WELWELDING

WELDING
Welding is a process in which localized coalescence is produced with or without the application
of Heat, with or without the application of pressure or pressure alone and with or without the
application of filler material for joining two similar or dissimilar metals

Types of welded joints

Weld bead Geometry

AP –Area of penetration
AR – Area of Reinforcement

AP
Dilution 
AP  AR
Welding terminology
Backing

It is the material support provided at the root side of a weld to aid in the control of penetration.

Bead or Weld bead

Bead is the metal added during a single pass of welding. The bead appears as a separate
material from the base metal.
Crater
In arc welding a crater is the depression in the weld-metal pool at the point where the arc
strikes the base metal plate.

Weld Deposition rate

The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time is the deposition rate and is
expressed as kg/hr.

Penetration
It is the depth up to which the weld metal combines with the base metal as measured from the
top surface of the joint.

Puddle
The portion of the weld joint that is melted by the heat of welding is called puddle.

Root
It is the point of which the two pieces to be joined by welding are nearest.

Tack weld
A small weld generally used to temporarily hold the two pieces together during actual welding is
the tack weld.

Toe of weld
It is the junction between the weld face and the base metal

Weld Pass
A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along the length of the joint which result in
a bead is a weld pass.

Arc-length Voltage Characteristics

Open Circuit Voltage
The voltage required to generate arc at no loading condition is called open circuit voltage (V o).

Short Circuit Current

The current required during arc generation is called short circuit current (I s).

Duty Cycle
It is defined as the percentage of time during which the arc is ON without over heating the vital
elements of welding equipment.

arc ON time
Duty Cycle (D.C.) =
totaltime

Total time = arc on time + rest time

I2D = constant
Where D= Duty cycle and
I =current

ARC- VOLTAGE CHARACTERICTICS

V 
Vtransformer  Vo   O .I t
 Is 

Where Vo = Open circuit voltage

Is =Short circuit current
Vt, It –Voltage & current of Transformer
Condition for stable arc:
In constant current transformer Iarc = Itransformer
In constant voltage transformer Varc =Vtransofrmer

SHIELDED GAS ARC WLEDING TECHNIQES:

A. Tungsten Inert gas welding(TIG, GMAW)
1. In the Tungsten Inert gas welding, the arc is generated between a Non-consumable
tungsten electrode and work piece. This technique is used for welding of work piece
materials having thickness less than 5 mm without using filler material.
2. For welding of greater than 5 mm thickness materials, filler material is supplied externally.
3. Liquid metal in the weld pool can be protected by providing inert gas atmosphere.
4. For welding of all the materials except aluminium and magnesium alloys, DCSP can be used.
5. For welding of aluminium & Magnesium allays AC power supply is used. In half of the cycle
due to straight polarity more heat will be produced on the work piece and oxide layers can
be formed. In the next half of the cycle due to reverse polarity oxide layers can be cleaned
from the work piece is known as cathodic cleaning.
6. In this process to avoid overheating and melting of electrode, it should be cooled
continuously by supplying the coolant through a small pipe which is surrounding the
electrodes.
7. Form the inert gas cylinder, inert gas will be continuously supplied to the cover provided
around the electrode which is coming out near the tip of the electrode and flowing away so
that it is acting as a shielding gas protecting the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.

Applications
It is used for welding of Aluminium and Magnesium and its alloys in automobile, aerospace &
chemical industries.
B. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)
1. Arc is produced between a consumable electrode and work piece.
2. Electrode will be in the form of wire and it will be continuously feed to the work piece
through the rollers.
3. Movement of the rollers can be controlled by using servomechanism. It is a automatic
welding technique.
4. Liquid metal in the weld pool can be protected by providing inert gas atmosphere.
5. DCRP or AC power supply used for welding all the materials with a high rate welding
current.
6. This technique can be used for welding of materials having thickness greater than 5 mm and
high melting materials compared to TIG welding.
Applications
It is used for welding of Aluminum, Magnesium, Capper and its alloys in Automobile, Aerospace
and Spacecraft Industries

C. Plasma Arc Welding(PAW)

1. Arc is generated between a non consumable tungsten electrode and work piece
2. By supplying the high energy plasma through ceramic nozzle, it will mix up with electric arc
and produce plasma arc which is having high Kinetic Energy (KE) and it will be focused on
the work piece at a given point.
3. By forming a key hole plasma arc can be penetrated into maximum thickness of the work
piece.
4. High thickness and High Melting Point materials can be melted narrow weld beads can be
possible.
5. Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is less and weld distortions arc minimum.
6. Liquid metal in the weld pool is protected by inert gas atmosphere.
7. Cooling water is circulated through ceramic nozzle and tungsten electrode.

Applications
It is used in welding of Stainless steel, Nickel, Cobalt, Molybdenum and Titanium based
alloys in Aerospace, Jet engines and Submarine applications.

Submerged Arc Welding(SAW)

1. This welding process is used for welding of thickness materials in a single pass.
2. Arc is generated between a consumable electrode and work piece
3. By supplying continuously solid from of the flux material through the welding torch arc
will be submerged under the flux. Due to this heat transfer, losses from the arc will be
minimum and depth of penetration & heat concentration on the work piece is maximum.
4. Splashing of the liquid metal and weld spotter can be minimum.
5. By supplying high rate of current with DCRP melting rate of the electrode is maximum
and weld deposition rate and welding speed is very high.
6. Heat affected zone is maximum in this process.
Applications
1. Fabrication of pressure vessels
2. Welding of high thickness plates and pipes
3. Ship building, bridges and fabrication of LPG cylinder

GAS WELDING (Oxy- Acetylene welding)

1. In oxy acetylene gas welding, the two gases used for producing flame are oxygen and
acetylene
2. By burning the acetylene in the presence of oxygen, due to the exothermic reaction, heat
will be produced and this heat will be utilized for melting of base material to produce a
fusion joint.
3. For complete combustion of one mole of acetylene, 2.5 moles of oxygen (O2) is required.
In which one mole consumed from oxygen cylinder and 1.5 moles are from atmosphere.

Primary reaction
C 2 H 2  O2  2Co  H 2  h1 ,

Secondary reaction
3
2CO  H 2  O2  2CO2  H 2 O  h2 ( h2  h1 )
2
5
C2 H 2  O2  2Co 2  H 2 O  h
2
Types of Gas Flames
1. Neutral Flame
2. Oxidizing flame
3. Carburizing Flame

1. Neutral Flame
 O2 
  1
 C2 H 2 

1. Within the flame, it is divided into 2 cores. Inner core and outer core.
2. Inner core is red/yellow in colour which indicates incomplete combustion and outer core
is blue in colour which indicates complete combustion.
3. It is a general purpose flame used for welding of mild steels, low carbon steels, Al. Cast
Iron etc.,

2. Oxidizing Flame
O2
 1.15to1.5
C2 H 2
 1. Because of slightly lean mixtures always give highest efficiency of burning. The heat
generation and temperature is high in oxidizing flame.
2. It is used for welding of copper, zinc and Brass.

3. Carburizing Flame
O2
 0.85to0.95
C2 H 2
1. Due to short supply of O2, there is possibility of free carbon in the flame & during
welding of ferrous materials, this carbon may absorbed by the metal and brittleness of
weld bit is increased.
Hence carburizing flame is not used for joining of ferrous metals
2. It is used for welding of high carbon steels, Nickel

Gas Cutting:
 Iron and steel oxidize (burn) when heated to a temperature between 8000C to 10000C.
 High-pressure oxygen jet (300 KPa) is directed against a heated steel plate, the oxygen
jet burns the metal and blows it away causing the cut (kerf).
 For cutting metallic plates shears are used. These are useful for straight-line cuts and
also for cuts up to 40 mm thickness.
 Gas-cutting is similar to gas welding except torch tip.

Fig- differences in torch tips for gas welding and gas cutting
  Larger size orifice produces kerf width wider and larger oxygen consumed.
 At kindling temperature (about 870oC), iron form iron oxide.
 Reaction:
3Fe + 2O2  Fe3O4 +6.67 MJ/kg of iron
The other reactions:
2Fe + O2  2FeO + 3.18 MJ/kg of iron
4Fe + 3O2  2Fe2O3 + 4.9 MJ/kg of iron
 All exothermic reactions preheat the steel.
 The drag lines shows the characteristics of the movement of the oxygen stream.
 Drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the drag line trails from the top edge.
 Good cut means negligible drag.

Fig- positioning of cutting torch in oxy- fuel gas cutting

Thermit Welding
 Heating and coalescence is by superheated molten metal obtained from a chemical
reaction between a metal oxide and a metallic reducing agent.
 Used mixture one part aluminum and three parts iron oxide and ignited by a magnesium
fuse. (1150°C).
8Al+ 3Fe3O4  9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat
 Temp. 2750°C produced in 30 seconds, superheating the molten iron which provide both
heat and filler metal.
 Runners and risers are provided like casting.
 Copper, brass, and bronze can be welded using a different starting mixture.
 Used to joint thick sections, in remote locations.
Atomic Hydrogen welding (AHW)
 An a.c. arc is formed between two tungsten electrodes along which streams of hydrogen
are fed to the welding zone. The molecules of hydrogen are dissociated by the high heat
of the arc in the gap between the electrodes. The formation of atomic hydrogen proceeds
with the absorption of heat:
H2 = H + H - h
 This atomic hydrogen recombines to form molecular hydrogen outside the arc,
particularly on the relatively cold surface of the work being welded, releasing the heat
gained previously:
H + H = H2 + h.
 Temperature of about 3700oC.
 Hydrogen acts as shielding also.
 Clean surfaces can be produced at weld face.
 Lower thermal efficiency than Arc welding.
 AC power supply can be used.
Applications:
Joining of die steel, tool steel, alloyed steel and repair works of mould, dies and tools

RESISTANCE WELDING

Principle
 Both heat and pressure are used.
 Heat is generated by the electrical resistance of the work pieces and the interface
between them.
 Pressure is supplied externally and is varied throughout the weld cycle.
 Due to pressure, a lower temperature needed than oxy-fuel or arc welding.
R
i) Spot Welding
In spot welding, the parts to be joined are normally overlapped. The workpieces are
clamped to water cooled copper electrodes. On the passage of a high transient current, the
interface melts over a spot and forms the weld. A very high current (40 amp or more) in
needed for a very short duration (of the order of a fraction of second) to complete the
welding. The interfaces to be joined are initially cleaned by various method, including
scratch brushing and vapour degreasing. A spot weld normally contains some porosity at the
weld centre, which unless excessive, is harmless. The spot welding process is difficult to
use for highly conductive materials such as aluminium and magnesium. If a series welds are
to be made, obviously then a higher current is necessary for each subsequent spot in view
of the short circuiting provided by the preceding welds.
Heat generated Qg = I2RT
Where I- Current passing through electric circuit
R-Resistance
T- time

FIG. The fundamental resistance-welding circuit

ii) Seam Welding

Seam welding is continuous spot welding process where the overlapped parts to be welded are
fed through a pair of copper alloy electrodes to form a continuous seam.
iii) Projection welding
It is a variation of the spot welding process in which small projections are made in one of the
surface, as shown in figure. Then, the parts to be welded are clamped between the flat copper
alloy electrodes.

On the passage of a high current, the projections melt and form the weld, the process is
obviously suitable for a sheet metal assembly, and unlike spot welding, leaves no indentation
mark on the free surface.
Iv) Flash welding
 Two pieces are brought together and the power supply is switched on.
 Momentarily the two pieces are separated to create the arc to melt the ends of the two
pieces.
 Then again the pieces are brought together and the power switched off while the two
ends are fused under force.
 Most of the metal melted would flash out through the joint and form

V) Percussion Welding
In this process the electric are is mainly used to heat the welding members only and pressure is
utilized to effect a weld. The process relies on the electric arc for heating rather than an electric
resistance in the metal.
The metal pieces to be welded are held apart; one in a stationary clamp and other in a sliding
clamp backed up against a heavy spring pressure. During welding the movable clamp is set free
and it carries with it the piece to be welded when the pieces are about 1.5 mm apart, there is a
sudden discharge of electric energy. This creates intense arcing over the surfaces to be welded
and raises them to a high temperature. The arc gets extinguished by the percussion blow of the
two parts coming together with sufficient force to make the weld
vi) Electro slag welding
 Very effective for welding thick sections.
 Heat is derived from the passage of electrical current through a liquid slag and temp.
1760°C
 A 65-mm deep layer of molten slag, protect and cleanse the molten metal.
  Water-cooled copper molding plates confined the liquid and moved upward.
 Multiple electrodes are used to provide an adequate supply of filler.
 Slow cooling produces a coarse grain structure.
 Large HAZ.

Applications:
 Shipbuilding, machine tool structure, heavy pressure vessels, and the joining of large
castings and forgings.

Solid State Welding SOLID STATE WELDING

A. Explosion welding

In this process, the metals to be joined are placed at an angle to each other. The energy
derived from an explosion forces the plates together at high velocity causing surface ripples
in the metal. As the force is dissipated the ripple lock or weld the two metal together. The
process is quite dangerous and should be performed by experts in specially designed
chamber or water filled chambers. The process has been successfully used to weld steel to
steel, aluminium to aluminium, copper to steel and many other metals.

B. Ultrasonic Welding
The ultrasonic welding process is used only for the welding of thin strips and foils. The core or
magnetostriction ultrasonic generator is coupled to work through a bar having a suitably shaped
tip.

The tip applies a transverse pressure between the workpiece and simultaneous application of
ultrasonic vibration to the tip results in a spot weld. The welding takes place due to a
combination of fracturing of the brittle oxide layer and softening of the asperities because of
localized heating by the heat velocity rubbing. In this process, no bulk heating, with the
consequent bad effects (e.g. metallurgical changes and mechanical deformation) takes place.

Applications

 Joining the dissimilar metals in bimetallics

 Making microcircuit electrical contacts.
 Welding refractory or reactive metals
 Bonding ultrathin metal.

C. Friction Welding
 In the friction welding process, the parts to be welded are kept in contact and rotated
relative to each other. The interface is heated up due to friction. After the desired
temperature is attained, as axial pressure is applied to complete the welding. After the
welding is complete, the welded parts rotate together as on piece until stopped. One obvious
limitation of this process is that the part to be welded must have a rotational symmetry. It
should also be noted that the interface never melts as the softening of the material reduces
the friction and consequently the heat input, making the process self regulating.

Fig- friction welding process

Forge Welding
 Blacksmith do this.
 Borax is used as a flux.
 The ends to be joined were then overlapped on the anvil and hammered to the degree
necessary to produce an acceptable weld.
 Quality depends on the skill of the worker and not used by industry.
Diffusion Welding
 It is a solid state welding process which produces coalescence of the faying surfaces by
the application of pressure and elevated temperatures (about 50 to 80% of absolute
melting point of the parent materials) for a time ranging from a couple of minutes to a
few hours.
 Produces high quality bonds with good strength with little or no distortion.
 Can join very dissimilar materials.
 A solid filler metal may or may not be inserted.
 Materials welded for aircraft and rocket industry: Boron, Titanium, Aluminium, Ceramic,
Composite, Graphite, Magnesium etc.

SOLDERIND, BRAZING and BRAZE WELDING

Soldering
 Soldering is the process of uniting two or more pieces of metal by means of a fusible
alloy or metal called solder, applied in the molten state.
 Filler material melting point is less than 427C. Filler material is an alloy of Lead & Tin. It
is known as solder. Strength of the joint is less when compared to brazing.
 Flux material used is Zinc Chloride and Ammonium chloride.

Applications
It is used in electric and electronic circuit design and PCB’s (Printed Circuit Boards)
Brazing
 Brazing is similar to soldering, but it gives a much stronger joint than soldering filler
material melting point temperature is greater than 427 0c and less than melting point
temperature of base material.
 Filler material is an alloy of Cu &Zn, Cu &Al, Cu & Ag. It is known as spelter.
 In Brazing, the flow of molten metal of filter rod is taking place due to capillary action.
 Flux material used is Borax and Boric Acid.
Applications

1. Joining of the pipes to produce leak proof joint.

2. Hydraulic fittings

Braze welding

 Filler material melting temp is more than 427 0c and is entered into the gap between two
work pieces by means of gravity force.
 Filler material is an alloy of copper and tin which is known as Bronze.

Applications
Used for joining of cutting tool tips.

Weld ability of metals

Ability of the material to ease with which it can be welded

Factors influencing weldability

1. Melting point of metal

Both High MP and low MP materials are treated as difficult to weld materials and medium MP
materials are considered as easy to weld materials.

2. Thermal conductivity of metals

As the thermal conductivity increases, it is taken as difficult tot weld. Because at high thermal
conductivity, the heat less by conduction is very high. Therefore, it becomes difficult to raise the
temperature of plates to MP temperature.
If a material is having high MP and high thermal conductivity it will be considered as difficult to
weld material.

3. Co-efficient of thermal expansion

The materials with higher coefficient of thermal expansion leads to large amount of expansion
and contraction during welding which results in formation of cracks hence, it is considered as
difficult to weld material.

4. Reactivity of metals with atmospheric O2

Highly reactive metals will be considered as difficult to weld materials because they produce
oxides very easily and rate of oxidation is also higher.

5. Electrical resistance
Highly electrical resistance materials are treated as difficult to resistance weld materials.

6. Surface condition
Dirty surfaces are treated as difficult weld surfaces because during welding, for remaining the
dirtyness, lot of heat energy is to be wasted, some of the vapours may retain inside the weld bit
produces the defects.

DEECTS IN WELDING

1. Undercut
It is the melting or burning away the base metal at the toe of the weld as sharpness or note.

Reasons

1. Use of DCSP with magnetic Arc Blow

 2. Insufficient size of electrode
3. Use of high welding speeds during
joining of large thickness plates
4. Excessive Arc length.

2. Spatter
During welding operation, due to the force of arc some of the molten metal particles are
jumping from weld pool and falling onto the other areas of the plate. This is loss of molten
metal to the weld bead and damages the surface finish of the weld bead.

Reasons
 Excessive arc length
 Magnetic arc blow
 Manipulation of torch movement
 Use of damp electrodes

3. Crater
At the end of welding in Gas welding a shallow spherical depression is produced known
as crater.

Reason
In correct torch angle or use of large torch angle at the end of weld bead.

4. Slag inclusion
Presence of slag particles inside the weld bead.

Reason
1. Use of forehand welding technique in Gas welding
2. Incorrect selection of fluxes
3. Improper cleaning of weld bead in multi pass welding operation

5. Lack of fusion
 Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld metal or
subsequent beads in multipass welding because of failure to raise the temperature of
base metal or previously deposited weld layer to melting point during welding.
 Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded, selecting
proper current, proper welding technique and correct size of electrode.

6. In complete penetration
 Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the desired level or root
faces have not reached to melting point in a groove joint.
 If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root face or small root gap or too
narrow
 groove angles are used then it results into poor penetration.

7. Weld cracks:
 Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or base metal
or base metal and weld metal boundary.
 Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks or radiating/star
cracks and cracks in the weld crater.
 Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of material.
These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.
 Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulphur and carbon
contents, high arc travel speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld bead
and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.

Fig. Various Types of Cracks in Welds

Welding Defects:

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)