DEDICATION:-

To all those who have supported, encouraged, challenged, and inspired me. And
specially to my Beloved Parents, honorable teachers and friends for all their
guidance, love & attention which has made it possible for me to make it up to this
point and as well as the Internship Supervisors who bestowed me with the courage,
the commitment and the awareness to follow the best possible route, by their
unmatchable style and by best possible training.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:-
All the praises are for the almighty, Allah who bestowed us
with the ability and potential to complete this Internship. We also pay our gratitude
to the Almighty for enabling us to complete this Internship Report within due
course of time.
Words are very few to express enormous humble obligations to our affectionate
Parents for their prayers and strong determination to enabling us to achieve this
job.
We appreciate the cordial co-operation from all our Internship Supervisors in the
different departments of PEL and also of HR management for providing us
requisite information and knowledge for compilation of our complete Internship.
All the employers of PEL helped us a lot in performing all the activities and in
gaining the practical knowledge of industry. They gave us best environment and
knowledge to enhance our skills.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:-

Pak Elektron Limited (PEL) is the pioneer manufacturer

of electrical goods in Pakistan. The company has always been contributing towards
the advancement and development of the engineering sector in Pakistan by
introducing a range of quality electrical equipments, home appliances and by
producing hundreds of engineers, skilled workers and technicians through its
apprenticeship schemes and training programs.
We recently have done our internship in PEL, in which we got training from its
Distribution Transformer unit. The internship basically revolved around the
transformer, Energy Meter and Switch Gears design, manufacturing, I&QC and
maintenance. The system, the style of working & the commitment of the
employees in PEL is really exemplary.
The difference between the success & failure is doing things right and doing things
nearly right, & PEL has always tried for success & that is why it is known to be
one of the leading companies in Pakistan.
In this report we have given a very brief review of what we have seen and learnt
during our internship. Our have mentioned all these as we have made an internship
as according to the schedule. This report will give its reader knowledge about the
PEL and power division especially about transformer unit.
We have made it possible to write each and every thing that I have learnt here. We
have all our practical efforts in the form of this manuscript that’s the asset for my
future career.
INTRODUCTION:-
Alhamdullillah! We have completed our Internship in
“Marketing Power Division” at PEL, Especially in Power Projects Department.
During this time we visited production areas of different products manufacturing
by PEL. Which are:

 Power Transformers.
 Distribution Transformers.
 Switch Gears.
 Energy Meters.

After these visits and guidance provided by our instructors we were able to make
this report.

Actually in this report first of all we gave complete introduction of the company
PEL. After that we discussed about their products. This report also covers a series
of topical areas and the major Marketing and Engineering Strategies of company.
We have gathered the complete information about the company that what are they
making? How they are making? Who are their major customers? We are sure that
after reading this report any one can know better about the company.
COMPANY PROFILE:-

PEL was established in 1956 in technical

collaboration with M/s AEG of Germany. In October 1978, the company was taken
over by Saigol Group of Companies. At that juncture, the company was only
manufacturing transformers and switchgears. With the Saigols in management,
PEL started expanding its product range by entering into Air Conditioner
manufacturing.

(INTRODUCTION TO SIAGOL GROUP)

The “SAIGOL GROUP” is one of the leading industrial groups in Pakistan. The
Saigol Group belongs to Saigol family, which is an old business family and has
contributed a lot towards Pakistan’s industrial development and growth. In 1987,
Saigols further expanded their business by taking over more textile companies
including Saritow Spinning Mills Ltd. and Azam textile Mills Ltd. Later on, the
businesses were further diversified into fuel and Energy industry. In this respect,
Saigol group was not only the first one to identify the power shortage problem but
took the first step to encounter this serious issue that could have severely affected
the whole nation. In this attempt, Kohinoor Power ltd. was formed in 1991. In
1995, further to stay on firm grounds of energy and fuel, Kohinoor Energy ltd,
brainchild of Azam Saigol was formed in support of Government of Pakistan.

They are serving the nation in the diversified business activities in the field of:

 Textiles
 Engineering
 Banking & Finance
 Fuel & Energy
 Trading
 Automobiles

Having a set vision and strategic scope, Saigols set another example of
diversification and expansion by incorporating Kohinoor Motor Works
Limited as a joint venture with China QINGQI Group. This way they
marked their presence in automobile industry in 1993 that not only benefited
them but the whole nation as well. More so, year 2007 marked the
 establishment of Real Estate business in Faisalabad under the name of four
seasons. It is one of the greatest builders with projects offered at choice
locations with all necessary amenities, while ensuring highest standards,
timely delivery, and lifelong customer satisfaction.

PEL HISTORY:-
In 1978, a company with lots of potential but on verge of closure was
taken over by Saigol group, now called “PAK ELEKTRON LIMITED”. Initially,
this company was set up in 1956 by Malik brothers in technical collaboration with
M/s AEG of company (“AEG) that manufactured transformers switch gears and
electric motors. However, soon after AEG relinquished shares it was acquired by
Saigol Group of Companies. Further expansion resulted in production of
refrigerators, deep freezers and air conditioners. PEL also started television
production as a result of joint venture with Daewoo Electronics in 1995. In the
market it gradually gained momentum in sales with equity participation of Daewoo
and 60% contribution by Pak Elektron Limited.
VISION:-

To excel in providing engineering goods and services

through continuous improvement.
.

MISSION STATEMENT:-

To Provide quality products and services to the

complete satisfaction of our customers and maximize returns for all stake holders
through optimal use of resources.
To promote good governance, corporate values, and safe working environment
with strong sense of social responsibility.

OBJECTIVE MISSION OF PEL:-

 Management is intended to “Internationalize” the entity of company.
 Company’s ultimate goal is to be a producer of “Export Quality Product”.
 Company is paving the way to be “Service Oriented Firm.”
 With the dedicated team of professionals the company is striving to improve
the quality of life for its customers.
BRANDING:-
Instead of production PEL is also focus of Branding.

(CURRENTLY BRANDING)

 Responsibility Recently
 Slogan is change to improve Brand Equity.
NEW SLOGAN:-

OL

OLD SLOGAN:-
 PEL DIVISIONS CHART:-

PAK ELEKTRON
LIMITED

Power Division Appliances Division

Manufacturing Division Trading Division

Distribution
Transformers

Power
Transformers
Refrigerators Microwave Oven

Energy Meters
Air Conditioners Washing
Switch Gears Machine
Deep Freezers
Television
Grid Stations

Generators
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART:-

Chairman

Managing
Director

Director Marketing
& Sales Appliances
Division

GM GM
Manufacturin Marketing
g Appliances Appliances
Division Division

GM
Sr Manager
Marketing
OC
Power
(Appliances
Division
&Power)

GM Finance
Sr Manager
Manufacturin
HR & A
g Appliances
Division

GM Sr Manager
Manufacturin HIA
g Power
Division
DIVISIONS OF PEL:-
PEL has two divisions of its business.

1. Appliances Division
2. Power Division

APPLIANCES DIVISION:-
PEL’s Appliances Division is the flag carrier of the Saigol Group. Appliances
Division includes the products; Air Conditioner, Refrigerator, Washing Machine,
Water Dispenser and Microwave Oven. Today, PEL has become a household
name. Its products are not only in great demand in the local market but the
Company has also started exporting its appliances to foreign markets.

(TYPES OF PRODUCTS)

 Window-Type Air Conditioners

 Split-Type Air Conditioners
 Refrigerators
 Deep Freezers
 Microwave Oven
 Washing Machine
 Generators
(PEL APPLIANCES PRODUCTS)
POWER DIVISION:-
PEL Power Division is one of the major electrical
equipment suppliers to WAPDA & KESC. Since 1956 the company manufactures
transformers, energy meters, switchgears, kiosks, compact stations and shunt
capacitor banks. PEL also has had the privilege of getting its equipment approved
and certified from well-reputed international consultants.

(TYPES OF PRODUCTS)

 Power Transformers

 Distribution Transformers

 Switch Gears

 Energy Meters
(PEL POWER PRODUCTS)
ISO 9001 CERTIFICATION:-

PEL was 16th Company in Pakistan that

got ISO 9001 Certification in 1997, since then PEL Management is applying this
International Standard Practices for Effectively Managing Quality of Products
and Services that Company Offers.

Channels Of Distribution:-

 1400 Nationwide dealer

 21 sales area in major cities in Pakistan
 After sales network almost in 350 locations in Pakistan
POWER PRODUCTS:-
As PEL is producing Transformers, Switch Gears and Energy Meters but here we
will discussed about:

 Transformers
 Energy Meters

TRANSFORMERS:-
(What is Transformer)

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an

iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase
power so that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice
versa.

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS:-
PEL made distribution transformer’s range includes oil immersed core type
transformers, Dry type (VP impregnated) transformers and autotransformers.
These transformers are tailor made for various ratings. IEC or national standards
are followed. PEL offer distribution transformers voltage up to 33 kVA and ratings
up to 30 MVA.
PEL offers transformer tanks with corrugated walls, detachable radiators and
tubular arrangement. The corrugated tanks have a better cooling efficiency, since
the fins are expandable. Tanks are hermetically sealed where possible. In order to
meet sophisticated requirements of customers PEL has also started manufacturing
transformers with foil winding.
Foil winding efficiently uses space which results in size reduction. It has better
heat dissipation and also increases potential to withstand short circuit current.
PEL transformers are available for various applications:
 Distribution Transformers (Pole /Pad Mounted)
 Auto Transformers
 Furnace Transformers
 Welding Transformers
 Chokes for furnace Transformers
 Any other special requirement

WINDING SECTION:-
In the winding section L.V and H.V windings of the coil are made.
Raw Material
1.For L.V winding
 Paper insulated flat copper wire (For 10KVA to 50KVA)

 Copper foil (For 100KVA and above)

2.For H.V winding

 Enamel copper wire (For 10KVA to 200KVA)

 Paper insulated flat copper wire (400KVA and above)

3.Type of Insulation Material

 Diamond dotted paper (For insulation between layers of windings)

 Press pan sheet (For end collars)

 Creep paper pipe (For insulation of terminal of tap changer)

 Craft paper (Used for insulation in disc winding)

 Thermo ducts
 4. Types of Windings
 Disc winding
 Packet winding
 Layer winding
 Foil winding
5. Machines Used
 Slitting machine is used for the cutting of bundles of insulation
material.
 L.V Foil winding machines are used for foil winding on L.V side for
transformers of the rating 100KVA and above.
 L.V paper insulated copper winders are used for winding of P.I copper
wire for transformers of the rating 10KVA to 50KVA.
 H.V P.I copper winders are used for the winding of P.I copper wire for
transformers of the rating 400KVA and above.
H.V enamel copper winders are used for the winding of enamel copper wire for the
transformer of the rating 10KVA to 400KVA.

CORE SECTION:-
In the core section upper, side and yoke limbs of the core are made.
Raw Material
Raw material used for the making of core is M4 grade silicone steel sheet which
is an alloy of iron and silicon. Silicon is used to increase the permeability of
iron.
  Machines
 Slitting machine is used to cut the big roll of silicon steel sheet in
required sizes (widths) according to the rating of transformer.
 Power press machines are used to make limbs. They are operated
manually.
 After cutting of limbs V punching is done on the yoke limb which is
called yoke notching.
 PLC cutting machines are also used to make limbs. There are two
PLC machines. SDRI machine has a capacity of 40,000 limbs per day.
L.A.E machine has a capacity of 60,000 limbs per day. In CNC
machines length, width and angle are given as input.
 L.A.E measuring table is used to check errors in angle, width and
length.
 Iron Losses
Iron losses are the flux losses in core. Major factors in iron losses are;
 Quality of material.

 Bur.

 Air gap.

 To reduce iron losses

 Material should be of good quality.

 Limbs should be bur free.

 Limbs should be rust free.

Weight of core should be according to Tr. Design.

ASSEMBLY SECTION:-
In the assembly section there are 17 processes in which all the components of
the transformer are put together to form a transformer. Important processes in
the assembly section are;

 Core Coil Assembly:

In the core coil assembly coil is fitted in the core and upper yoke limb is inserted to
complete the core, then core is tightened using upper and lower pressing beams.
For coil to coil insulation and core to coil insulation press pan sheet is used. For
insulation between bottoms pressing beam and coil wooden base is used.

• Before Connection Test (BCT)

In the BCT area turns ratio of the coil is checked using TTR meter.

• H.T, L.T Connections

In this section Y-Delta connections are made. Tap changer is connected with the
coil. Connections are made according to work order specifications given by the
design department. Taping is done on these connections to avoid any short circuit.

• After Connection Test (ACT)

In the ACT area turns ratio of the transformer is checked using TTR meter.

• Furnace
After ACT transformer is kept in the furnace for 48 to 72 hours according to its
rating. It is done to evaporate all the moisture from core or coil. Temperature of the
furnace is 120o to 130o.
 • Cover Plate Assembly
In this section H.T, L.T bushings, through bolts, eye bolts connectors, arcing horns
and other parts are inserted in cover plate.
• Pre Tanking Section
When transformer is unloaded from the furnace it is inserted in the tank as quickly
as possible to avoid the getting of moisture in the live part. Live part of the
transformer should be inserted in the tank in 50mins to 1 ½ hours.

• Oil Filling Section

In oil filling section oil is filled in the tank under vacuum. Amount of oil to be
filled can be found from bill of quantity (BOQ). For 10kv to 200kv oil filling
chambers are used and for transformers above 200kv oil is filled manually.

• Settling Area
After oil filling every transformer is kept for 12 hours in the settling area to check
for oil leakage and oil level.
MAINTAINANCE DEPARTMENT:-
Maintenance Department is the mother of all departments as it look to every
department, and is being called by every department in case of need. Maintenance
department has to maintain everything of the factory with and without the call of
the department.
Department in which the problem arises send a request for their problem to
maintenance department. Maintenance department generates a work order towards
for the solution of their problem. After the matter is solved (repair) maintenance
department send a feedback report to the concerned department to inquire their
satisfactory. If the department is satisfied then the work order is closed. This all
communication is done electronically by software developed by PEL known as
MMS.
Maintenance Monitoring System (MMS)

 Receives the maintenance request.

 Generates the work order.

 Updates the status.

 Feedback.

There are two types of Maintenances:

1. Preventive Maintenance is a precautionary maintenance to avoid certain
breakdowns. This may include service, tuning, oil checking etc of the
machines frequently.
2. Breakdown Maintenance is special maintenance or repair in case any
machine certainly stops working and is on request.
Maintenance department classify the system in to two parts:

I. Common

It includes AUTO, ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL.

II. TR unit 2

It includes all the machines used in the factory.

  TR Design Department
The Design department is the most important department of the Transformer
division. Because the basis of any transformer is laid here. It is the starting step in
the production of any type of transformer. This department can be subdivided into
two main categories:
1. Electrical Design

2. Mechanical Design

 Working Procedure of the Design Department

Whenever any client wants to purchase any transformer, it sends its required
specifications to the Marketing department of PEL. This is called Enquiry. The
marketing department then sends this enquiry to the design department. The design
department performs three main tasks:
1. Estimation of the Cost

2. Dimensional Sketch

3. Datasheet

These three things are then sent to the marketing department, which is the feedback
to the client’s enquiry. If the client feels satisfied with these things, then it gives
the order to the marketing department. The marketing department then sends the
Sales Advice to the design section, which mainly defines the number of
transformers to be produced and the duration of the supply.
Once the ordered is confirmed, then the design department starts its working in full
swing. The work is then divided into two subsections; electrical team performs the
electrical design, whereas the mechanical team is mainly concerned with
mechanical design.
The electrical design team is mainly involved in the designing of the Core, LT and
HT windings. The mechanical design team works on the layout, body of the
transformer. The design is made on Pro-E and AutoCAD software.
The electrical design generally works with a faster pace, because it has to inform
the Material Planning Control section that this much material is required for the
production. Same is the case with the mechanical team, but since core and winding
are to produce first, so there production starts a bit earlier.
Most of us were doing electrical engineering and but there was a mechanical
engineering student as a internee with us , so we were told about the electrical part
and little about mechanical as well. The design and its calculations are mainly done
via software. Once a design is finalized and is according to the requirements of the
client, a TR document is prepared that defines each and everything regarding the
design.

 TR File:
TR file describes the production department that what is actually being required by
the customer and how it us to be achieved. The production is then done keeping in
view the TR file. Following are the few important things:
TR no, Fb no, KVA rating, connection type(vector group), cooling mechanism,
design no, taps, losses quoted and calculated, temperature rise, the cross sections of
HV and LV windings, the dimensions (cross section area, height, width, steps etc)
of core, type of HV and LV winding, total no. of layers in HV and LV, turns in
each winding, the inner and outer diameter of HV and LV, the nature of conductor
used in winding, the level and layers of insulation, the number of thermo ducts, the
clearance distances, the end collar dimension, the total weight of HV and LV
windings, tapping details, HV and LV winding layout, the description regarding
the material required in winding and core.

 Terms
1. Data Sheet

Data sheet includes all specification of a transformer

2. BOQ

BOQ (Bills of Quantity) contains the amount of material used for the
construction of a transformer.
3. Work order

Work order includes the true and sequences of parts to be

manufactured.
• Tank Section
In the tanking section cover plate, tank, and other mechanical
components of the transformer are made. Tank has following parts;
1. Frame

2. Cover plate

3. Bottom

4. Side plate

5. Fin Walls

6. Conservator

 Raw Material

Raw material for tank and other components are

1. MS sheet (Mild steel sheet)

2. MSCR sheet (Mild steel cold rolled sheet)

Inspection and quality Control ( I& QC ) Department:-

Inspection and quality control department ensures; material purchased by the

purchase department is according to the criteria suggested by IEC in their
recommendations(Incoming), during the manufacturing of transformers all the
components of transformer are according to transformer design(in processing),do
all the quality tests so that transformer does not fail in real conditions(Testing).
Inspection and quality control department is further divided into three sections
1. Incoming
2. In processing
3. Testing

 Incoming Section:
Incoming section is responsible for the checking of all the material which is
purchased to ensure that all the material is according to international standards.
When the material is purchased it first comes in the receiving where it is inward
gate pass (IGP) number. Incoming section checks through the system if material
has arrived, then quality inspectors from the incoming go to the store and check the
material if material is according to standards set by IEC than material is approved
otherwise it is rejected and supplier compliant application form(SCAF) is sent
to supplier.
There are eight routine tests done in testing section.
1. Transformer Turns Ratio Test (TTR Test)
2. Winding Resistance Test
3. Insulation Resistance Test (Meager Test)
4. Induced Voltage Test
5. High Voltage Test (Separate source voltage)
6. No Load Losses (Open circuit test)
7. On Load Losses (Short circuit test)
8. Dielectric Tests
 1. Transformer Turn Ratio: (TTR Test)

Transformer turn ratio test is done twice on a transformer. Once before the
connection and once after the connection. Transformer turn ratio meter is used for
this test. Turn ratio should be as defined in Tr. Design to pass the test.
2. Winding Resistance

This test is used to check the phase to phase and phase to neutral resistance of
transformer.
3. Phase to Phase resistance should be in ohms (Ω) and phase to
neutral resistance should be in milliohms (Ω).
4. Insulation Resistance Test: (Meager test)

This test is used to check insulation between

H.V Ground
L.V Ground
H.V L.V
5. Induced Over Voltage Test

This test is used to check the winding insulation. In this test voltage is applied on
the L.V side because it is easy to provide. On the L.V side twice the rated voltage
at four times the normal frequency is applied. Test time should be greater than 15
seconds and can be found using the formula
Time = Rated frequency * 120
Test frequency
6. High Voltage Test: (Separate source voltage)

This test is used to check whether winding is insulated from other parts of
transformer or not. First, all the L.V terminals and body of transformer are earthed.
Than 33kv voltage is applied on the H.V side. IT is checked whether the
transformer will stand this voltage for 1 minute or not.
7. No Load Losses: (Open circuit test)

In this test H.V side is kept open and voltage is applied on the L.V side. Than V, I,
PF and other quantities are measured.
 8. Load Losses: (Short circuit test)

In this test L.V side is short and current is passed through the L.V side. Than V, I,
PF and other quantities are measured.
9. Dielectric Test

This test is done in the oil testing laboratory and break down voltage should be less
than mentioned in the IEC-60296.
PAD MOUNTED TRANSFORMER:-
It is a Distribution transformer
which is used for underground electricfication.

(RATING)

Its rating is from 100 kVA to 630 kVA.

(COMPONENTS)

It has 2 portions:

1. HT
2. LT

 HT:
 It is primary side
 It has “Delta” connection.
 Its rating is about 11 kV.

It includes:

 Isolators.
 Ttransformer Pushings
 Bus Bars
 HRC Fuses
  LT:
 It is secondary side.
 It has “Y” connection.
 Its rating is about 0.44 kV.

It includes:

Moulded case Circuit Breaker (MCCB).

Moulded Circuit Breaker (MCB).

 TAP CHANGER:

It is -2.5 to 2.5% of total winding and used for tap

changing whenever required.

 OIL DRAINAGE VALVE:

It is used to drain oil from transformer.

 CAROGATED AND TABULAR FINS:

These are used for the process

of oil cooling.

(ADVENTAGE)

It has protection which is not present in normal transformers.

(DISADVENTAGE)

It is most expensive than normal transformers.

ENERGY METER:-
Energy meter or watt-hour meter or is an electrical instrument that measures the
amount of electrical energy used by the consumers. Utilities is one of the electrical
departments, which install these instruments at every place like homes, industries,
organizations, commercial buildings to charge for the electricity consumption by
loads such as lights, fans, refrigerator and other home appliances.

The basic unit of power is watts and it is measured by using a watt meter. One
thousand watts make one kilowatt. If one uses one kilowatt in one hour duration,
one unit of energy gets consumed. So energy meters measure the rapid voltage and
currents, calculate their product and give instantaneous power. This power is
integrated over a time interval, which gives the energy utilized over that time
period.
  Two Basic Types of Watt-Hour Meter:
The energy meters are classified into two basic categories, such as:
1. Electromechanical Type Induction Meter
2. Electronic Energy Meter
Watt hour meters are classified into two types by taking the following factors into
considerations:
1. Types of displays analog or digital electric meter.
2. Types of metering points: secondary transmission, grid, local and primary
distribution.
3. End applications like commercial, industrial and domestic purpose
4. Technical aspects like single phases, three phases, High Tension (HT), Low
Tension (LT) and accuracy class materials.
The electricity supply connection may be either single phase or three phase
depending on the supply utilized by the domestic or commercial installations.
Particularly in this article we are going to study about the working principles of
single-phase electromechanical induction type watt- hour meter and also about
three-phase electronic watt hour meter from the explanation of two basic energy
meters as described below .

 Single Phase Electromechanical Induction Watt Hour Meter:

It is a well-known and most common type of age-old watt-hour meter. It comprises
a rotating aluminum disc placed on a spindle between two electromagnets. The
rotation speed of the disc is proportional to the power, and this power is integrated
by the use of gear trains and counter mechanism. It is made of two silicon steel
laminated electromagnets: shunt and series magnets.

Series magnet carries a coil which is of a few turns of thickness wire connected in
series with the line; whereas the shunt magnet carries a coil with numerous turns of
thin wire connected across the supply.
Braking magnet is a kind of permanent magnet that applies the force opposite to
the normal disc rotation to move that disc a balanced position and to stop the disc
while power gets off.

Single Phase Electromechanical Induction Energy meter

Series magnet produces a flux which is proportional to the flowing current, and
shunt magnet produces a flux proportional to the voltage. These two fluxes lag at
90 degrees due to inductive nature. The interface of these two fields produces eddy
current in the disk, utilizing a force, which is proportional to the product of
instantaneous voltage, current and the phase-angle between them. A braking
magnet is placed over one side of the disc, which produces a break torque on the
disc by a constant field provided by using a permanent magnet. Whenever the
braking and driving torques become equal, the speed of the disc becomes steady.
A Shaft or vertical spindle of the aluminum disc is associated with the gear
arrangement that records a number proportional to the revolutions of the disc. This
gear arrangement sets the number in a series of dials and indicates energy
consumed over a time.
This type of energy meter is simple in construction and the accuracy is somewhat
less due to creeping and other external fields. A foremost problem with these types
of energy meters is their proneness to tampering, which necessitates an electrical-
energy-monitoring system. These series and shunt type meters are widely used in
domestic and industrial applications.

Electronic energy meters are accurate, precise and reliable type of measuring
instruments when compared to electromechanical induction type meters. When
connected to loads, they consume less power and start measuring instantaneous.
So, electronic type of three phase energy meter is explained below with its working
principle.
  3-Phase Electronic Watt Hour Meter:
This meter is able to perform current, voltage and power measurements in three phase supply systems. By
using these three phase meters, it is also possible to measure high voltages and currents by using
appropriate transducers. One of the types of three phase energy meters is shown below (given as an
example) that ensures reliable and accurate energy measurement compared to the electromechanical
meter.
It uses AD7755, a single-phase energy measurement IC to acquire and process the
input voltage and current parameters. The voltage and currents of the power line
are rated down to signal level using transducers like voltage and current
transformers and given to that IC as shown in figure. These signals are sampled
and converted into digital, multiplied by one another to get the instantaneous
power. Later these digital outputs are converted to frequency to drive an
electromechanical counter. The frequency rate of the output pulse is proportional
to the instantaneous power, and (in a given interval) it gives energy transfers to the
load for a particular number of pulses.
The microcontroller accepts the inputs from all the three energy measurement ICs
for three phase energy measurement and serves as the brain of the system by
performing all the necessary operations like: storing and retrieving data from
EEPROM, operating the meter using buttons to view energy consumption,
calibrating phases and clearing readings; and, it also drives the display using
decoder IC.
Till now we have read about the energy meters and their working principles. For a
deeper understanding of this concept, the following description about the watt hour
meter gives complete circuit details and its connections using a microcontroller.
Watt Hour Meter Circuit Using Microcontroller:
The below figure shows watt-hour meter circuit implemented by using Atmel AVR
microcontroller.This circuit continuously monitors and acquires voltage and
current parameters of the mains single phase supply. Microcontroller gets these
parameter values from a signal conditioning circuit, which is driven by OP-AMP
ICs.
 Watt Hour Meter Circuit Using Microcontroller:
Switchgear:-
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect
switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be
done and to clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to
the reliability of the electricity supply.
The earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on
insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly
escalated, making opening manually operated switches too dangerous for anything
other than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc
energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a
switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure with electrically operated
switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has
largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large
currents and power levels to be safely controlled by automatic equipment.
High-voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for
operating motors and other electric machines. The technology has been improved
over time and can now be used with voltages up to 1,100 kV.
Typically, switchgear in substations are located on both the high- and low-voltage
sides of large power transformers. The switchgear on the low-voltage side of the
transformers may be located in a building, with medium-voltage circuit breakers
for distribution circuits, along with metering, control, and protection equipment.
For industrial applications, a transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined
in one housing, called a unitized substation (USS).
 Components:
A switchgear has 2 types of components:

1. Power conducting components, such as switches, circuit breakers, fuses, and

lightening arrestors, that conduct or interrupt the flow of electrical power.
2. Control systems such as control panels, current transformers, potential
transformers, protective relays, and associated circuitry, that monitor,
control, and protect the power conducting components.
 Functions:
One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of
short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected
circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies.
Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability by allowing more than one
source to feed a load.
 History:
Switchgears are as old as electricity generation. The first models were very
primitive: all components were simply fixed to a wall. Later they were mounted on
wooden panels. For reasons of fire protection, the wood was replaced
by slate or marble. This led to a further improvement, because the switching and
measuring devices could be attached to the front, while the wiring was on the back.
 Housing:
Switchgear for lower voltages may be entirely enclosed within a building. For
higher voltages (over about 66 kV), switchgear is typically mounted outdoors and
insulated by air, although this requires a large amount of space. Gas-insulated
switchgear saves space compared with air-insulated equipment, although the
equipment cost is higher. Oil insulated switchgear presents an oil spill hazard.
Switches may be manually operated or have motor drives to allow for remote
control.
Circuit breaker types:-
A switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be insulated by
some other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is the
gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by
pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum
insulated switchgear.
The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to
interrupt fault currents of thousands of amps. A circuit breaker(within a switchgear
enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching
of the arc when the circuit breaker pulls apart the contacts (disconnects the circuit)
requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall into these five types:
i. Oil
Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil
along the path of the arc. The vapor released by the arcing consists of hydrogen
gas. Mineral oil has better insulating property than air. Whenever there is a
separation of current carrying contacts in the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is
initialized at the moment of separation of contacts, and due to this arc the oil is
vaporized and decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately creates a
hydrogen bubble around the electric arc. This highly compressed gas bubble
around the arc prevents re-striking of the arc after current reaches zero crossing of
the cycle. The oil circuit breaker is one of the oldest type of circuit breakers.
ii. Air
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) or the magnetic force of the arc
itself to elongate the arc. As the length of the sustainable arc is dependent on the
available voltage, the elongated arc will eventually exhaust itself. Alternatively, the
contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the
displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly:
typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of
the device.
iii. Gas
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and
then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 gas to quench the stretched arc.
iv. Hybrid
Hybrid switchgear is a type which combines the components of traditional air-
insulated switchgear (AIS) and SF6 gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) technologies. It
is characterized by a compact and modular design, which encompasses several
different functions in one module.
v. Vacuum
Circuit breakers with vacuum interrupters have minimal arcing characteristics (as
there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when
it is stretched by a small amount (<2–8 mm). Near zero current the arc is not hot
enough to maintain a plasma, and current ceases; the gap can then withstand the
rise of voltage. Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-
voltage switchgear to 40,500 volts. Unlike the other types, they are inherently
unsuitable for interrupting DC faults. The reason vacuum circuit breakers are
unsuitable for breaking high DC voltages is that with DC there is no "current zero"
period. The plasma arc can feed itself by continuing to gasify the contact material.
vi. Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Breakers that use carbon dioxide as the insulating and arc extinguishing medium
work on the same principles as a sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) breaker. Because SF6 is
a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2, by switching from SF6 to CO2 it is
possible to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions by 10 tons during the product
lifecycle.[4]

Protective circuitry:-
 Circuit breakers and fuses
Circuit breakers and fuses disconnect when current exceeds a predetermined safe
level. However they cannot sense other critical faults, such as unbalanced
currents—for example, when a transformer winding contacts ground. By
themselves, circuit breakers and fuses cannot distinguish between short circuits and
high levels of electrical demand.
 Merz-Price circulating current scheme
Differential protection depends upon Kirchhoff's current law, which states that the
sum of currents entering or leaving a circuit node must equal zero. Using this
principle to implement differential protection, any section of a conductive path
may be considered a node. The conductive path could be a transmission line, a
winding of a transformer, a winding in a motor, or a winding in the stator of an
alternator. This form of protection works best when both ends of the conductive
path are physically close to each other. This scheme was invented in Great Britain
by Charles HestermanMerz and Bernard Price.
Two identical current transformers are used for each winding of a transformer,
stator, or other device. The current transformers are placed around opposite ends of
a winding. The current through both ends should be identical. A protective relay
detects any imbalance in currents, and trips circuit breakers to isolate the device. In
the case of a transformer, the circuit breakers on both the primary and secondary
would open.
 Distance relays
A short circuit at the end of a long transmission line appears similar to a normal
load, because the impedance of the transmission line limits the fault current. A
distance relay detects a fault by comparing the voltage and current on the
transmission line. A large current along with a voltage drop indicates a fault.
 Classification
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:

1) By the current rating.

2) By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current kAIC that the device can
safely interrupt)
a) Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents
b) Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents
c) Isolators are off load disconnectors which are to be operated after Circuit
Breakers, or else if the load current is very small
3) By voltage class:
a) Low voltage (less than 1 kV AC)
b) Medium voltage (1 kV AC through to approximately 75 kV AC)
c) High voltage (75 kV to about 230 kV AC)
d) Extra high voltage, ultra high voltage (more than 230 kV)
4) By insulating medium:
a) Air
b) Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
c) Oil
d) Vacuum
e) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
5) By construction type:
a) Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA
enclosure type)
b) Outdoor
c) Industrial
 d) Utility
e) Marine
f) Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
g) Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
h) Live-front
i) Dead-front
j) Open
k) Metal-enclosed (ME) — A switchgear assembly completely enclosed on all
sides and the top with sheet metal.
l) Metal-clad (MC) — A more expensive variety of metal-enclosed switchgear
that has the following characteristics: the main switching and interrupting
device of removable type; grounded metal barriers to separate compartments
and enclose all major circuits and parts; mechanical interlocks; insulated bus
conductors and other features.
m) Arc-resistant
6) By IEC degree of internal separation
a) No Separation (Form 1)
b) Busbars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
c) Terminals for external conductors separated from busbars (Form 2b, 3b, 4a,
4b)
d) Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not
from each other (Form 3a, 3b)
e) Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
f) Terminals for external conductors separated from each other (Form 4a, 4b)
g) Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated functional
unit (Form 4b)
7) By interrupting device:
a) Fuses
b) Air Circuit Breaker
c) Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
d) Oil Circuit Breaker
e) Vacuum Circuit Breaker
f) Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker
g) CO2 Circuit Breaker
8) By operating method:
a) Manually operated
b) Motor/stored energy operated
c) Solenoid operated
9) By type of current:
a) Alternating current
b) Direct current
10) By application:
a) Transmission system
b) Distribution
11) By purpose
a) Isolating switches (disconnectors)
b) Load-break switches.
c) Grounding (earthing) switches
A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for example,
air-insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually operated switches may all
exist in the same row of cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a multitude of
standards. In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of
the rest of the world uses IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives
or variations.
SAFETY:-
To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear, trapped key
interlocking provides predefined scenarios of operation. For example, if only one
of two sources of supply are permitted to be connected at a given time, the
interlock scheme may require that the first switch must be opened to release a key
that will allow closing the second switch. Complex schemes are possible.
Indoor switchgear can also be type tested for internal arc containment (e.g., IEC
62271-200). This test is important for user safety as modern switchgear is capable
of switching large currents.
Switchgear is often inspected using thermal imaging to assess the state of the
system and predict failures before they occur. Other methods include partial
discharge (PD) testing, using either fixed or portable testers, and acoustic
emission testing using surface-mounted transducers (for oil equipment)
or ultrasonic detectors used in outdoor switchyards. Temperature sensors fitted to
cables to the switchgear can permanently monitor temperature build-up.
SF6 equipment is invariably fitted with alarms and interlocks to warn of loss of
pressure, and to prevent operation if the pressure falls too low.
The increasing awareness of dangers associated with high fault levels has resulted
in network operators specifying closed-door operations for earth switches and
racking breakers. Many European power companies have banned operators from
switch rooms while operating. Remote racking systems are available which allow
an operator to rack switchgear from a remote location without the need to wear a
protective arc flash hazard suit. Switchgear systems require continuous
maintenance and servicing to remain safe to use and fully optimized to provide
such high voltages.