VOLCANOES

VISCOSITY is the tendency to resist flowing. VISCOSITY AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

VISCOSITY AND HEAT
 Viscosity is an important property influencing
volcanic activity, particularly as it relates to the flow
of magma, molten rock below Earth’s surface, and
lava, molten rock on Earth’s surface.
 The viscosity of magma increases as its temperature
decreases.
 Magma works its way upward through pipes and
fractures in Earth’s crust because it is warmer and
less dense than the surrounding material. As it
comes closer to the surface, it cools slowly and its
viscosity increases.
 Low-viscosity magmas can flow quickly and may
form lava flows that cover thousands of square
kilometers.
 High-viscosity lavas flow slowly and typically only
cover small areas.
VOLCANIC IGNEOUS ROCKS and
PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS (Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite)
VISCOSITY AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 WATER VAPOR, CARBON DIOXIDE, and SULFUR
DIOXIDE (dissolved gases)
 These gases are dissolved in the magma under
pressure deep in the crust.
 As the magma rises, the pressure decreases and the
gas come out of solution as bubbles that help push
the magma to the surface.
 LAVA is magma at Earth’s surface
 SILICA (SiO2) - a combination of the elements silicon
and oxygen present in magma
 Violent eruptions occur where gases cannot escape
easily
 Gases can escape relatively easily from low viscosity
magmas, but high viscosity magmas cannot lose
their gases as readily. Gas pressure, therefore,
builds up, resulting in more violent eruptions.
 The viscosity of magma INCREASES with
INCREASING silica content and DECREASING
temperature.
MAGMA SOURCES AND COMPOSITION
 As of 2012, PHIVOLCS lists 23 volcanoes as active in
the Philippines, 21 of which have historical eruptions
and two strongly fumarolic volcanoes - Cabalian and
Leonard Kniaseff.
 5 volcanoes with the highest number of historical
eruptions in the Philippines:
 Mayon — 50
 Taal — 33
 Kanlaon — 26
 Bulusan — 17
 Ragang — 7
 Different plate boundaries produce different magma
compositions - each setting generates magma from
melting a different source rock.
 ROCKS are composed of basic building blocks called
minerals that melt at different temperatures.
 Silica-rich minerals have a lower melting
temperature than silica-poor minerals.
 PARTIAL MELTING - limited melting, involving only
some minerals

BASALTIC MAGMA ANDESITIC MAGMA RHYOLITIC MAGMA

 Characteristic of divergent plate
boundaries and oceanic hot spots
 Low silica content
 Low viscosity
 Generated along convergent plate
boundaries, where oceanic
lithosphere descends into the
mantle at subduction zones.
 Water expel led from the
descending plate enters the hot
rocks in the lower lithosphere of the
mantle wedge. The presence of
water results in partial melting to
form magma.
 High silica content
 Formed form partial melting of the
continental crust.
 The formation of rhyolitic magma
results from melting of lower crust
rocks due to the heat of magma
that is rising from the mantle.
THREE CLASSES OF VOLCANIC CONES

SHIELD VOLCANO CINDER VOLCANO COMPOSITE VOLCANO

 Broad, gentle sloping
 Found above oceanic hot spots or in
association with divergent plate
boundaries
 Smallest volcanoes; composed of
coarse tephra produced when gas
escapes rapidly from molten lava.
 As the blobs of lava cool and
solidify, they fall back to Earth
around the volcanic vent to build up
the cone.
 Easily eroded because they are
composed of loose, unconsolidated
debris.
 Steep-sided; more viscous magmas
 Has a violent style of eruption that
blasts debris several kilometers in to
the atmosphere.
 Composed of many layers of
airborne volcanic debris, pyroclastic
flow deposits, and lavas.

AIRBORNE ELEMENTS OF VOLCANOES

1. LATERAL BLAST EFFECTS

 Volcanic blasts, driven by gas-rich magmas with intermediate viscosity
2. TEPHRA
 Particles of all sizes that are blasted into the air by a volcanic eruption
 Highly conductive
3. VOLCANIC GASES
 Water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide
4. LAVA
5. PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
 Mixtures of hot gases and ash, cinders and other volcanic debris.
 Form a dense, hot cloud that races down the volcano’s slope, incinerating all in its path
 Pyroclastic flows can reach speeds of 100 km/h and temperatures of 200 to 700C
6. LAHAR
 Mudflows formed when fine grained tephra mixes with water from snowmelt or streams.

SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING VOLCANO

SEISMIC ACTIVITY
1. SHORT-PERIOD EARTHQUAKES
- Normal fault-generated earthquakes
- Caused by the fracturing of brittle rock as magma forces its way upward
2. LONG-PERIOD EARTHQUAKES
- indicate increased gas pressure in a volcano's plumbing system
3. HARMONIC TREMORS
- Result of magma pushing against the overlying rock below the surface.
- They can sometimes be strong enough to be felt as humming or buzzing by people and animals, hence the name.

GAS EMISSIONS
- As magma nears the surface and its pressure decreases, gases escape

GROUND DEFORMATION
- Swelling of the volcano signals that magma has accumulated near the surface.

THERMAL MONITORING
- Both magma movement, changes in gas release and hydrothermal activity can lead to thermal emissivity changes at the
volcano's surface.
HYDROLOGY
- Borehole and well hydrologic and hydraulic measurements are increasingly used to monitor changes in a volcanoes subsurface
gas pressure and thermal regime.

MASS MOVEMENT AND FAILURES

- Landslides, rock falls, pyroclastic flows, and mud flows (lahars)
- Rock falls often occur during periods of increased deformation and can be a sign of increased activity in absence of instrumental
monitoring.
- Mud flows (lahars) are remobilized hydrated ash deposits from pyroclastic flows and ash fall deposits, moving downslope even
at very shallow angles at high speed.

MAGMA-INDUCED INDICATIONS

1. BY MAGMA’S HEAT
- Heating of the surrounding materials – rocks, springs, groundwater and steamvents
- Drying of vegetation – plants wither and die
- Crater glow – “glowing rocks or clouds”
- Weak explosions – phreatic explosions
2. BY MAGMA’S UNUSUAL CHEMISTRY
- Poisoning of Plants and Animals – through volcanic steam
- Change in steam color – bluish, dirty white
- Change in steam density – thick clouds of dense heavy steam that flow downslope
- Unusual smell – due to sulfur (sulfur dioxide and dihydrogen sulfide)
3. BY MAGMA’S MASS
- Change in the earth’s gravity – fresh magma is much heavier than rocks
- Earthquakes – rising magma pushes aside large volumes of rocks
- Bulging – rising mass causes the surface to buckle
- Ground fissures – due to the bulging process
- Landslides – due to bulging
4. BY MAGMA MOVEMENT
- Small Volcanic Quakes – due to rising magma, which are called “harmonic”
- Ascending earthquake foci – As magma nears the surface, the earthquakes become more shallow

ALERT LEVELS

NO ALERT - background, quiet

- MONITORING

LEVEL 1 - low level unrest, fumarolic, small tremors

- MONITORING

LEVEL 2 - moderate unrest, evidence of rising magma, “alarming situation” could lead to an eruption
- Intensive monitoring, activation of NDCC, plans and education

LEVEL 3 - gas emissions, increasing steam from multiple vents, numerous earthquakes
- Eruption possible w/in 2 weeks, preparation for evacuation, Lahar Warning System

LEVEL 4 - intensive unrest, harmonic tremors

- Eruption possible w/in 24 hours, evacuation, Lahar Warning System

LEVEL 5 - eruptions in progress

- MONITORING