validity and Reliability of Samples 122
4.0 Sampling Strategies 126
5.0 Summary 131
7.0 Answers to self-assessment Exercise 2 132
Time
You will need three hours to study this topic.
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1.0 Overview of Sampling

Whatever the research strategy you choose, there is need to mind the logical steps that
should be taken to collect data for research purposes. The preliminary stage of every
research is the quantity of data needed for a considerable research. Some researches may
demand that you collect data in all cases or possible elements that are to be studied. For
example, a survey on the number of citizens in a polling station or constituency requires
that you count every possible member of the community such that when the government
decides to implement development programmes in the area no citizen may be
disadvantaged. This is normally referred to as a census.
In most business researches, however, it is not possible to collect data on all cases of
study. In such circumstances, what is normally done is to consider a significant number
or fraction of cases that are to be studied. The total number of possible cases that can be
studied in a research topic is called a population. The fraction or portion of the
population that you decide to study is known as the sample.
Thus if you decide to research on “The quality of decision-making and employee

performance” at the Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS), the
population could be all employees in the organisation. This does not, however, prevent
you from selecting a particular sample that could be used to make generalised
conclusions about the research question with respect to the department. For the sample to
be representative of the population however, it must constitute the majority of the
population. This simply means that it should involve most of the employees in the
department. In most researches 75% and above is often considered reasonable.
Sampling can therefore, be seen as a small part of a whole or a number that is used as a
specimen in research findings.
2.0 The Need for Sampling

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) argue that it is reasonable to use samples where:
It is not convenient to survey the whole population
budget constraints prevent you from surveying the whole population
there are time constraints
you may have collected all the data but need the results quickly.
Whatever the problem you face, once you decide on sampling the population the degree
of accuracy with regard to your sample becomes very important. The fundamental
principle of sampling theory is that larger samples are better than smaller ones. The
largeness of the sample is determined relative to the size of the research population.
There is, however, cost associated with acquiring large samples. The decision to embark
on the collection of large samples is therefore a business decision that involves weighing
the cost against the anticipated benefits. This can only be decided by the researcher, as a
professional, in collaboration with the business manager whose interest is to make a
sound business decision.
It could also be necessary to underscore that small samples do not necessarily generate
invalid or unreliable results. The difficulty here could be to control factors impacting the
validity and reliability of the results. Once these are under control, small samples are
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capable of providing valid and reliable results, nonetheless with a compromise on the
degree of accuracy that may be provided by larger samples.
Activity 2A
Give an example of how a small sample can impact on the validity and reliability of the
results.
If you ask 30 combi drivers in Gaborone about how they feel about the newly erected
traffic lights that replaced the traffic circle in the road leading to Lobatse. Can we
conclude that the traffic lights ‘significantly improved the traffic flow’ because 25 of the
30 respondents said so? Yes and No. The degree of accuracy will depend on the number
of combi drivers in the area. If there are only 30 drivers, we would have achieved a high
confidence level. That differs from if there are 500 drivers. A sample of 30 would
therefore, be too small to represent a population of 500.
There may be mitigating factors. For instance, it is possible that a significant number of
those observed driving combis are not licensed to do so. Others could have decided not to
respond. Basically there could be numerous factors impacting on the validity and
reliability of research results. Let us look at some of these factors that could have an
impact on both the validity and reliability of research results.
2.0 Factors Affecting the Validity and Reliability of

Samples
Insight-MAS (2005) suggest five factors that may affect or impact on the validity and
reliability as follows:
The extent to which the sample is random
The size of the population
The desired margin of error of the results
The desired confidence level of the results
Non-response bias.
The factors listed above are discussed in more details in the next part of the topic.
(a) The extent to which the sample is random

The validity and reliability of a sample depends largely on the inclusion of all the
members of a particular sample. This means that all the members should have equal
opportunity to be included as respondents. It is also the basis for all sampling procedures
that the population is normally distributed. It could be difficult to prove with some degree
of accuracy that the sample represents the population when it is not randomly selected.
To do that you ought to do the following:
Obtain a list of all the members of the population
Ensure that the list is accurate and no members have been left out
See to it that all members have equal opportunity to be selected for the sample
Apply a selection criteria that will ensure a true random selection (e.g. by random
number selection).
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In practice, however, it could be difficult to follow the above stipulated procedure owing
to the problems of access to research subjects. This is a major challenge for the
researcher whose duty is to get as close as possible to the criteria. There have been
instances when less random approaches were followed, for instance, following
convenience sampling where the researcher obtains what he or she can by surveying the
most easily accessible participants. The bottom-line, however, is that less random
samples are not statistically representative of the population.
(b) The size of the population

The larger the sample size relative to the population - the greater the degree of accuracy
holds true on the assumption that we have a normal distribution. The relationship
between sample size and the population is, nonetheless, not directly proportional. For
instance, at a margin of error of 3% and a confidence level of 95%, a population of 500
requires a random sample of 340 (68% of the population) and a population of 15 000
requires a random sample of only 995 (6.6 % of the population) (Insight-Mas, 2005).
(c) The desired margin of error of the results

The margin of error represents the expected degree to which research results may be
allowed to tail off. For that reason it helps in the prediction of research outcomes and
perhaps more significantly, it impacts on the sample size of the population. It is
understood to relate the actual population and sample means such that when we talk
about a ±10% margin of error, it would mean that actual population mean is within a
range of 10% less to 10% more than the sample mean. This would mean that a researcher
who aims for a particular margin of error would be better placed to calculate the expected
sample size. In that way he or she would also be in a position to control the research
costs.
The table below shows the relationship between the confidence level and the sample size:
Table 2.1: Margin of error and sample size
Margin of error Sample size

±44 5
±31 10
±22 20
±18 30
±16 40
±14 50
±13 60
±12 70
±11 80
±10.3 90
(d) The desired confidence level of the results

From our earlier reference to sampling and population sizes, the importance of a sample
drawn from a specific population to be representative of that population cannot be
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over-emphasised. That simply put represents the confidence level of research results. It is
closely related to and often used in conjunction with the margin of error. Like the margin
of error it also impacts on the sample size. For instance, a ±3% margin of error at 95%
confidence level with a targeted population of 15,000 should give you a sample size of
995. A 95% confidence level means that 95 out of 100 samples drawn from the same
population will be representative of it. You will also realise that the confidence level
increases the larger the sample.
(e) Non-response bias

When you go out to distribute questionnaires to selected individuals in your sample, you
ought to bear in mind the possibility that not all of them may respond. When that
eventually happens, the worst you can do is to use questionable or doubtful means to try
and avoid this reality or simply ignore the problem as though it did not occur. There are
several recommended approaches to arrest this problem, though they all would not
provide you with the research participants you wanted. They, however, may assist you to
mitigate the threat posed by the problem within your research.
The first stage is to try and obtain as many respondents as possible from the sample
population. This could be a tedious task that requires determination and the skilful use of
people skills to bring as many as you would want to. Some respondents may want to be
enticed to participate. How you go about it is left to you as the researcher whereas it is a
requirement that you maintain a high degree of integrity in the process of doing so. In
other situations you could realise the need to be polite, persistent, diligent and
hard working to obtain what you want.
These techniques could take you a long way such that you may have as many
respondents as it is practically possible but still fail to obtain responses from all those
targeted in your sample. The question then would concern the impact of non-responses
on your research. For that you would need to assess and take remedial measures that
would render your available responses worthwhile to make meaningful assumptions in
your research. These include the following:
You could come up with an alternative method to secure responses. For example,
if your survey was conducted by mail, you could try using the telephone or
meeting your respondents directly. You could then compare respondent and non-
respondent results statistically. If the results match, the data may be combined.
Where the responses differ, the data may be weighted using an appropriate
formula to adjust for non-response bias.
You could compare early and late respondents. Where it makes sense to include
late respondents to your list of early respondents, you are advised to do so. It has,
however, been shown that late respondents are often similar to
non-respondents and that meant they should be regarded as such.
You could also compare non-respondents and on the basis of demographics or

population characteristics.
(f) Other considerations

Some researchers have a tendency to simply consider the number of respondents in a
study overlooking important factors of the randomness of the selected respondents and
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the mitigation of non-response bias. This does not, however, in any way lead to validity
or reliability of the data collected. It is in fact a serious error that renders the data
statistically invalid and unreliable.
By following this approach, the drive is to obtain often inflated information without
regard for good research ethics and professionalism. A common method is that of using a
telephone to call a required number of participants for responses. The calling process
continues until one has obtained the number required ignoring all those who could not be
found because they could be away from home or refuse to answer. The solicited
responses, as you would realise, are not obtained randomly and non-responses are not
recorded. As a result of this approach the mitigation of non-response bias is not taken
into consideration. So long as the specified responses are obtained the data is erroneously
considered usable. This leads to less and less representation of the sample population.
Wilson (2006:2), however, argues that random sampling or not, what a researcher ought
to have in mind is “an objective (in principle a repeatable) procedure for sampling,
which prevents the implementers from choosing their informants in undisclosed and
subjective ways – ways which invisibly bias the results, by unknowable amounts.” By so
doing he asserts that the results could precisely reflect the population mean as required by
the statistical analysts. That is, all you could need is a fair procedure for assessment of
the sample. He contests that random sampling can work better with large samples and
may not be recommendable when working with small samples as you may not have the
opportunity or time to play around with the characteristics of the respondents, for
example, their level of education, demographics and others. A smaller sample could
dictate that you ignore these and consider all respondents. This may be true when you do
not have the resources to conduct survey on large populations.
Wilmot (2006) directly points out that probability sampling is inappropriate for
qualitative study as it does not seek to produce a statistically representative sample or
draw statistical inferences. He suggests purposive sampling where emphasis is on the
criteria used to select respondents and not on the number of respondents. Purposive
sampling uses the characteristics of individuals or an repetitious process where analysis
of data and sampling occur simultaneously. The sample is generated on the basis of ideas
collected from purposely selected individuals. The process of determining the size of
your sample in this scenario will be determined by a saturation point where you can no
longer get anything different from the individuals selected. This aids to generate
hypothesis and theory and is said to be more effective if you had decided on your data
analysis technique well in advance. The technique, however, may not work where the
sample population is clearly defined (like where operational survey questions are
available) and the researcher is faced with resource and time constraints. You may have
to come with a more appropriate purposive sampling strategy that does not seek to
achieve saturation as it could be costly.
Whatever the approach you adopt, a reasonable knowledge of the population is advised.
4.0 Sampling Strategies

Sampling strategies involve the method in which you decide to carry out your sampling.
There are different ways of doing that as already mentioned in our earlier discussions.
The manner in which you draw your sample is important for making inferences about the
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population of study. Some samples could be quite large but lack the required rationale for
which sampling is intended. This is particularly true where the respondents in the sample
do not share characteristics for classification or making generalisations about a
population. Consider this scenario. Imagine a sample of a thousand people who are
issued with a copy of the Daily News on a daily basis, leading to the conclusion that the
paper readership covers one thousand people. It does not consider that some may not
have read it or that others read it because it is free and would not buy it if it were sold.
Think about the many people who read ‘The Advertiser’ and their varied reasons for
doing so. They could be sampled differently on the basis of demographics or other
personal reasons. Sometimes you could realise that if you were to group them using their
various categories on the basis of the rationale for doing so, a sample of around 25-50
people could be ideal for any one particular reason that addresses your research topic.
The basic idea here is that it is not that significant to mention a large number that does
not have anything to do with the population for which you would like to make
generalisations.
Let us now consider the different sampling strategies so that you may know the most
appropriate one for your research topic.
(a) Random sampling

Random sampling is normally considered a better way of deriving samples from the
population of study. This is basically so because members of the population are allowed
an equal chance to be included in the sample. How do you do that? We shall consider a
number of illustrations to explain that.
Activity 2B
Read the following illustrations of sampling, which one constitutes random sampling?
(a) Suppose you go into a shopping mall and ask every third person you meet for
opinion about Kabelano Charity Tournament.
(b) What if you were to obtain a telephone directory and starting on the first page of
the list you ask the first person who answers the phone about the Kabelano
Charity tournament?
(c) How about seeking opinion about the tournament at a football game between
Lobtrans Gunners and Township Rollers?
A reasonable explanation is that none of the above constitutes random sampling because
there are other factors besides pure chance that could mean that some of the most
appropriate individuals to answer the question may be excluded from the sample. If the
population for which we want to make generalisations does not include those who do not
know anything about the tournament, we cannot meet anybody and request for their
opinions about it. Football is a game among other games hence some people may be
interested in other sporting activities besides it.
The first example could mean that we stand a chance of asking individuals who have no
information about the tournament but happen to have other priorities for going to the
mall. There would be women and children who went to eat in restaurants or simply to do
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shopping. There would be old men and women who lost interest in football a long way
back, perhaps even before the tournament existed. Others could be those who enjoy
tennis, basketball, softball or any other sport.
The telephone directory referred to in the preceding example contains a list of people
who chose to be listed, not all people who have telephones. This, therefore, means that
some of our football fans could be left out because they are not listed or simply do not
have telephones at home. Does that mean they cannot provide information about the
tournament? I doubt so. Furthermore, we stand a chance of asking questions to a
significant number of people who are not interested in football and do not have anything
to offer so far as the tournament is concerned.
The third example of conducting the survey at a football match could be close but still we
have no absolute reason that all football fans would be interested in the tournament.
Apart from that there would be individuals who attended their first football game and
those who went there to meet a friend or two. How does that relate them to the
tournament?
Who are the right candidates for our questions, therefore, and could it mean that we
attempted to make a random sample out of them? Let us try the following:
Getting a list of members of the Kabelano Fan Club and writing the name of each
member on a card, mixing the cards in a bowl and allowing a blind folded person to
select each card on the basis of pure chance. Using the same Kabelano Fan Club
members list, assigning a number to each name on the list and then using a table of
random numbers to select possible respondents.
You could realise that from the preceding examples, chance or probability is the only
factor that determines who among those with a better chance of informing the study
stands to be picked for participation. Since all members are listed, they have equal
opportunity to be selected. Nothing, however, deters you from asking whether the club
members list is up-to-date or not (What if the list also contained fans that have not yet
paid subscription fees hence constitutionally excluded from the membership), just as you
could wonder whether club members alone could provide the whole population. For
instance, there could be individual team lists whose members are also very much
potential candidates who are not Kabelano Fan Club members. The most important thing,
however, could be that in the end you should be able to make generalisations about your
population on the basis of the selected sample.
Random sampling, nevertheless, has been considered a better method besides most
sampling techniques for which generalisations about a population may be made. For the
sake of precision and accuracy in making generalisations, you could realise that if you
were given a chance to generalise about something it would be better to obtain even a
small random sample than a large sample obtained through a non-random process.
(b) Biased sampling

The very opposite of random sampling is known as biased sampling. This happens when
naturally occurring or artificially constructed groups are used without the use of a
random selection. Suppose you wanted to know how many BOCODOL diploma students
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are interested in doing the Research Methods course where BOCODOL has 6 diploma
classes. You then ask the question to the first class of 20 students. You cannot on the
basis of their responses assume that the remaining 5 classes would have similar responses
without making a biased conclusion. What reasons really could propel you to think that
the remaining classes share the same opinions as the first class?
(c) Quota sampling

You would recall that we have earlier on mentioned that there were other methods apart
from random sampling that were preferred, especially for qualitative research. Quota
sampling has been known to provide meaningful explanations for generalisations where
a non-random sample is used. It involves the use of known characteristics of the target
population to make a sample. For instance, if we were to conduct a study about the youth
and development in Botswana, we could start off by going to the statistics office and
obtaining a list of citizens aged between 12 and 35 as per the age categorisation of youth
population in the country. The list will provide us with the percentages of males and
females (where percentages are not provided we can calculate them). We would be able
to identify various geographical areas where these people live and the percentages of
each gender in a particular location. This in turn enables us to determine the number of
each gender group that we would pick for participation in the survey.
As you would realise, this sampling method would not take into account inter and intra
male and female differences on the subject of development, hence biased. Thus in
addition to questions related to development on the survey, the researcher could also be
compelled to have questions about the characteristics of the respondents. These questions
should seek to provide data relating to aspects that are likely to bias the sample. During
data analysis, the researcher has to compare the characteristics of the sample with those
of the population to eliminate obvious cases of bias.
Quota sampling has been observed to work best when the categorisations according to a
particular group characteristic is done in advance, that is before gathering the data.
Alluding to our earlier example about gender and development, we could contact the
department of Women’s Affairs that is well known for providing gender-sensitive
information through out the country and how the general public have been affected by
development, to obtain a list of possible respondents. From the department we expect to
find information about the youth as much as for all other groups, for example the old and
handicapped. Resorting to the use of an interviewer who is renowned for his or her ability
to establish rapport and obtain frank answers from the youth would also serve as an
advantage. The researcher could obtain detailed responses in Gaborone, say from 500
youths. Bearing in mind the idea that our intention would be to generalise for all youths
in the country, the question could be whether the Gaborone youth population can
represent nation-wide results. If the Gaborone youth population exhibits typical scores of
youth responses to questions of gender and development as observed from an earlier
study and consists of youth percentages from all ethnic groups in Botswana, the rich and
the poor, those in school and employment including those in the street and the
researcher’s questions compare well with those of the earlier study, we can be confident
that the survey could be representative of the general youth population in Botswana. This
would be much better than sending an equally competent researcher to do a random
sample from the list without taking consideration of population characteristics. The point
being that the responses are likely to be biased towards the poor, rich or a particular
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ethnic group because a random sample would not sort for the differences, hence likely to
obtain false responses.
If the categorisation were to be done after the data collection, there would be the
redundant chance that we had collected data from some groups and not others, and we are
unable to reverse the responses as it could be costly to conduct a fresh survey to arrest the
situation. The confidence on a non-random sample in the case of quota sampling
therefore depends largely on the subjects meeting the quotas because that is where the
elimination of obvious bias occurs.
(d) Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is simply a devised manner of deriving a random sample. The
emphasis is on using only two factors to determine your sample – chance and ‘the
system’. Instead of using a table of random numbers to select 50 individuals as
respondents, for example, you could decide to select between 1 and 5 starting with a
name that corresponds to the number in a list and continuing the process until you have
your sample of 50 participants. You could realise that this is not entirely different from
obtaining a random sample except that there could be a systematic bias to the selection
procedure.
Think of a group of 200 people watching a tennis game where the seats are arranged such
that from the first male, the fifth individual is also male. The resulting sample would be a
random sample but you would end up with a sample that is all male in a population of
males and females. This would mean that your responses would be male dominated. The
problem can, however, be simply eliminated by coming up with another system of
selection that would include females. It would therefore be important to know the
arrangement of seats before you undertake the process of sampling.
(e) Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling is a strategy whereby members of a sample are selected in such a
way as to guarantee appropriate numbers of subjects for subsequent subdivisions and
groupings during the analysis of data. It is normally combined with random sampling to
come up with a robust process of data analysis. Stratified random sampling, therefore,
means that you have a randomly selected sample that you subdivide to produce strata on
the basis of a particular grouping criterion so that you may analyse each stratum and
make comparisons and decisions. It may also be used when you have a larger sample and
you find it difficult to assign a number to each case.
Activity 2C
Give an example of stratified sampling.
Let us take an example.

The Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs wants to conduct a training survey that seeks
to ask respondents, among other things to mention;
Their department
Area of specialisation in training
Their attitude towards public service training in general.
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A random sample of 500 employees of the ministry from a population of 5000 could give
us a good estimate of:
(a) How many employees of each department would be involved?

(b) How many employees would prefer a particular area of specialisation in training?
(c) Percentages relating to specific attitudes about training in the public service.
What if we wanted to know how many people actually qualified to go for training on the
basis of public service policy that employees beyond 50 years have reached voluntary
retirement age and therefore should not be sent for training? If there were 10% of
employees aged 50 and above within the ministry, that would give us a probability of 50
employees who do not qualify within the sample. We are, however, aware that the
validity of samples based on 50 employees cannot be as strong as that for 450. Suppose
the 50 employees within the voluntary retirement age spark interest for subsequent
analysis, we could then increase their number for the benefit of a large sample and robust
analysis. This, however, would bias the sample by allowing disproportionate weight to
employees within the voluntary retirement age. A weighting strategy will, therefore, have
to be employed to correct the anomaly. This is where stratified sampling is used to ensure
a proportionate representation of each category of employees for subsequent analyses.
(f) Stratified sampling versus quota sampling

Stratified sampling is similar to quota sampling in that both methods specify the
numbers of subjects to be included on the basis of certain characteristics. The purpose of
quota sampling, however, is to work towards maximum representation of the given
population by a selected sample on the basis of the characteristics. For this purpose, a
proportional number of subjects with a specific characteristic are selected. Thus on the
basis of our example above, by quota sampling, if the Ministry of Labour and Home
Affairs had 10% employees within the retirement bracket, then the selected sample
should have 10% of such employees. Stratified sampling emphasises sufficient numbers
for sub-analysis. Thus you could opt to have various groups within the sample, for
example, different attitudes towards training as well as different areas of specialisation to
make sure that you are able to carry out another analysis on the basis of attitudes or
training areas of specialisation alone.
5.0 Summary
In this study topic you learnt about sampling, which we said involves using a part of a
whole as a specimen in research findings. We did learn about why we need to sample
when undertaking a research project. In this topic we have studied about the different
factors that affect the validity and reliability of samples. We concluded this topic by
studying different sampling strategies.
This part brings us to the end of Topic 2. I would now like you to go through the
following exercise to check your comprehension of this topic.
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Question 1
Categorise each of the following as badly biased sampling, random sampling, systematic
sampling, quota sampling or stratified sampling:
(a) Miss Mokwadi is surveying attitudes of students at her college towards

intercollegiate football. She goes to a home football game and gets a sample by
interviewing all students standing in line at one of the hot dog stands.
(b) Mr Phala wants to find out how many people in his town watch certain evening
television shows. He selects the numbers 2 and 10 at random, and he calls the 10th
person in the second column of every page in the telephone directory. If this is a
business phone, he goes to the next number in the same column.
(c) Mr Lefoko wanted to analyse the quality of ERIC’s Resources in Education (RIE)
microfiche service for his doctoral dissertation. He obtained a list of all the
documents published during a designated year, chose the number 64 for his
sample of documents for that year.
(d) Mrs. Letsatsi wanted a sample of students from her Educational Psychology
course. She put all the names of her students on cards, shuffled the cards, and
dealt them into two stacks. The cards in her left-hand stack were included in her
sample.
(e) Mrs. Pula wanted to analyse the attitudes of her city elementary school children
toward busing to achieve integration. She had time to interview only about 600
students. She selected 3 schools out of 75 in her city and interviewed all third,
fifth, and seventh graders. This gave her 22 classes, with 601 students all
together. She selected these schools because these children were known to be
similar to those in the rest of the city in intellectual ability, in ratio of whites to
non-whites, and in the percentage of students who rode buses to school.
(f) Ms. Selibi selects her sample of college students by obtaining an alphabetical
computer printout of all the students, assigning them each a number and selecting
200 of them by using a table of random numbers.
(g) Reverend Moffat wanted to find out how people reacted to his sermons. He
specifically wanted to know if there were differences in reaction related to age
level, so he obtained a sample of 300 people to interview by obtaining a list of
2,000 adult members of the congregation and using a table of random numbers to
select 100 young adults, 100 middle-aged adults, and 100 elderly adults from this
list.
Question 2
Evaluate the quality of each of the sampling technique from question 1. How good would
the sample be if the strategy were carried out?
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Question 1
(a) Badly biased sampling

(b) Random sampling
(c) Systematic sampling
(d) Stratified sampling
(e) Quota sampling
(f) Systematic random sampling
(g) Stratified random sampling
Question 2
(a) The badly biased sampling example was about intercollegiate football at a particular
college. The researcher, however, failed to identify the correct sample in that she
went to a home football game, not a game that related to the college she wanted
answers for. The participants/respondents were students at a hotdog stand, most
probably buying hotdogs to eat. There was little probability that they could know
anything about intercollegiate football, let alone the fact that they could be students
from different schools and colleges. Thus if the strategy was to be used, the sample
from which the population would be drawn was not going to be representative of the
attitudes of students at the college towards intercollegiate football there.
(b) There is a chance that some of the people listed in the telephone directory would be
interested in watching evening programs. There is also the chance that some are not.
The telephone directory contains a list of people who subscribe to the listing and have
telephone numbers. It is not listed on the basis of watching evening television
programs. This brings in the bias factor that prevents us from coming up with a
sample that is reasonably representative of the selected population.
(c) Mr Lefoko’s number 64 may produce a representative sample only if ERIC’s

Resources in Education appears on every 64th position within the lists published
every year. The chances of that being the case are very slim. The chance of it being a
microfische service is another. This brings in the systematic bias of using the number
in that some of the 64th positions may not be about microfische service or ERIC’s
Resources in Education.
(d) Mrs Letsatsi’s sample was chosen from the correct population. All the names came
from her Psychology class. By dividing them using her left and right hands, however,
could mean that she may have a very small number for the sample she wanted if she
ends up with a few cards on the left and more on the right. The opposite could lead to
a representative sample.
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(e) Mrs Pula’s sample could be more representative because it took into consideration a
number of significant factors:
Intellectual ability
Ratio of whites to non-whites
Students who rode on buses to school.
The sample, however, ought to be big enough to represent the city.
(f) Billings sample would also be good as it is randomly selected from the right
population. She wanted 200 students and she got them.
(g) Reverend Moffat’s sample would be good as it has all the 3 categories of people who
attended his church sermons. It is not biased towards adults, children or young adults
because it is randomly selected.
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Topic 3
Collection of Data
Introduction
In the previous topic we studied about sampling. We explained that sampling, which we
defined as a smaller part of a whole is very crucial in any research undertaking. We learnt
about the factors that may affect or have an impact on the validity and reliability of
research. In the previous topic we again looked at the different sampling strategies such
as random sampling, biased sampling, quota sampling, systematic and stratified
sampling.
In this topic we will study about the process of data collection in research. We will look
at the different ways through which one can choose a research approach. We will again
look at the different research strategies and finally study about the different data
collection techniques.
Learning Objectives
On completion of this topic you should be able to:
collect relevant data/information from different types of data sources
differentiate between the three philosophical views of developing knowledge,
namely, positivism, interpretivism and realism
choose an appropriate research approach and relate it to your findings
use different research strategies to collect data related to your research topic
describe the differences between techniques used to gather data.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Understanding Research Philosophy 135
2.0 Choosing a Research Approach 137
3.0 Research Strategy 137
4.0 Data Collection Techniques 139
Time
You will need about three hours to study this topic.
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1.0 Understanding Research Philosophy

The collection of data when conducting a research is a fundamental requirement. This is
so because it is the data that eventually transforms to information upon analysis and
informs the decision-making criteria and process. It is therefore undoubtedly essential
that data is collected in a way suitable to fulfil the research intention and conforms to the
planned research approach or strategy (Elmendorf and Luloff, 2001; Duval, 2005;
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2001; Carter and Beaulieu, 1992). It may not be
appropriate, for instance, to find out about current employees’ involvement in decision
making using past literature about the matter in question. You could instead consider
asking questions directly to the workforce so as to gather data relating to the present
situation.
The key competence of data collection methods, therefore, remains that data collected
conforms to the requirements of the study and where possible, a most direct method be
utilised to ensure that accurate data about a specific topic is made available to inform
decision making.
There are different ways of collecting data depending on the type of data deemed suitable
for the research. Before you collect data, however, you need to familiarise yourself with
the angle of the research or research philosophy, the research approach as well as the
entire process you would follow to conduct the research or research strategy. The
research strategy would involve defining the research population and number of cases
that would be studied (sampling). We shall therefore take a short journey to provide an
insight into those.
How you go about to conduct your research depends primarily on the idea you have in
mind. Different ideas are likely to prompt various ways of acquiring knowledge.
According to Saunder, Lewis and Thornhill (2003), researchers distinguish between three
philosophical views of developing knowledge namely positivism, interpretivism and
realism. These help us understand the pursuits of the researcher i.e. what is in his or her
mind and how he or she intends to achieve the objectives of the research. To get an
insight into how different researchers go about in the quest for knowledge, we shall look
at these in details in the next part of the topic.
(a) Positivism
A positivist is concerned with acquiring information in a manner that enhances
knowledge whilst at the same time detached from the interpretation of the research. It is
based on the assumption that the subject of the research could be new and thus the
intention is to break new ground without much influence on the research. It is rather the
outcomes of an experiment that leads to hypotheses and guides understanding of the
subject matter. The idea is to develop principles like those of the natural science that
could later guide research replication, as well as quantifiable analysis involving the use of
statistical tools. This ensures research independence lending to tried and trusted methods
of understanding the matter under investigation. Rules are developed that assist in the
generalisation of findings owing to past research.
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(b) Interpretivism
Interpretivists argue that the world of business is constantly changing and that makes
relying on generalisations a distortion of reality. Here law-like principles favoured by
positivists are said to avoid the human factor that suggests that people are by nature
inquisitive and life situations tend to be more complicated to depend on rules developed
in the past. They argue that each particular situation is unique hence generalisations
would not provide much needed support in interpreting each unique situation. The basis
of this theory, therefore, is to allow the individual researcher an open hand in deliberating
on social matters that may not be captured in a positivist view.
(c) Realism
If you were to fully understand the positivist and interpretivist approaches you would
gather that realism is a harmonisation of the two. Realists would agree that in the long
process of life there are applicable rules and principles that people need to understand the
world of business. For instance, there could be a formula developed to calculate monthly
instalments for an individual who wants to purchase a house. There could, however, be
different customers in the same respect such that some may not like the way or the
constituents of the formula for one reason or the other. Such individuals may still
purchase the house, nevertheless, after all everybody needs a place to live. We could
argue in this light that they may not have purchased the house if a substitute formula
existed that went along with their demands.
In essence, a realist approach suggests that people be allowed to interpret the world of
business the way they see it, as different as they could be. That is to say, where they find
benefit in the application of principles to further social lives, there is no point in arguing
against such rules. If, however, rules could be observed as impediments to knowledge
and decision-making, they should be avoided or new rules developed that conform to the
lifestyle of the people.
The argument here is that we need to accept reality the way it is and derive means of
confronting business situations. Realism recognises that people are not objects to be
studied by reliance on the positivist approach alone. Their opinions change with
situational factors. Whereas the need for principles in life could be critical, a review of
those could also be necessary to keep pace with circumstances as they arise. Now I would
like you to pause here and do the following activity.
Activity 3A
Much of social science research tends to be realistic, can you explain why?
Social science research constructs reality by harmonising both the positivist and
interpretivist approaches. While realists take into account that in the long process of life
there are applicable rules and principles that people need to understand the world of
business and need to accept reality the way it is and derive means of confronting
business situations. Realism recognises that people are not objects to be studied by
reliance on the positivist approach alone. Their opinions change with situational factors.
Whereas the need for principles in life could be critical, a review of those could also be
necessary to keep pace with circumstances as they arise.
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2.0 Choosing a Research Approach

One of the most interesting aspects of conducting a research is the choice of your
research approach. Research is mostly about developing a theory or basis for
understanding, which you ought to try and relate to your research findings and
conclusions. The manner in which you develop or create the theory may not be clear at
first. For all research projects, however, there are only two approaches namely the
deductive and the inductive approach.
(a) Deductive approach

The deductive approach calls for the researcher to first adopt a perspective that he or she
intends to pursue about a particular relationship between two or more variables. Thus you
could propose that there is a positive relationship between, say employee performance
and job satisfaction. You would have developed a theory and hypothesis that you should
be able to assert whether your research finding confirmed or could not agree with it.
For this you need a quantitative measure that could be used to support and explain the
relationship between the variables. You would realise as you go into the actual process of
carrying out the research that the aspect of measuring the relationship would not be easy
unless you define your concepts clearly. You will need to know exactly, as per the
example above, what constitutes employee performance and job satisfaction in your
research. For these could be broader concepts that a number of researchers may attempt
to verify their relationship, however, with different definition constituents, hence various
perspectives and understanding.
The final stage is to subject the hypothetical relationship to empirical testing to deduce
the outcome that could confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification.
(b) Inductive approach

The inductive approach on the other hand would demand that data about the research be
collected before a theory and hypothetical relationship is developed. Thus you could
enter the work environment and start asking employees questions about the influence of
commitment to work on how work tasks are accomplished. The purpose of the
questioning in whatever the format is to obtain reliable data from the employees such that
you can empathise with them about the work environment. Your job would then be to
analyse the data and formulate a theory that hypothetical suggest that there is some
relationship between employee performance and job satisfaction.
3.0 Research Strategy

Your research strategy should be a general plan specifying in details how you intend to
execute the research. It should be developed towards answering the research question
showing very clearly that you thought about the whole process of how you intend to
collect data and why you have chosen the data collection method you have adopted. Your
research strategy should contain the research objectives and details on how you intend to
achieve them.
A research strategy should enable you to answer questions of why you chose a particular
research topic, organisation and the particular group people to whom questions would be
directed. It should also enable you to understand why you think you would not achieve
the same objectives using other organisations or departments.
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There are different research strategies that you, as a researcher can use. You are therefore
to choose a strategy that helps you best answer the research question. Some of the most
common social science research strategies are the survey and case study methods. In the
natural sciences experiments are commonly used. Since your research will be social
science based we shall explore the survey and case study methods to assist you in the
successful execution of your research.
(a) Survey
The survey strategy is currently the most economic and widely used strategy for
obtaining data for research purposes. Normally a questionnaire that has standardised
questions to be asked to all interviewees is used. This enables the researcher to collect
enormous data on prescribed questions about a sizeable population and allows for
research replication and comparisons since interviewees answer the same set of
questions. Perhaps one of the greatest advantages of the survey procedure is that it allows
for scientific analysis of data using different computer packages and software.
Like all research methods, however, the survey procedure has its disadvantages. This
often owes to poorly constructed questions that are not easily understood by participants,
leading to varied interpretations that could allow for poor comparisons in the analysis of
data. The use of a questionnaire, as opposed to direct interviews is also likely to
compromise the ability to make follow-ups by the researcher on questions that are not
clearly set or open-ended questions. As the questionnaire cannot ask all questions on a
particular subject matter, the research participants may feel inadequately prompted to
answer short questions that deter full explanation. There is, therefore, the problem of
carefully designing the questionnaire, testing it for fitness of purpose including the pilot
testing that often consumes time.
The survey method, nevertheless, allows the researcher much control and a degree of
independence over the research process. It may be used for both the deductive and
inductive approaches.
(b) Case study

A case study method can be both more involving and a bit complicated in that several
data collection methods may be used. Here the researcher goes into the organisation and
engages in full contact with the subjects being studied. It has been regarded as a method
to be employed when there is need to get the contextual feel of the work environment.
Questionnaires, interviews, documentary analysis and even observations can all be used
to gather data about the research question.
In as much as this strategy is considered an invaluable tool to challenge existing theory

and formulation of better hypothesis, the existence and preference for more scientific
strategies has rendered it less pragmatic. How you collect data will depend on the data
type and the most convenient way of doing so. Data can be classified into two categories,
primary and secondary data. Primary data is new data collected directly from research
participants using different methods of interviews. Secondary data on the other hand can
be obtained from a number of sources, for example, literature that could include journals,
books, magazines, the internet and a host of other sources. There are several methods that
can be used to effectively collect data for research purposes. The principal methods
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commonly employed in research include different kinds of interviews and questionnaires.

Data, however, may also be collected through observations on the research environment.
4.0 Data Collection Techniques

There are established methods or techniques of collecting and recording data. These
techniques or methods are explained below.
(a) Collecting data using interviews

Interviews are normally used to gather detailed, qualitative descriptions about people and
other things of interest to the researcher. They provide rich data that gives a broader
picture of the area under evaluation. At times interviews highlight issues not initially
considered or information that is useful for interpreting quantitative data collected
through other methods. A beautiful aspect of interviews in research could be that both
literate and illiterate participants may be interviewed as they allow clarification of
questions in the process. Interviews, however, are sometimes found to be difficult to
implement.
Activity 3B
Give two disadvantages of collecting data using interviews.
Interviews may be difficult to conduct upon targeted members who do not have
time to be interviewed.
Some participants simply become intimidated when interviewed and this could
have a negative impact on the results of the interview.
Documentation of information from the participants can also be time consuming

and may require the help of someone versed in qualitative analysis.
For purposes of understanding, we shall distinguish between group interviews or focus

groups and one-on-one interviews. Let us consider one-on-one interviews.
(a) One-on-one interviews

These are conducted one-on-one with targeted samples of people who could be
administrators, families or community members. They may be conducted in person or by
phone. Interview questions are generally open-ended and responses may be thoroughly
documented detailed notes. One-on-one interviews may be categorised into three as
follows; structured, semi structured and unstructured.
Structured interviews are based on standard questionnaires prepared by the researcher.

As a researcher you read out questions and record the responses on a standardised
schedule. You would have direct contact with the respondent by way of clarifying
questions and maintaining the tone of your voice to avoid difference of interpretations by
various respondents.
With unstructured interviews there are no standardised questions. The research topic is
explored in-depth. All you need is clarity about the research topic. The respondent is
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given the opportunity to talk freely about matters relevant to the topic. The interview is
focused by the manner in which questions are answered by the respondent as opposed to
a situation where the researcher could dominate the proceedings.
Semi-structured interviews, like structured interviews, have the basis of pre-set themes
and questions. The way you ask them makes the difference. Here you may omit certain
questions or devise new questions during the interview process depending on your
relationship with the respondent as guided by the research topic and the organisational
context. You will not be rigid on the number or order of questions as the ultimate
objective will be to explore the research topic as much as possible.
In other words, it could be reasonable to assert that semi-structured interviews are a

combination of both the structured and the unstructured interviews in that they involve
standardised questions, a characteristic of the structured approach as well as a less
informal way of questioning, which relates to the unstructured interview setting.
(b) Focus Groups

Another way of obtaining data in an interview setting is through the use of focus groups.
This entails a carefully planned discussion to gather ideas on a particular area of interest.
Focus groups do not provide an environment for consensual understanding over a topic
of discussion but are meant to solicit opinions that could vary between participants.
If you are to use focus groups, you will have the advantage of asking participants follow-
up questions to enable you to obtain detailed information about your research topic, more
than you could through a standard questionnaire. You would also learn more from ideas
of the group members and stand a better chance to sharpen you analytical skills,
something that is usually accomplished with small groups.
As a researcher you should watch out for dominant group members who could stifle good
but dissenting views and close the opportunity for thorough understanding of the research
topic. You will need the experience of seasoned evaluators to control the discussion and
record the proceedings.
Go through the illustration below. It is a quick reminder to the types of interviews we

have just discussed.
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Qualitative interviews
One to one
One to many
Face-to-face Telephone Focus group

interviews interviews interviews
Fig. 3.1: Types of interviews
In the next part of the topic we will study about collecting data using a questionnaire.
(b) Collecting data using a questionnaire

One other very effective data collection method is use of a questionnaire. The important
factor about collecting data using a questionnaire is that it should be prepared and
verified for fitness of purpose before use. This involves checking both its reliability and
validity.
Issues of validity are to do with whether the instrument you have designed will produce
information that measures what you say you are measuring and reliability concerns
whether the instrument (questionnaire) will be interpreted the same way by different
respondents.
(i) How to establish the validity of the instrument

When using a questionnaire the researcher has to be sure of what you intend to measure
hence the need to define it clearly. You will need to develop questions on the area. At
times it is advisable to consider locating a ready-made instrument related to your
evaluation focus and topic of interest. They could guide you in designing your own
instrument. Please note that a wholesale adoption of somebody’s instrument may not be a
good way to facilitate learning. It is important that you convince your tutor that you have
exerted effort in your work as a whole.
You will also need to consult with your stakeholders to develop a draft instrument. As a
next step you should locate experts in your area of study who will review the instrument
they should check the content, format and assess the fitness of the instrument to the
targeted research participants. For them to achieve that you should have fully informed
them about the purpose of the instrument. They would comment and make
recommendations for revision of the instrument where necessary. Your duty here would
be to consider those and act accordingly.
You should then select at least ten participants from your target audience to field-test the
instrument to review the wording, content, clarity and length. For instance, if the
instrument is meant for public servants or management the field test should be performed
on them. You would then have to review the results received and make improvements on
your instrument.
The next step would be to check the instrument for reliability, as we shall discuss in the
next part of the topic.
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(ii) Checking the instrument for reliability

Checking the instrument for reliability is basically about the consistency or accuracy in
the instrument. You should ask yourself a question as to whether the instrument
consistently bears the same results with the same group of people under the same
condition.
Select about 15 to 20 members of your target audience and allow them to complete the
questionnaire twice in two different time periods. You could do so within a week after
they had completed the first pilot test. You should compare each score for the two time
periods. There could be some differences but a high percentage score would confirm the
reliability of the instrument. Normally 75% and above is considered sufficient. You will
need to review the questions that received low percentage agreement. These may even be
deleted or replaced with better questions. Where the agreement between percentages
scores is generally low you may have to repeat the test for validity on the instrument.
It is important to appreciate that lately there are computer programs designed to

scientifically check the validity and reliability of research instruments. These, however,
should not render the manual approach less useful.
(iii) Guidelines about using a questionnaire

Once you have completed the process of designing and checking the questionnaire for
reliability and validity, you should, as a researcher, consider the following steps about
administering it to the respondents;
1. Cover letter
Always ensure that a questionnaire is sent with a cover letter that shows its title,
the purpose of the study, the reason for the study and why the respondent was
selected to participate. You could also mention the sponsor of the research and
contact details where applicable. Respondents would need to know the deadline
for completing and returning the questionnaire.
2. Instructions
Respondents will need to know how the instrument is to be filled. Some
questionnaires require respondents to answer ‘yes’ and ‘no’ questions only. On
top of that, answering a question could involve circling the answer of your choice,
filling blank spaces or even using check marks. There could be open-ended
questions or the need for the respondent to skip particular sections that do not
apply to him or her. All these would render the instrument useful if they are
clearly spelt out to the respondent.
3. Questions structure
It is important that similar questions be grouped together and there be some
indication when moving into another set of questions.
4. Demographic questions
It is recommended that questions about age, gender, educational background and
ethnicity be put at the end of the questionnaire.
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5. Thank the respondents

Do not forget to thank the respondent for completing your questionnaire.
At the end of the questionnaire you should have information on how the respondent
should dispose of the questionnaire. If it is to be mailed, there should be the address to
which it should be sent. If you intend to collect it yourself, that should also be specified.
(c) Collecting data by observation

Sometimes when conducting research, there could be the need to get first hand data by
watching how people or an object being studied behaves in a research setting or
environment without direct contact with them. As a researcher using the observation
technique, you could have to set up the research environment such that it provides all
what you intend to study. For instance, a business operation could decide to evaluate the
user-friendliness of a new computer keyboard without having to ask questions to the
users. In this particular instance, an external evaluator may be put into the research
environment to deduce that by simply watching computer operators using the new
keyboard and report the results to the business management.
Where people are involved, the observation method may, in addition to indirect
evaluation, involve asking questions to the respondents to validate what is being
observed. For instance, whilst watching the respondents using the new key board, you
could also ask them questions to see if their responses agree with what you see. This
makes it possible to make better business decisions regardless of what your customers
say. For example, when asked questions about the importance of testing for HIV and
going public with their HIV/AIDS status, most people agreed that it is important to know
your status so that you take precautionary measures to avoid re-infection and new
HIV/AIDS cases. Upon observing re-infection and new HIV/AIDS cases, it was clear
that the government cannot rely on what people say. This rendered contraception in the
form of condoms (male and female) very necessary. The observation technique may
therefore be used to supplement data gathered through other methods.
Observations can be highly structured, with provision for recording specific behaviours at
given times, or unstructured taking a ‘look and see’ approach.
(i) Advantages
The method has the following advantages:
The observation method has been found ideal for obtaining detailed and context-
related data
Facts not mentioned in an interview may be realised
Tests for reliability of responses to questionnaires are made possible through this
method
Trained evaluators are particularly useful in this approach to give your research
an external perspective and provide less biased descriptions.
(ii) Disadvantages
The challenges associated with this method are that:
It could be time consuming and labour intensive, hence costly to implement
Observers must be trained
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Observers presence in a research environment may influence respondents’

perceptions leading to bias
Also, bearing on human nature, the observations conducted may not hold over
time
Ethical issues relating to violation of privacy and confidentiality may arise
where persons being studied are not aware of that whereas the decisions made
out of the research affect them.
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) summed up the observation technique in the
diagram below. Can you relate it to the theory provided?
Participant as Complete
Observer Participant
Observer as Complete
Participant Observer
Fig. 3.2: Observation techniques
(iii) Advantages of using different data collection methods

As much as it is important to grasp each of the various data collection techniques, there
are advantages associated with using a combination of these to improve the way your
data is collected, consequently your research. A combination of research techniques is
known to reduce bias that could be a product of a particular research method. For
instance, the use of the observation method may not allow the respondent
self-expression, meaning that the researcher could misinterpret the participant’s
understanding of the research topic. This could be arrested by a follow-up interview of
the participant on the subject matter.
Basically a combination of methods is likely to give a more comprehensive

understanding of the topic under study. Thus, as a researcher, you may find the necessity
to perhaps combine the following qualitative and quantitative research techniques:
Structured interviews using open-ended questions
Focus group discussions, and
Participant observation.
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These are likely to assist in exploration and provide insight into human behaviour by
finding answers to ‘why’, ‘what’, and ‘how’ related questions. At the same time
structured questionnaires could enable you to gather quantitative answers to questions to
do with the size, distribution and association of certain variables in a population you are
studying. It is therefore simply magnificent to combine research techniques!
Go through the exercise below to test your comprehension of the topic.

1. In your own words, describe what a research approach entails and the two
approaches to research.
2. What do you think is the purpose of a research strategy?
3. Describe the major differences between a survey and a case study. When do you
consider the best situation to use each of the strategies?
4. Elaborate on any of the two methods or techniques used to gather data and
suggest how your selected methods could be intertwined for a more informative
data gathering process.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of collecting data by observation.

1. A research approach relates to the way in which you plan to go about the research
process. For instance, you could decide to formulate a hypothesis about the
relationship between chosen variables and then embark on a research to find more
about the hypothesis. As you will realise later, sometimes the hypothesis is proven
true, in other cases it is not substantiated by available facts hence not proven. This
would be the deductive approach. The inductive approach on the other hand requires
that you begin the research process by reviewing literature that would guide you
towards the formulation of hypothesis that would be tested for proof. These are the
two research approaches.
A research strategy is about the process of how you intend to collect data relating to
your research topic. It seeks to answer questions relating to why you would prefer, for
instance, a survey procedure as compared to a case study scenario. In some cases, you
could even decide to combine the strategies for a more informative research as the 2
strategies are likely to complement each other.
2. A survey procedure is characterised by the following:

The use of a questionnaire
The instrument may be posted or self-administered
Information gathered is solely at the discretion of the respondent and the
questionnaire design
It allows for statistical analysis of data.
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A case study involves the use of questionnaires, oral interviews complemented by

observation on the subject of study. It is a very comprehensive way of analysis that
may be preferred for an exhaustive study. Case studies are however seldom used
where there is need for scientific analysis.
3. The two methods chosen for this exercise are interviews and observations as they are
likely to complement one another. Interviews involve direct questions asked to the
respondent. They could be in the form of set questions or spontaneous questions.
The observation method involves looking at the object of study and making personal
observations. The two methods are likely to complement each other where questions
asked in the interview about followed up with direct observations to verify
responses. For instance, if a respondent answered ‘yes’ to the question ‘Do you sleep
at 8 o’clock’, the researcher could actually see to it that the answer was correct or
incorrect.
4. Observation Method (Advantages and Disadvantages).
Advantages
It helps to obtain detailed and context-related data
Facts not mentioned in an interview may be realised
Tests for reliability of responses to questionnaires are made possible through this
method.
Disadvantages
It could be time consuming and labour intensive hence costly to implement
Observers must be trained and their presence in a research environment may
influence respondents’ perceptions leading to bias
The observations conducted may not hold over time
Ethical issues relating to violation of privacy and confidentiality may arise.
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9.0 References
Babbie, E. (2004). The Practice of Social Research. London: Thomson & Wadsworth,
Tenth Edition.
Baker, T.L. (1999). Doing Social Research. New York, McGraw-Hill, Third Edition.
Bless, C. & Higson-Smith, C. (2000). Fundamentals of Social Research Methods: An

African Perspective. Cape Town, Juta. Third Edition.
Bouma, G.D. and Lin, R. (2005). The Research Process, Melborne, Oxford University
Press.
Carter, K.A. and Beaulieu, L. J. (1992). “Conducting a Community Needs Assessment:

Primary Data collection Techniques”, In Florida Cooperative Extension service,
University of Florida.
Duval, Y. (2005). “Primary Data Collection Methods: Survey Design”, In ARTNeT

Capacity Building Workshop on Trade Research. Bangkok: Thailand.
Elmendorf, W.F. and Luloff, A.E. (2001). “Using Qualitative Data Collection Methods
when Planning for Community Forests”, In Journal of Aboriculture. Vol 27(3).
Harvard Graduate School of Education (2004). “Detangling Data Collection: Methods

for Gathering data”, In Harvard Family Research Project, Number 5.
Maylor, H. and Blackman, K. (2005) Researching Business Management. Plagrave

Macmillan, Hampshire.
Neuman, W. L. (2007). Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches. Second Edition. Boston, Pearson.
Robichaud, K. and Gordon, M. (2002). An Assessment of Data Collection Techniques

for Highway Agencies. University of Brunswick: Canada.
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, (2003). Research methods for Business Students.
Pearson Education: England.
Taylor-Powell, E. and Steele, S. (1996). “Collecting Evaluation Data”, In Program

Development and Evaluation. Cooperative Extension: University of Wisconsin.
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Unit 4
Data Analysis and Report Writing
Unit Team
J Dikinya
M Seeletso
M Tlotleng
R Molebatsi
G Gatsha
A Ntuma
C BOCODOL
BOCODOL 2008
Unit 4
Data Analysis and Report Writing
Overview
Welcome to Unit 4 of the Research Method course. In the previous, topic you were
advised to start working on your research project. You started with a question or a
problem and a set of related objectives then collected related literature and data. The data
you have collected may be from different sources and is in many forms like words,
images or numbers. You have now reached a stage where you have to draw meaning
from this data to answer the question you are investigating. The methods and procedures
applied to draw meaning from data is referred to as data analysis. Data analysis is an
important stage of the research process, which will enable you to get answers to the
question you are investigating. It is a process of organising and interpreting data with the
intent to extract meaningful and useful information.
In this unit we shall look at specific concepts and areas of data analysis. In other words,
you will be familiar with all the concepts and procedures used for data analysis and
interpretation. In the first topic you will acquire skills to prepare data for analysis. Before
using your data, you need to organise and arrange it in such a way that it will be
manageable for use. Once data is arranged, it has to be closely examined to draw patterns
and trends that will be in turn interpreted to perceive/draw conclusions. You may have
collected either qualitative or quantitative data or both. In Topic 2, we will cover both
qualitative and quantitative approaches to data analysis. I hope you remember that
qualitative analysis focuses on interpretation of words and quantitative analysis on
numerical data.
Topic 3, on Report Writing, will take you through the last stage of the research process. It
gives you all the guidelines or stages of your report writing. As you write your report, it
is important to consult your tutor to guide you through every stage before final
submission for grading.
Aims of This Unit

At the end of this unit, you are expected to be:
familiar with the concepts and procedures used for data analysis and
interpretation
able to analyse and interpret data and to draw conclusions as per the objectives of
your study
able to write a research report and a summary of findings and recommendations
as per the objectives of the study
able to disseminate the findings and implement recommendations where possible
familiar with the structure and process of writing a research report
able to refine you report writing skills with regard to the structure, content and
style of writing.
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Unit Structure
This unit comprises the following three topics:
Topic 1: Preparing Data for Analysis

Topic 2: Methods Used in the Process of Data Analysis
Topic 3: Report Writing
Time
You will require about 12 hours to study this unit.
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Topic 1
Preparing Data for Analysis
Introduction
You have probably collected too much or insufficient data and in different formats. After
collecting data what do you do with it? Raw data is the type of data that has not been
processed. At this stage the data is still not in a form that can be used to derive meaning
from. In other words not all data collected is useful or appropriate to the intended subject.
Data has to be cleaned and organised to make it useful. This topic will therefore take you
through steps of preparing data or changing data to make it ready for analysis. There are
different levels/parts/stages of data analysis or processing. The key factors considered at
each level of data processing includes, the purpose of the study and the target audience.
The procedures and methods chosen must conform to the question and purpose of the
study. Data analysis as a process therefore requires extensive planning. The first step in
preparing data for analysis is planning followed by cleaning and organising data.
Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson you should be able to:
make a preparation plan for data analysis

clean data for analysis
prepare tools for data analysis
code and catalogue data for analysis.
Topic Contents List

1.0 What is data analysis? 151
2.0 Planning for data analysis 151
3.0 Cleaning data for analysis 152
4.0 Organising data for analysis 153
5.0 Coding data for analysis 154
6.0 Summary 156
Time
You will need three hours to work on this topic.
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1.0 What is Data Analysis?

Data analysis has been introduced to you as an important stage in the research process.
Before you make any preparations for data analysis, you have to understand what it is.
Let us look at few descriptions of data analysis.
Bodgan and Biklen (1992) described data analysis as follows:
Data analysis is the process of systematically searching and

arranging the interview transcripts, field notes, and other
materials that you accumulate to increase your own
understanding of them, and to enable you to present what you
have discovered to others. Analysis involves working with data,
organising them, breaking them to manageable units,
synthesising them, searching for patterns, discovering what is
important and what is to be learned, and deciding what you will
tell others.
Joel, H. Levine (1996) describes data analysis as:
Data analysis is a body of methods that help to describe facts, detect

patterns, develop explanations, and test hypotheses. It is used in all of
the sciences. It is used in business, in administration, and in policy.
Wikipedia :
Data analysis is the process of looking at and summarising data with the
intent to extract useful information and develop conclusions.
From the three descriptions we deduce that data analysis is a process which occurs in
stages. The first description actually outlines the process involved in the preparation of
data, where you have to arrange and organise data in such a way that you will be able to
understand it. The process further involves stages where you have to synthesise data and
search for patterns and trends.
Data analysis is therefore the process of arranging your thoughts cohesively so that it
lends to clear understanding by those to whom it is intended to benefit. In this process
you are likely to apply several techniques depending on the nature of the data you have
collected and also on the type of research you embarked on. For instance, a qualitative
research process may not be suitable for analysis using qualitative techniques. In some
instances, you may find it more suitable to merge the two analyses for a more coherent
report. Let’s now look in more details the stages involved in the preparation for data
analysis.
2.0 Planning for Data Analysis
Data analysis is not just something you dive into without planning. Like all processes the
first step of data analysis is planning. The planning actually walks you through all the
necessary preparatory steps. The steps outlined will help you focus on the purpose of the
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study. Furthermore, it will direct you to the objectives of the study as you go through the
analytical process of data.
Activity 1A
Reflecting on any activity (e.g. a wedding, party,) that you have planned for in the past.
1. List things that you should consider when planning for this activity.
2. What do you think your plan must involve?
1. As mentioned earlier, first and foremost an effective plan must be relevant to the
purpose of the study. Therefore the purpose and the objectives of the event must be
considered for this event.
The audience must also be considered because the purpose is drawn from the needs
of the audience.
The availability of the resources (for example, in the case of data analysis, the
resources might be computers or certain softwares).
Skills required to use the available resources and perform the activity must be
considered for that activity.
The methods and strategies to perform tasks also have to be considered
Time frame is another factor to be considered
2. If you have all factors to be considered in mind the next step is to draw a plan which
involves the following:
list of tasks to be performed (well arranged)

how the activity is going to be coordinated
a working schedule
checklists of the process
list of tools/instruments required
the costs involved.
On completion of planning the next step is to clean data for analysis.
3.0 Cleaning Data for Analysis

The data collected my contain some variables irrelevant to the subject of study. It must be
cleaned to remove duplicates and useless or unwanted variables. Cleaning of data just
like any other cleaning process e.g. laundry is done in stages and requires the use of some
tools. Before you clean your clothes, you have to assess the type of material in terms of
texture and colour, the size of your laundry and sort them according to your needs and
how dirty your clothes are. This will help to determine the type of detergent,
water temperature and tools required to clean your clothes. Like-wise, it is
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very important to understand the structure and size of your data. You must be able to
determine amount of unwanted information from the raw data.
Activity 1B
Reflecting from the laundry cleaning example described above, explain how you can
clean your raw data in preparation for data analysis. Explain the stages involved in the
cleaning process.
First it is necessary to know the type of data you are going to deal with. You may have
received some data in text or numerical format. You have to check if the variables within
your data set are well structured. The format of the data will determine the type of
treatment required.
Secondly, as you clean the data you may find out if it too large or inadequate for your
analysis. In case the data is large, you may start by creating data sets related to certain
variables. Altering or removing all that is not needed will follow this.
In instances where data is insufficient, further investigations may be them required to fill
on some missing variables. The size of data may require you to sort by removing or
extracting only what is needed. Some concepts may be merged to come up with a
variable.
Thirdly, you have to choose your analysis platform. Large data may require the use of a
computer software. There are proprietary soft wares such as SPSS, Strata and HLM.
These can be downloaded from the Internet .There are also some free and open softwares
for data analysis, e.g. Weft QDA for qualitative analysis. During this preparation stage
you will have to check if these soft wares are available to you, and more importantly if
you are able to use the soft wares.
4.0 Organising Data for Analysis

For the data to be analysed, it should be organised in a way that makes the work easier.
You however will have first developed a plan about how your data will be organised in
the process of collection to simplify the process of analysis. For example, suppose you
had interviewed some research participants and recorded the interview proceedings on
tape. You will definitely find it necessary to label the tapes so that you know the contents
of the different tapes you have, as well as the participant. If you received questionnaires
by mail, you may have to record dates of receiving, grouping them as well as code-
numbering them. The significance of using codes is to avoid using participants’ names
that could render the research less ethical. You will also have to check that the
questionnaires were completed correctly and without errors to avoid delaying the process
of analysis. Organising data therefore is all about getting it into a format that is easy to
work with. You should have an overall picture of the complete set of data after
organising it. You could then take precautionary steps to ensure that such data will not be
lost by, for instance:
developing a format to store data

backing up computer disks
setting up a system to track all data
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setting up a protocol for accessing data to safeguard confidential and more

important data.
You should now be ready to analyse the data! Table 6.1 below may be your data
organisation check list.
Table 1: Data organisation checklist
1. How will your data be organised as they are received?

2. Where will the data be stored?
3. Who will have access to the data?
We have discussed that organisation of data involves the use of a computer as it can
easily handle large data sets and process them faster than if they are done manually. To
enable the computer to do its bit, the data need to be prepared in a computer usable
format. The process through which data is made computer usable for easy and fast
processing is referred to as coding.
5.0 Coding Data For Analysis

Before data can be put in any computer software it needs to be converted to a computer
friendly format. This means assigning numbers to each category of the variables you are
working with. The variables need to have a name. It is common that some variables will
readily produce numerical data. Some will, however, produce categories of one type or
the other. One consideration to make is to determine what type of data we are dealing
with. The different types of data collected are: nominal data, ordinal data, interval data,
ratio data, discrete data and continuous data.
Nominal data has variable indicators divided into categories. The categories are simply
different indicators of that variable and cannot be related. That is, none possess more
qualities than the other. We get nominal data from counting and placing things in a
category for example when we make ahead count of males and females. This data is
called nominal because it does not allow us much room to manipulate it. The categories
of nominal data are based on names with no order.
Ordinal data has variable indicators that can be ordered in a way that presupposes rank.
Like in nominal data above, we get ordinal data by counting things and placing them in
categories. However, in ordinal data we have order and ranking of data for instance
categories may be higher or lower and more or less than other categories.
Examples of both nominal and ordinal variables and their indicators are given below.
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Nominal data (variable) Indicators

Marital status Married, Single, Divorced, Widowed
Race White, Black, Mongoloid
Ordinal data (variable) Indicators

Educational level Primary, Secondary, Tertiary
Performance Poor, Average, Good, Excellent
The table below gives a brief illustration of how our data will look like in a spread sheet
format. The data displays four variables after ten respondents have been interviewed.
Respondent Age Sex Marital status Educational level

1 50 female married primary
2 90 Female widowed none
3 25 Male married secondary
4 15 Male single primary
5 91 Male widowed primary
6 45 Female married secondary
7 23 Female married tertiary
8 45 Female married tertiary
9 18 Female single secondary
10 78 Male divorced none
Another good example of ordinal data is the data we get from questionnaire that use a
scale of 1 to 5, with 1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 neutral, 4 disagree and 5 strongly
disagree. A scale of this kind is called Likert scale. When we analyse data from such a
scale, we would consider a response indicated as 2 (agree) to be more positive than
responses 3, 4 or 5 namely neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. However, 2 would
still be considered to be less positive than responses from 1 that is strongly agree.
Please note that in such a scale, it is the rank order that we can only make out or infer
from the data. We are unable to tell why there is a certain order and similarly in terms of
quantity we may not tell how much different.
Interval data analysis

When we deal with interval data we are able to engage in addition and subtraction
processes. In interval data we speak of ‘more than’ and ‘less than’. We are therefore
able to compare and contrast. An example of interval data in this case, could be data
collected in years, that is; 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995 and 2005. This data differs in terms of
earlier or later than and also we are able to tell the time span interval, hence it allows us
to carry out addition and subtraction to contrast the difference between given periods for
instance 1980-85 can be compared to 2000-05.
Ratio data analysis

In ratio data, we tend to compare and contrast data using multiplication and division. We
deal with ratio data when it comes to things like distances, incomes and weights where
the starting point is zero. Because of the high mathematical manipulation ratio data are
the highest level of data compared to the previous data we have dealt with above.
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Discrete data
When we deal with discrete data we focus on whole units, for example in a family we
talk of a family having 2 children or 4 children.
Continuous data
In continuous data our focus is on issues that normally keep increasing like age, weight
and height. We measure these to the nearest small unit. When we deal with continuous
data, it is advisable to use a range, or nearest to or in the case of age last birthday.
(a) Data Analysis Software for Coding
One of the most popularly used software for data handling and analysis is SPSS. Our
discussion will assume we are using SPSS for data capturing and analysis. The above
variables discussed in the examples above can be coded as follows;
Variable Indicators Coding scheme

Marital status married 1
single 2
widowed 3
divorced 4
Race white 1
black 2
mongoloid 3
Educational level primary 1
secondary 2
tertiary 3
Performance poor 1
average 2
good 3
excellent 4
Assigning codes makes our variables numeric, although the codes may at times be
representations of non-numeric information. Quantitative data is about numerical data. If
most of the data you collected contains numbers, you could use descriptive statistics to
evaluate and give it some meaning.
6.0 Summary
Data has to be cleaned and effectively organised for analysis. This preparation stage for
data analysis starts with planning. Questions and checklists designed during the planning
stage will assist you to organise and code your data.
Organising data therefore is all about getting it into a format that is easy to work with.
You should have an overall picture of the complete set of data after organising it. The
process of organising data may differ from one individual to the other.
Coding is a process which involves categorising and labelling or indexing collected data.
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1. To be able to analyse data, it must be organised in a way understood by the
researcher. Give three possible ways in which data may be organised.
(3 marks)
2. What is coding? (2 marks)
3. What is the importance of coding data? (3 marks)
4. Give three examples of data that can be coded and three examples
of data that is not coded (6 marks)
5. Briefly explain how you would organise and code quantitative

data for analysis. (6 marks)
1. Data may be organised on the basis of:

(a) Protocols on how to receive and record the information
(b) Labelling data as it is collected and received
(c) Checking to ensure that research participants complete all parts of the
research instrument correctly or that all interviewers use the correct
question procedure.
2. This means assigning numbers to each category of the variables we are working
with. The variables need to have a name.
3. Coding the data makes it easier to search the data, to make comparisons and to
identify any patterns that require further investigation. Codes can be based on:
Themes, Topics
Ideas, Concepts
Terms, Phrases
Keywords.
4. Things that can be coded tend to be descriptive because it makes it easier to

explain the phenomena. However, when you are coding it is advisable to move
from descriptive codes to more analytic ones as quickly as possible.
Behaviours, specific acts
Events
Activities
Strategies, practice or tactics
Meanings
Participation
Relationships or interaction
Conditions or constraints
Consequences
Settings
Adapted from Bogdan and Biklen, 1992; Strauss, 1987; Mason, 1996; and Gibbs,
2006)
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5. When we prepare data for analysis two processes are usually involved i.e. coding
of data and grouping it. When we speak of coding, we mean assigning or giving
a number to a piece of data or group of data for instance 1 may stand for ‘male’
2 may stand for ‘female’, 3 for ‘age’ and so fourth. Coding of data is important,
because in any quantitative analysis we only use numbers. This therefore means
that all data material we collect in the form of words and pictures need to be
transformed into a format that is suitable for quantitative analysis that is
numbers.
For large scale research it is necessary to establish categories of data and assign
the category a number, for instance if you have over 500 respondents and you
want to find out their jobs or occupations, you are likely to get 500 words and so
to overcome the challenge you need to come up with fewer categories right a the
start of your research whereby you assign each job category and your
respondents can choose the category that suits their job. This will afford you to
get your data in the form of numbers straight away rather than 500 words. It
makes analysis easier.
Once data has been collected, it is critically important to group it in a manner

that makes it easy to analyse. Data should be arranged in an orderly fashion. It
is important to note how often certain things occur and count how often these
occur or happen. When you do this you are actually organising your data,
making a tally of the frequencies. The advantage of making frequencies is that it
gives you a good picture of which frequencies occurred often and makes it easier
to interpret data to explain why certain things occurred more often than others.
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Topic 2
Methods for Data Analysis
Introduction
The first step in data analysis involves the method that you intend to use in the process.
As already learnt from the previous topic, there are two types of data that may be
analysed; quantitative and qualitative data. The method of data analysis that you may
use will therefore depend very much on the type of data at your disposal. If most of the
data you collected contains numbers, then you have quantitative data. If on the other hand
it consists of words, you should be having qualitative data.
For most qualitative data, analysis may begin at the stage of data collection. For example,
consider the use of focus groups in data collection, the transcripts or note books may be
analysed immediately to pave way for follow-up questions. The same could be true with
interviews. In contrast, with quantitative data, the analysis may halt until all the data is
collected. Take for instance, the calculation of mean, median and mode. You may have to
wait until you know the number of cases you have decided to have. Should you calculate
the median using, say five cases when you would finally decide to have more or less,
then you will have to re-calculate those as the number of cases increase or vice-versa.
Learning Objectives
Upon completing this topic two, you should be able to:
describe efficient ways of ordering and summarising qualitative data
explain why it is essential to start summarising and analysing qualitative data
during field work
list the major steps in analysing qualitative data and drawing conclusions
describe data through frequency distributions, percentages and proportions
identify independent variables that are necessary for the analysis of data
select appropriate statistics and charts for different types of data.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Qualitative analysis 160
2.0 Quantitative analysis 165
3.0 Summary 166
References 168
Time
You will need three hours to work on this topic.
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1.0 Qualitative Analysis

If most of your data collection was done using individual interviews or focus groups,
involving open-ended questions, or case studies, then your data will be in the form of
words (qualitative data). At this juncture, you will have to read the data and sort it out.
Qualitative data requires that it should be organised in the manner it is classified and
arranged so that the words contained therein are properly contextualised for the
understanding of those reading your research. Thus you will need to analyse the content
of your transcripts.
Analysing qualitative content has a lot to do with reading and finding themes, topics and
patterns, coding and categorising them. By coding you are attaching alpha-numeric
symbols to phrases and sentences that follow a similar pattern or theme. The process
assists you to have similar themes together for further analysis. Different methods may be
used to analyse research content. Bogdan and Biklen, for instance has ten (10) coding
categories for sorting qualitative data:
(a) Strategy analysis: Involves different ways of looking at things, methods and
techniques that may be used to go about in your research. A researcher may, for instance,
decide to follow the positivist, interpretivist or realist approach (These approaches are
discussed in Unit 3).
Let us take this example. Montgomery (1990) attempted a vivid explanation about
‘freedom fighters’, ‘terrorists’ and ‘guerrillas’. He mentions that different people have
varied interpretations about those in this line of work. For instance, a person who
supports the course of the activities of such people is likely to refer to them as ‘freedom
fighters’. On the other hand, those who do not like their activities may refer to them as
‘terrorists’. This brings in an element of subjectivity depending on who is presenting the
subject of discussion. A positivist would not want to apply the subjective meaning in the
interest of the perception that to explain something, you need to detach your personal
feelings and be objective. Thus, the word guerrilla would be close to an objective
interpretation.
If you, however, are interpretivist inclined, you may argue that situational factors should
be used to determine what they are, rather than making generalisations in whatever they
do at a particular point in time. You could argue that when such groups massacred
defenceless people, they were not ‘guerrillas’ but ‘terrorists’. The day they defended a
good cause, they were not ‘terrorists’ but ‘freedom fighters’. Thus the ‘guerrilla’
interpretation here would not hold water.
Activity 2A
What do you think a realist would say?
The reality is that people have different views about different things depending on larger
social forces and how these affect their lives. There is therefore no single way of
interpreting phenomena that is better than the way people feel about something. In other
words, let people be at liberty to use the term they would prefer on the basis of how the
BOCODOL 160 2008

groups mentioned above affected their lives. ‘Freedom fighters’ , ‘terrorists’ and
‘guerrillas’ are all social constructions that are real.
(b) Context analysis: You will be looking at how to solidify your research using the data
available. Some of the data will assist you to accomplish that, whereas the other may be
discarded.
Activity 2B
Let us attempt a contextual analysis of a passage by Mike and Glenda Smith (1990:145).
“A few years ago it was suggested that English should be abandoned in schools because
it was too time consuming, and irrelevant to the needs of the country. Is this really true?
There are a large number of people who would agree with this suggestion because they
were never able to learn English well enough to get on.”
What is the major decision with regard to the above topical issue?
The major decision to make here is whether English should be abandoned in schools or
not. Different people submitted their opinions about the subject matter. Some were of the
opinion that it is time consuming and irrelevant to the needs of the country. It was
however an issue also that a significant number of those who were against the use of
English did not like it merely because they could not learn it well. One could therefore
argue that the society might not have experienced the benefits of the language since some
never accomplished what they wanted as far as learning the language was concerned.
Should we abandon anything that we seem less competitive to accomplish? Are we
prepared to face the outcomes of our failures in that respect? Why can’t we hear from
those who managed to learn the language? May be learning English is not that time
consuming. Perhaps the language has benefits to some of us. Once abandoned, some of
us are likely to be negatively affected by that. The government might have to allow those
who can learn to do so and those not interested to find other means of livelihood.
(c) Activities: You will consider behaviours that occur on a regular basis. Those are the
kind of behaviours that have a significant impact on the research. They could help us
derive generalisations about the population we are studying.
Activity 2C
Sexual equality is a major issue in Botswana. The government has come up with policies
and laws to bring about equality of treatment and equal distribution of resources between
male and female. For example, the amendment of the Marriages Act to harmonise
property based power relationships between married couples by abolishing the marital
power clause previously enjoyed by males. The question is does this lead to a healthy
marriage?
Some men and women still feel that it was right to have men as heads of families to
control marital property and make the final decision on difficult family matters.
International concern however remains that there is the need to bridge the economic gap
between men and women in Africa. Botswana as part of the global community may not
remain isolated if it is to benefit from the economies of the world. It was therefore not
only a matter of what Batswana wanted, but more of international pressure that the
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country had to adapt to. Botswana’s economy is reliant on exports to the developed
world. Economic sanctions were likely to be a threat if the country was found not to
observe democratic principles.
(d) Definition of the situation: You need to mind what research participants say about
your research topic and the setting for the research. Do they feel free to express
themselves about your topic where they are and how this contributes to your research
findings.
Activity 2D
Let us take a hypothetical situation where an organisation wanted to understand

‘employee motivation towards a given task’. The assignment could be given to a human
resource manager as this is purely a staff issue. Research instruments would be designed
to, for instance, using the survey method to collect data, a questionnaire may be designed
for the purpose. Participants who would be employees may be asked questions relating to
‘what motivates them to perform organisational tasks’ and actually ‘whether they are
currently motivated to do so’.
What do you think their perceptions would be?
Most participants are likely to provide positive responses, i.e. that they are motivated to
perform organisational functions by the current work environment. A few may point out
to difficulties within the work environment and express feelings of merely doing work
task in fear of job losses amid personal responsibilities. Some may even want to retire
early to avoid future problems. One could therefore deduce that may be the first lot of
employees who indicated a positive work environment were expressing duress rather a
true work situation. They did not want management to think that they were not supportive
of executing organisational strategies hence not free to express themselves under current
work conditions.
(e) Events: You could resolve to categorise your data on the basis of what happened to
your research participants in the context of the research environment.
Activity 2E
In line with Activity 2D above, how would you categorise your data on the basis of
participants’ responses?
You could come up with categories like:
(i) Perceived work environment: Here you could rate the work environment as
observed by the employees. You will need to develop an instrument to do so, e.g. a
rating scale.
(ii) Willingness to discharge organisational tasks: This could be where you indicate
the extent to which the employees perform work task willingly. A rating scale
could also apply.
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(iii) Number of employees: You will need to find out the number of each category of
employees within the ‘Perceived work environment’ and ‘Willingness to
discharge organisational tasks’ components.
(iv) Note that more categories could be developed depending on how you want the
data categorised.
(f) Perspectives held by subjects: In this analysis, you consider the participants’ way
of thinking and the ideas they could share.
Activity 2F
Suppose the employees in Activity 2D indicated both feelings of ‘performing work tasks
willingly’ and ‘doing so under duress’. How would you analyse their way of thinking?
The way you collected your data will have some influence on your analysis. For instance
if you used a questionnaire, objectively you could simply point to the data as indicated,
showing the number of employees under both categories without infusing personal
opinion. There, however, could be instances when you also observed the employees at
work such that you could also comment about the style of management at work and how
they influenced the way organisational tasks were undertaken. An authoritative
management style, for instance, would suggest that the employees were not allowed to
express themselves other than to do as they are told.
(g) Subjects’ way of thinking about people and objects: Sometimes you could wish
to go deeper than the participants’ way of thinking and wonder if they understand
each other and their environment.
Activity 2G
What if the employees were observed not to understand the ingredients of a good work
environment?
It becomes the work of the researcher to point out to the anomaly and construct what
could be the ideal work environment. That means perusing literature to support your
argument and subsequently applying the criteria developed to search for the missing link
within the research area. This would in turn allow you to critically examine the given
work environment and provide ground-breaking evidence. Exploratory researches follow
this line of thought.
(h) Processes: You could have quotes and phrases about sequences of events so as to
evaluate changes that occurred over time.
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Activity 2H
The passage below is obtained from a book “Africa: What can be done”
(Turok (1987: 7). Read it and answer the questions that follow:
After two decades of neo-colonialism in Africa the
complexity and pervasiveness of the system have become
evident: it permeates every aspect of society, economic,
social, political and cultural. It can only be overthrown by
political action but for this to occur the character of the
post-independent state and the nature of the social
superstructure must be thoroughly understood.
1. What changes should be observed by states of post-independence Africa?

2. What quotes and phrases can we obtain from the passage?
1. According to Turok, African states need to realise and understand the impact of
colonialism; that current issues in Africa are dominated by what happened during
the colonial era. Africa must therefore forge ways through which the impact will
be neutralised to realise our strategies for a new and truly independent continent.
The observable change is therefore the shift from neo-colonialism to real
independence.
2. We could come up with phrases such as:
Two decades of neo-colonialism in Africa

Neo-colonialism permeates every aspect of society
They help you remember the exact period of neo-colonialism and that Africa of
today has a serious problem to tackle as a result of colonialism in the past.
Quotes could be:
“the character of the post-independent state”

“the nature of the social superstructure”
These quotes would assist you to acknowledge, analyse and suggest the form of state for
Africa of the future, including the new social structures that need be put in place.
(i) Methods: Here you consider analysis procedures, successes, barriers to success,
confrontations and dilemmas. For instance, you could have wanted to apply a
quantitative procedure but realise that it could be difficult to do so in some cases but
you managed to use it in other situations.
(j) Relationships and social structures: In this category, you focus on personal issues
of friendships, romances, enemies, mentors and other personal relationships.
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2.0 Quantitative Analysis

It is about numerical data. If most of the data you collected contains numbers, you could
use descriptive statistics to evaluate and give it some meaning. As already pointed out,
some of the most common descriptive statistics are mean, median and mode. The mean is
the average score for the cases involved or sample. The median is the middle value,
halfway between the high and low scores. The mode is the response most given. You
could also want to know how often a particular response was given (Frequency) or where
you will find 66% of the responses away from the mean (Standard Deviation).
Activity 2I
Suppose ten participants were asked to rate the overall quality of a lecture on a
scale 1 to 5 and their responses were as follows:
Answers from ten respondents: 3; 6; 8; 5; 4; 7; 4; 7; 6; 5
1. What is the mean score?

2. Find the median and mode.
3. Find the frequency for each score.
The mean score is:
4+2+3+4+5+3+4+4+2+5 =36 = 3.6
10 10
The median is:
5 + 2 = 3.5 [The score halfway between 8 and 3]
2
The mode for the data is 4 [The score that is reported most often].
The frequency for each response is:
1: no response
2: two responses
3: two responses
4: four responses
5: two responses
To calculate the standard deviation and other descriptive statistics, you would need a
scientific calculator or computer with a statistical program such as SPSS or QuadroPro.
The calculations of the mean, median or standard deviation, as with all forms of data
analysis, does not necessarily transform data into information that may be understandable
to the user. You may still wonder about the meaning that the calculations may carry and
how they could help answer the research question in a manner that your stakeholders may
understand. It is therefore imperative that after the data has been analysed, it is given
meaning through interpretation.
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An advisable way of going about interpretation with qualitative data could be to hold
some discussion with your team members or other experts in the area. You still however
should be able to conclude where team members did not comment. They could have
overlooked part of the topic or thought about it but found no reason to mention it.
The interpretation of quantitative data on the other hand requires that you explain the
meaning attached to values or numbers. Let us take the example below.
Activity 2J
Employees of the department of Immigration and Citizenship were asked to rate their
familiarity with public service human resource management policies on a scale of 1 to
5, with 1 = not being familiar with the policies and 5 = being familiar with the policies.
Their responses are listed below.
Policy Average Score
General Orders 3.6

Public Service Act and Regulations 4.2
Decentralised HR Functions 2.3
Regulations for Industrial Employees 1.8
How would you interpret the results? Think about the following to do the interpretation:
What policies were the most familiar?

What programmes were the least familiar?
What recommendations would you make based on the results?
1. Familiarity with Public Service Act and Regulations had the highest average
score of 4.2. This means that a significant number of the employees were familiar
with them.
2. Regulations for Industrial Employees (RIE) were the least understood with an
average score of 1.8.
3. The recommendations will therefore be that the training division of the
department should focus more on providing information about the RIE. This
could mean staff coaching and training sessions such as workshops on these.
3.0 Summary
Data analysis is the process of arranging thoughts and ideas to explain concepts
and phenomena in a way that may be understood by the research stakeholders.
Data may be analysed in two ways:

Quantitative analysis
Qualitative analysis
Data must be effectively organised for analysis. The process of organising data
may differ from one individual to the other.
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In interpreting data, you provide meaning to numbers and expressions to benefit

your stakeholders.

1. To be able to analyse data, it must be organised in a way understood
by the researcher. Give three possible ways in which data may be
organised. (3 marks)
2. The first step in analysing data is to determine what method of data

analysis you will be using. What are the two methods of analysing
data and when is each of the methods applicable? (4 marks)
3. After data has been analysed, it is time to interpret the results.

What is the purpose of interpreting data? (3 marks)

1. Data may be organised on the basis of:
(a) Protocols on how to receive and record the information.

(b) Labelling data as it is collected and received.
(c) Checking to ensure that research participants complete all parts of the
research instrument correctly or that all interviewers use the correct
question procedure.
2. The two methods of analysing data are:

(a) Quantitative analysis that is used when the data collected contains
numbers.
(b) Qualitative analysis that is applied to data containing words and phrases.
3. Data is interpreted to:
(a) Provide meaning to numbers words and phrases.
(b) Identify trends, commonalities and testimony to answer the research

question.
(c) Provide stakeholders with research information that they understand and
are able to use.
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References
Smith M. and Smith, G. 1990. A study Skills Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Montgomery, M. 1990. Study skills. Harlow: Longman.
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003. Research Methods for Business Students. England:
Prentice Hall.
The Ohio state University Bulletin. 1992.
Turok, B. 1987. Africa: What can be done? London: Institute of African Alternatives.
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BOCODOL 2008
Topic 3
Report Writing
The next step after data analysis is to refine information for use by those who
commissioned it or have vested interest in it to aid decision-making at different levels of
the organisational hierarchy. The format in which the research is presented to your clients
is normally in the form of a report. Report writing then becomes an essential skill through
which the analysis of data, presentation of results and conclusions and making your
recommendations in a logical and precise manner is done (Winckel and Hart, 2002).
This topic will equip you with the skills to produce a report that will be acceptable to
your research supervisor and all those interested in your research. In the process of
guiding you through the necessary steps, we shall explore the following:
The process of writing a report

The contents of a report
The style of writing
The structure of your report.
This should give you adequate guide to produce a full-fledged report,

interested in your research.
Learning Objectives
On completion of this topic, you should be able to:
describe the process of writing a report
outline the contents of a report
choose an appropriate style of writing a report
write a research project report.
Topic Contents List

1.0 Report writing process 170
2.0 Report contents 173
3.0 Report writing style 175
4.0 The structure of a report 176
5.0 Summary 179
References 182
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1.0 Report Writing as a Process

Sitting down and putting your thoughts together for someone else to read and appreciate
what you have written could be one of the most challenging aspects of the whole research
process. Imagine that you thought thoroughly about what to write, read literature to
enhance your knowledge of the topic that you chose and you now have the task of putting
that together before presenting your report to an audience that you ought to assume they
do not know anything about the subject of your research.
What immediately comes to mind could be whether the audience will appreciate the
information in your report or not. Another fear could be whether there would be
individuals within the audience in possession of some degree of expertise in the area of
your research to the extent that, instead of simply listening to your thoughts, they could
become even more critical of your work. You begin to ponder about whether the
comments from the audience about your report are likely to help nourish your work or
destroy your writing career.
We could most possibly agree with Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) when they
argued that report writing is more like teaching. To be able to teach, you must first have
adequate knowledge of the subject. You also have to assume that your audience does not
know anything about the subject matter. The immense challenge then could be the
process of relaying the information in a way understood by all. Most experts find this
path quite intriguing because it can be daunting to find a conventional teaching recipe for
the audience, let alone those who are not familiar with your area of expertise. At certain
points, you need to simplify things to the extent that you are likely to lose the very
essence of what you desired to communicate.
All in all, however, the gist is that you try as much as possibly to understand your
audience and put your thoughts together specifically for their understanding. By
understanding you they stand a better chance of making informed comments on your
work. Preparing thoroughly for the report should help you accept and appreciate
comments understanding that the reason behind explaining your thoughts may not
necessarily be to seek audience support if not for them to get a clear picture about the
area in which you invested most of your time and material resources.
Most institutions of higher learning such as universities have come up with

recommendations on how to write and present a report. The recommendations may differ
from one institute to the other as well as between faculties in one institute. For example,
an engineering report may be different from a social science report. The central point
remains that students would have a guideline that is acceptable to the institute for
producing and presenting work. This topic will equip you with the skills to produce a
report that will be acceptable to your research supervisor and all those
One does not wake up one morning and starts writing a report. It should normally be a
planned process that began with finding a topic to study and allotting specific time to
each study task (Montgomery, 1990). Cain and Garcia (1992) argue that you should have
a purpose for writing that would help you to generate and organise ideas. To generate an
idea for the piece of work you want to write about is itself a challenging task. Different
strategies have been suggested to get a grasp of what to write about, some of them are
BOCODOL 170 2008

reading and brainstorming, scanning, note-taking or free writing for the purpose of
generating ideas before and after your first draft (Smith and Smith, 1990). Blake and Bly
(1993: 119) have underscored the process of report writing as follows:
“Reports communicate information which has been

compiled as a result of research and analysis of data and of
issues. Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but
usually focus on transmitting information with a clear
purpose, to a specific audience. Good reports are
documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They
should also be well written, clearly structured and
expressed in a way that holds the reader’s attention and
meets their expectations. The true value of the research may
be assessed through a report since the written report may
be the “only tangible product of hundreds of hours of work.
Rightly or wrongly, the quality and worth of that work are
judged by the quality of the written report – its clarity,
organisation and content”
(http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/index.html
24/04/2007).
For this purpose, you will realise the need to organise your reading material to give
direction to your work. This could include coming up with a sentence that captures all
that you intend to write about – a thesis. Your ideas would then be wisely selected to
form an outline that explains the thesis. According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill
(2003), this process keeps recurring even after you have started writing. This is rightly so
as you ought to keep refining your ideas before writing, whilst writing, during your first
draft including the final draft. The purpose is to express oneself clearly and accurately
with a sense of objectivity.
Activity 3A
An important factor already suggested is that of your audience.
Briefly explain why when writing, you ought to keep in mind, a selected person or group
of individuals for whom the report is written.
These are the people you intend to communicate to. They would most definitely want
something precise from your report – some kind of information that they currently do not
have and would help them achieve something they could not without your report. As such
you would not like to repeat what they know lest they find the report meaningless and
without purpose. You should get the satisfaction that you projected your voice enough to
be heard by the target audience and even beyond. Try and fill some knowledge gap!
Cain and Garcia (1992) illustrated the process of writing as a wheel that allows you to
move in circles as you go through the various stages of writing. The stages include the
following steps:
(a) Identify a purpose.

(b) Define an audience.
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(c) Generate ideas and information.

(d) Organise material and write a thesis.
(e) Review information.
You will realise that all these have been covered above. The important factor the authors
bring in is that of the first and second drafts where the initial draft is about adopting a
strategy for writing when the latter involves revising for purpose, structure and content.
This clearly identifies writing as a recursive activity for which the same steps observed
within the first draft are repeated in the second draft. You find yourself generating new
ideas whilst evaluating your work and revising almost every stage of the writing process.
You could go back and forth to add new insight, getting rid of initial ideas; more like re-
writing.
Identify
purpose and
define
audience
Write a
Generate
thesis
ideas and
information
THINKING AND WRITING
Select and Review

organise information
ideas and
information
Fig. 3.1: Thinking and writing (Cain and Garcia, 1992)
Roberts (2007) observes that, in addition to the points noted above, there would be an
inclination for academic reports to be based on theoretical ideas that what happens on
practice. On occasion it could be a simulation, where the student imagines that the report
would have a practical purpose to make it more realistic. This is particularly true as
sometimes students on placement have to study a work situation where the management
might need the findings to establish solutions to pending job issues. The same report will
be academic as the whole purpose of the job attachment might be to produce a report that
will determine a student’s success level in a university or college of learning. The basic
idea henceforth should be that the distinction between practice and academia in reporting
is becoming thinner by the day.
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2.0 Report Content

The contents of your report are perhaps the most important ingredients as they determine
the effort of all the sleepless nights you might have invested in the report. It is the
contents that tell the reader about the information gathered as well as the purpose for
which it is intended. It is mainly made up of two principal components; the report title
and the story line.
(a) The title of the report

The title of the report tells you what the report is about. From the title alone, the report
reader should make sense of what to expect in the body of the report. For instance, the
title “Why bats come out at night” is expected to talk about bats and their nocturnal
behaviour perhaps as compared to the behaviour of other mammal species. You would
certain not anticipate such a title to talk more about some animal species and not mention
bats. It would also not centralise its argument or descriptive along life during the day, not
overruling the possibilities of mentioning the creature’s life during the day.
Activity 3B
Briefly explain why Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill suggest that a title should be short
and describe the contents of the report in a few words that adequately capture the essence
of the report.
This is because long and winding titles may sometimes be difficult to understand and
lend the report to multiple interpretations. To avoid this, it is often suggested that after
choosing your title, you should show it to another student or course instructor to read
and give you personal understanding of the title. Where different individuals show the
same understanding, you are likely to adopt the title. Different interpretations could
mean that you should revise the title and subject it to the same procedure before you may
proceed with your writing.
(b) Developing a story-line

Your research contents are supposed to “tell a story”. It is a journey that should be
understandable to the reader. Imagine travelling from Gaborone to Francistown. The
chances are that before you reach Francistown, you would have passed through a number
of places; Mochudi, Dibete, Palapye, Mahalapye and several small places that are
unfamiliar or not known by many people except those who live there. To develop a
helpful story-line about your journey you ought to have signposts that clearly indicate the
whole journey so that the reader may not be prompted to stop and think about where we
are along the way or presume that we are now passing an unidentified territory. Precision
counts a lot in your report.
The research supervisor or the manager of the organisation interested in your research
might want to see your recommendations. On the basis of the recommendations, further
questions might arise that relate to how you came up with such recommendations. You
should be able to take them through your entire project report; for instance the research
findings would guide you to make the recommendations, the findings are a product of
information acquired about the subject matter or topic of your research and the topic
could have been guided by the review of literature and the data gathering process. You
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should be able to provide a quick analysis of the entire report to the extent that anyone
passing by who could have the opportunity to listen to you should not find it difficult to
understand.
This is where the abstract comes handy with a summary of the whole research process
that is concise and accurate (Winckel and Hart, 2002). Sometimes it is easier to devise
the abstract after writing and reading the entire report so that you may capture all that is
in the report in a few words that are understandable to all. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill
(2003) captured the story-line as shown in Fig. 3.1 below that emphasises three points;
the research question, the answer to the research question and the evidence that led to the
answer. For instance, going back to “Why bats come out at night”, some of the reasons
could be that:
They cannot see well during the day

To hunt for prey
The evidence could be eye-witness accounts of watching bats at night after locating their
hiding place when you find them sleeping during the day. You could also support your
account with a literature review of a comprehensive report about bats written by a
prominent author. There could also be additional information provided by an oral
interview of some local community staying within the area where you located the bats.
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:

What is my What is What
research the answer evidence
question? to my led me to
research that
question? answer?
Fig. 3.2: A format for developing the story-line (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003: 426)
The basic idea is to always indicate clearly the journey through your report: Where do we
come from? Where are we? Where do we intend to go?
(c) Tables and Graphics

If your report is to contain tables and graphics, which is very recommendable, you should
ensure that they serve to illustrate points within the body of the report. Also it is
important that they are introduced within the text and facts presented on table or
graphically is elaborated. In other words, they should not be some kind of ornamental
piece that has no real purpose to the body of the report. Tables are meant to supplement
your work, not to make the reader uncomfortable. Your comments about them, whether
they contain numeric data or text, should be clear and precise to help the reader
understand your work.
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(d) Previewing and summarising chapters

It is often recommendable that before you start a chapter in your report, you add a few
lines to tell the reader what the chapter is all about and how you intend to provide
information to substantiate that. You could probably consider this as time wasted writing
what you will put in more detail as the chapter progresses. This however guides the
reader about what to expect and helps to connect chapters in a report. The essence is that
the whole report should flow from the first chapter to the last. It is, if you would recall
our Gaborone/Francistown journey, according to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, like
putting signposts all the way to Francistown such that anybody who successfully
completes the journey is able to narrate about how to travel to the place, even if it was the
first journey. You do not want to surprise the reader, do you?
3.0 Report Writing Style

The way you put together ideas and present them to readers is a very important point to
consider. The gist of writing is to communicate. You are a good writer if your audience
are able to associate and understand what you have written more like the message you
wanted to put through. There is absolutely not much substance in your work if it is not
understood by those for whom it was intended. The message or communication aspect of
a report is not within its technicalities, but more in how clearer and simple you are for the
audience. These are some of the point you need to consider when writing:
(a) Simplicity and clarity

Complicated sentences need to be avoided such that the report lends to simpler and
clearer communication. A report can be written to persuade, brief or justify a particular
subject matter. You will not achieve any of these with complex and very long sentences.
The basic understanding should be to communicate one idea using a single sentence that
could be short and direct to the point. Avoid using unnecessary jargon that could confuse
even the most prominent reader. Where you need to abbreviate, ensure that abbreviations
used are standardised. Large quotations used quite often may not be helpful. For the
author of the type of literature you are quoting from may not have similar objectives with
the intent of your report. The idea is for you to borrow opinions of different writers so
that you may substantiate yours and communicate your own message.
(b) Use of language

The answer to writing a good report is to avoid subjectivity. You may not fully
communicate the change from “stunning green to a beautiful blue” accurately without
using some measurement criteria. Your reader would like to know the kind of green you
referred to as well as the blue. Think like you were to respond to a question about the
“beauty” of something. You would certainly not drive the point home by saying that it
was “very beautiful”. You should therefore write as you would understand if it were
written for you.
(c) Active or passive voice

You should understand whether to write in the active or passive voice. In the active
voice, you emphasise your position about the idea or the subject matter of your report.
You put your position quite clearly on the matter and demonstrate ownership of the ideas.
Thus when you recommend some form of action or that some idea could be adopted, you
could clearly say ‘I recommend…’ This is different from when you adopt the passive
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voice where you write more like you borrowed most of what you write about hence
making suggestions on the basis of what you have learnt from the source. For example,
you would say ‘It is recommended that …’
Mike and Glenda Smith (1990) explain the same notion as writing a descriptive or an
argumentative piece of work. A descriptive report is synonymous with the passive voice
where your point of view is not required other than demonstrating that you exerted some
effort to obtain information from reliable sources that you have accordingly listed. The
argumentative side of it relates to the active voice where your opinions are the strong
points of the report. The opinion is substantiated even if it means supporting the idea
with information obtained from other sources. Like in the descriptive piece, the
supporting literature must be cited in the body of the report and at the references section.
Your project tutor should be able to assist you on the use of the active and passive voices
after scrutinising the kind of report you should write.
4.0 The Structure of a Report

Writing a report is not like writing an essay. A report can be very long hence the need for
you to have it properly structured so that you may peruse it well and find the information
you want. It is possible that report writers are given the format of the report structure
recommendable by academic institutions or supervisors at work. Where this has not been
possible, the idea is to stick to the conventional way of structuring a report.
“Often, reports are structured in a way that reflects the

information finding process and the writing up of the
findings: that is summary of the contents, introduction or
background, methods, results, discussion, conclusion
and/or recommendations.”
(http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/index.html
24/04/2007)
The key is to think properly before writing to ensure that the information you have
gathered is put under the correct headings that will be enumerated below. You will most
definitely have the headings and sub-headings that are guided by the purpose of your
report and the logical sequence as determined by the topic of discussion. In essence, you
will realise that before writing the final paper, you could have gone through a lot of
drafting; for instance, you might have to draft the conclusions by summarising, analysing
and evaluating the findings. You could also have to consider the recommendations where
applicable. The most commonly adopted reporting structure could be as follows
(http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/Reports.htm 24/04/2007):
Cover sheet: The cover sheet contains the title of the report, your name, name of
the unit where a report is part of a major report, the name of the institution and the
date.
Acknowledgements: Here you list people who have contributed to the

information in your report. The acknowledgements serve to thank the contributors
for the invaluable information or any form of assistance they provided.
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Table of contents: In the table of contents you provide the headings and sub-
heading in your report alongside the page under which they appear. You ought to
divide the report into parts (chapters) and start each part on a new page. Where
you have chapters, they may be further subdivided into sections using a consistent
numbering system. Numbers such as chapter 1, 2, 3 or I, II, III (Roman numerals)
are normally acceptable. The sections will therefore develop from the kind of
numbering you adopted; in this case they could be 1.1 for section 1 of chapter 1;
2.3 for section 3 of chapter 2. It can go on to have subdivisions of sections to
include 1.2.3 meaning subdivision 3 of section 2 within chapter 1. The basic idea
here is to look at the way the report is structured and apply the same format.
Abstract: The abstract is in essence the summary or overview of the report. The
reader should get a general idea of what the report is all about from the abstract.
Aims and Objectives: What you set out to do, i.e. why you thought it necessary
to embark on the investigation, what was the problem? Are you pursuing the
results of an earlier research or reliant on the literature alone or both?
Literature Review: It would have a portion of the effect of the review of

literature on your report, that is; clarify the report’s background and explain its
significance. Only books and articles directly related to your topic need be
included. It is a requirement that you display a sense of analysis and critical
exploration of the literature, not merely to describe what you have read.
Activity 3C
Briefly explain why in the review of literature you have the opportunity to demonstrate
that you read relevant material relating to your research topic.
It helps readers to obtain information about related topic and content and perhaps more
importantly, to provide readers with information on what is already known that is
relevant or close to your area of study. You could have perused literature when writing
an essay, a project or a dissertation. The essence is that your examiner will not expect
the review of literature for an essay to be the same as that for an undergraduate project
or postgraduate dissertation. This owes to the fact that the volume of work required for
each of these may differ significantly, ranging from the essay; that could be a page or
two, to a dissertation of more than one hundred pages. It makes sense therefore that the
material used for the latter would be quite large compared to that used on the former.
You could have used books for the introductory notes and mostly journals for the entire
body as they are preferred by examiners for the purpose of providing up to date and first
hand information about your subject matter.
You ought to keep a record of what you are doing because you cannot do it all at
once. Record citations and page numbers with notes as you proceed. You will
need full references when you start writing. Keep notes that you will be able to
read and understand, to expand and add personal flavour to your piece of writing.
Full sentences are recommendable as they would guide you to the ideas you want.
You may have had suggested literature from your tutor or lecturer. You will
BOCODOL 177 2008

however find them useful only to point you in the right direction but very
inadequate for the research project. This is your opportunity to visit the library or
surf the internet for more relevant information to boost your knowledge. You
could also look for relevant bibliographies cited by prominent authors in your
subject matter so that you may also access books, articles and journals they have
read.
With all that, you must have your preferred style of arranging all the information
together so that you do not waste time looking for a piece you cannot find as a
result of jumbled information.
Methodology: It is about how the methodology you chose relates to the report’s
aims or objectives. You have to explain why you thought the methods used were
appropriate for the research. It does not matter whether you collected your own
data or had to assess documentary evidence. Here you explain the methods of data
collection, interview participants, materials used or places visited. You even need
to convince the reader or the examiner about the methods you decided not to use.
It is equally important to elaborate on the observation of certain ethical issues in
research.
Results or findings: You could end up with a summary of your findings and the
analysis thereto. Mentioning what you found; essentials here will be the data and
calculations, tables, graphs and figures.
Analysis and discussion: You will have to interpret your results and indicate
knowledge and proper use of statistical techniques. Of significance could be how
the results differ or agree with those of other people who could have done some
research on a similar topic. Show that you the measurements obtained were
accurate and where there are anticipated irregularities as a result of research
design, do mention that. Hiding these could mean that if they are discovered, you
stand to lose recognition for anticipated skill in your work.
Conclusions: The conclusions should give us your ideas in the light of your
findings. What do you think about them? What can we learn from your research
that other people have not observed before? It is your chance to summarise some
of the findings indicating whether you managed to answer some or all the ‘aims’
you set up in the beginning. Did you find what you were looking for or otherwise.
You cannot make any conclusions that are not backed by evidence from the
findings but may mention how the findings deviated from the expected results
and how you could not achieve all that you anticipated.
Recommendations: Your report should end with your recommendations. They

could highlight aspects of future research or even suggest the discontinuation of
research in the area. Remember this would be your personal idea on the basis of
what you have learnt from the research, most particularly the results of the
research should be observed to guide you.
Appendix: You could also need to attach some information to substantiate what
you discussed and tools used. They may be maps, questionnaires, drawings,
photographs, plans or calculations used that are not part of the body of the
BOCODOL 178 2008

research. Your readers may find convenience and benefit from the appendices
used.
Bibliography/References: A bibliography or references provides a list of all the

resources (mainly literature) used in the body of the report.
5.0 Summary
You have learnt that report writing is a planned process and an essential skill for
presenting the results of your research topic. The process of writing is illustrated as a
recursive process that entails identifying a purpose, defining an audience, generating
ideas or information, writing a thesis and reviewing of information. Since the gist of
writing a report is to communicate your findings it is imperative to consider the writing
style as well as the simplicity and clarity of the language use. A report must also be
properly structured. When writing our report it is therefore advisable to follow the report
structure that you learnt in this unit.

1. What are the three most important things to consider when writing a report?
(3 marks)
2. Describe an argumentative report in comparison with the descriptive one.
(4 marks)
3. Why do you think it is important to mind your audience when writing?

(5 marks)
4. List the constituents of a full report structure and explain the

concepts used to describe each constituents. (12 marks)
5. Why do you think a report writer should adopt a particular style of

writing? (6 marks)
BOCODOL 179 2008


1. The three things to consider are:
- content of the report
- structure of the report
- report writing style.
Each 1 mark (3 marks)
2. Argumentative vs descriptive
An argumentative report presents both sides of the story with a view to making
comparisons and contrasts within. It leads to a discussion of which the end result
is the opinion of the writer or researcher in light of the information before hand.
Social science research is mostly argumentative as the researcher is compelled to
derive understanding from the review of literature and derive opinions or position
on the basis of those.
A descriptive report is more like narrating a story. The researcher presents facts
and ideas as observed with no or little personal opinion input. This distances the
researcher from what has been observed or facts presented. An example could be
in the form of science experiments where the researcher reports the findings as
they are for further analysis somewhere else.
2 marks for each description (4 marks)
3. A report is about presenting a situation to an audience or people who seek clarity

on the issue. Your task as a researcher is to find and present information to them
in such a way that they will understand you, not to prompt them for questions.
For instance, when presenting a scientific report to a lay audience, you are not
expected to put forth scientific jargon that is not understood by the audience. You
are expected to filter the information before presentation and simplify it to terms
used in ordinary language. If by chance, you are asked to relate the same
information to a group of scientists, the technicalities associated with the
discipline are well understood. You may therefore use general science terms that
you expect them to be conversant with.
5 points explained each 1 mark (5 marks)
4. Most reports will have the following structure:

(a) Acknowledgements: Here you list people who have contributed to the
information in your report. The acknowledgements serve to thank the
contributors for the invaluable information or any form of assistance they
provided.
(b) Table of contents: In the table of contents you provide the headings and
sub-heading in your report alongside the page under which they appear.
BOCODOL 180 2008

(c) Abstract: The abstract is in essence the summary or overview of the

report. The reader should get a general idea of what the report is all
about from the abstract.
(d) Aims and Objectives: What you set out to do, i.e. why you thought it
necessary to embark on the investigation, what was the problem? Are you
pursuing the results of an earlier research or reliant on the literature
alone or both?
(d) Literature Review: It would have a portion of the effect of the review of
literature on your report, that is; clarify the report’s background and
explain its significance.
(e) Methodology: Here you explain the methods of data collection, interview
participants, materials used or places visited. You need to convince the
reader or the examiner about the methods you decided not to use. It is
equally important to elaborate on the observation of certain ethical issues
in research.
(f) Results or findings: This is a summary of your findings and the analysis
thereto. Mentioning what you found; essentials here will be the data and
calculations, tables, graphs and figures.
(g) Analysis and discussion: This is where you interpret the results and
indicate knowledge and proper use of statistical techniques.
(h) Conclusions: The conclusions should give us your ideas in the light of
your findings. This is your chance to summarise some of the findings
indicating whether you managed to answer some or all the ‘aims’ you set
up in the beginning.
(i) Recommendations: These are highlights future research or even suggest

the discontinuation of research in the area. They represent your opinion
on the basis of what you have learnt from the research.
(j) Appendix: Maps, questionnaires, drawings, photographs, plans or

calculations used that are not part of the body of the research are shown
in the appendix as attachments.
(k) Bibliography/References: A bibliography or references provides a list of

all the resources (mainly literature) used in the body of the report.
1 mark for each of the 12 points (12 marks)
BOCODOL 181 2008

5. The way you put together ideas and present them to readers is a very important
point to consider. The gist of writing is to communicate. You are a good writer if
your audience are able to associate and understand what you have written more
like the message you wanted to put through. There is absolutely not much
substance in your work if it is not understood by those for whom it was intended.
The message or communication aspect of a report is not within its technicalities,
but more in how clearer and simple you are for the audience.
References
Cain, K.A. and Garcia, J. 1992. The Allyn and Bacon Workbook. Allyn and Bacon:
Massachusetts.
Montgomery, M. 1990. Study Skills. Longmans: England.
Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. 2003. Research Methods for Business Students.
Pearson Education: England.
Smith, M. and Smith, G. 1990. A Study Skills Handbook. Oxford: New York.
Winckel, A. and Hart, B. 2002. Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students.
University of South Australia: Australia.
BOCODOL 182 2008

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Inspire Tomorrow,Today

Please address correspondences to;

The Vice Chancellor

Introduction to the Course: Research Methods i

Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methods

Topic 1: The Meaning of Research 2

Unit 2: Principles of Research 69

Topic 1: Basic Ethics in Research 71

Unit 3: Research Proposal and Data Collection 106

Topic 1: Writing a Research Proposal 108

Unit 4: Data Analysis and Report Writing 148

Topic 1: Preparing Data for Analysis 150

Introduction to the Course

Aims of the Course

The Structure of the Course

Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methods

Aims of This Unit

Topic 1: The Meaning of Research

Topic Contents List

1.0 The Meaning of Research

Activity, diligent and systematic

Pursuit for maximum understanding of events, behaviours and theories

(c) Saunders et al refer to research as:

A collection of information on a particular subject matter

As a teacher, I encourage the students I work with, aged five to

search and search again, to reiterate in their learning, to go

1.1 Research as an active, diligent and systematic process

Let us take an example.

In a speech presented to the 2005 Communities in Control conference convened by Our

How different collections of resources affect people

Fig.1: Relationship between individuals’ lives and their communities

1. Define your problem or question

Decide what sources of information

6. Evaluate your write-up

There is an idea that European civilisation or the “West” has

1. Define the problem.

o Definition of the problem

1.2 Research as an enquiry and discovery

In everyday language, to enquire could mean to ask questions about something. In

1.3 Research as the interpretation and revision of facts

Freedom fighters, terrorists and guerrillas

“These expressions could all be used to refer to one group of

Read through the passage and answer questions that follow.

Public Accountability and Information abuse

In many industrialised societies there is a strong popular belief

1. (a) School “failure” or “success” refers to the way public institutional

(b) Common currency refers to a regular method or way of evaluating the

(c) “Worth” refers to whether it the public institution is a form of investment

“Choice” means that parents or members of the public decide whether to

“Standards” is used to refer to a common yardstick that may be used to

1.4 Research in understanding theories, behaviour and laws

1. A theory involves a statement, perception or resolution about a particular issue

1.5 Applying research to formulate solutions

On November 14, 1998, you wrote to the National Bioethics

Source: Report and recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory

Krauss (2005: 758) on comparative epistemologies of qualitative and quantitative

Read the passage and attempt the questions

(i) homosexual men.

2. Measures to curb HIV/AIDS towards:

(i) Abstain, be faithful to one partner or practice safe sex

(ii) Abstain, be faithful to one partner or practice safe sex

1.6 Research as a collection of information on a subject matter

Work: Decide on what you have to do.

(a) Read to understand