Principles of Flight

1) What is stall?
A stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when
the critical angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it
may vary.

2) What is Lift?
Lift is a resultant force of the pressure differences between upper and lower surfaces of a wing. The amount of lift
is affected by;

 Air Density (Altitude)

 TAS
 Lift Coefficient (AoA and Shape of that specific Wing)
 Wing Area

3) How an aircraft flies?

Four forces keep an airplane in the sky. They are lift, weight, thrust and drag.

Lift pushes the airplane up. The way air moves around the wings gives the airplane lift. The shape of the wings
helps with lift, too.

Weight is the force that pulls the airplane toward Earth. Airplanes are built so that their weight is spread from
front to back. This keeps the airplane balanced.

Thrust is the force that moves the airplane forward. Engines give thrust to airplanes.

Drag slows the airplane. You can feel drag when you walk against a strong wind. Airplanes are designed to let air
pass around them with less drag.

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4) Aspect Ratio
In aerodynamics, the aspect ratio of a wing is essentially the ratio of its length to its breadth (chord). A high
aspect ratio indicates long, narrow wings, whereas a low aspect ratio indicates short, stubby wings.

For most wings the length of the chord is not a constant but varies along the wing, so the aspect ratio AR is
defined as the square of the wingspan b divided by the area S of the wing.

5) Swept Wing
Advantages

 Efficient at high speed flight

 Increase Mcrit
 Increases Lateral and Directional Stability

Disadvantages

 Not efficient at low speeds

 Tip Stall occurs first
 SW Can cause wing drop and deep stall in T tail aircrafts.

6) Effect of CG Position to an Air Plane

FORWARD CG AFT CG

Increases STABILITY Decreases STABILITY

Decreases CONTROLLABILITY Increases CONTROLLABILITY

Take-off requires more ELEVATOR, Take-off requires less ELEVATOR,

so later LIFT-OFF so shorter LIFT-OFF

More DRAG due to Trim Less DRAG due to Trim

Increases STALL speed Decreases STALL speed

because needs more LIFT because needs less LIFT

RANGE and ENDURANCE RANGE and ENDURANCE

Decreases Increases

7) Stability and Controllability

An airplane in flight is constantly subjected to forces that disturb it from its normal horizontal flight path. Rising
columns of hot air, down drafts gusty winds, etc., make the air bumpy and the airplane is thrown off its course. Its
nose or tail drops or one wing dips.

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Stability is the tendency of an airplane in flight to remain in straight, level flight and to return to this attitude, if
displaced, without corrective action by the pilot.

Controllability is linked directly to stability and maneuverability is linked to the performance limitations of the
aircraft. Controllability refers to how easily the aircraft is disrupted from its current state by pilot control inputs.

 Longitudinal Stability is motion about Lateral Axis.

 Lateral Stability is motion about Longitudinal Axis.
 Directional Stability is motion about Normal Axis.

8) Dutch Roll
Dutch Roll is an oscillatory in stability associated with swept wing in Jet Aircraft. If Lateral stability bigger than
directional stability and it is the combination of yawing and rolling motions. Main factor is outer wing is to travel
faster and to become more straight on the relative airflow. The outer wing upward moving stalls and loses all lift
and therefore the wing drops and the sequence starts in the opposite direction. This phenomenon happens in the
longitudinal axis we know as Dutch roll.

Prevent Dutch Roll:

1. Yaw Damper (Automatic Control System which detects yaw motion and gives the required rudder input)
2. Small aileron input (if yaw damper doesn’t work) by the pilot.

The reason is the high intensity of rudder input is really hard in Dutch roll. So we should apply small aileron input
in order to recover from Dutch Roll.

9) The functions of Flaps and Spoilers

Flaps
1. Increases chamber of the wing
2. Increases Cl – Lift Coefficient
3. Take-off and Land at lower airspeeds
4. Increase drag to help the aircraft decelerate

Spoilers
1. Decrease air speed of the aircraft while flying. (Speed Breaks)
2. Decrease the lift of the aircraft while flying.
3. Help to increase the rate of descent.
4. Help ailerons to roll the aircraft. (Roll Spoilers)
5. Help the breaking action when breaking on the ground. (Ground Spoilers)

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10. Slip and Skid

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Performance
1) TORA-TORR-ASDA-EMDR-TODA-TODR-LDA-STOPWAY-CLEARWAY

 TORA: (usable length of the runway) is declared length of runway which an airplane can
commence the take-off and ending at the point where the runway is unable to bear the load of an
aircraft.
 TORR: is the measured run required to the unstick speed (Vr) + 1/3 of the airborne distance
between the Vr and screen height (35ft).
 ASDA: TORA + STOPWAY (if available)
 EMDR/ASDR: Tam V1 da motor arızası yaşadığımızı ve pilotun o anda aborted takeoff
uyguladığını varsayalım. Bu arada geçen mesafeye EMDR denir. Mesafeye reverse thrusts dâhil değildir ve
%10 safety margin eklenir.
 TODA: TORA + CLEARWAY (if available) max: TORA x 1.5
(Kalkışa başladığımız andan V2 süratiyle screen height (35ft) geçtiğimiz nokta)
 TODR: is the measured distance required to accelerate to the rotation speed + screen height
distance with a speed of not less than V2.
 LDA: One Threshold to another Threshold.
 BALANCED FIELD: ASDA = TODA

 STOPWAY: is a term related to the dimension of some runways. The stopway is an area beyond the TORA
which can be used for deceleration in the event of an aborted takeoff. It must be:

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 o At least as wide as the runway
o Centered upon the runway extended centerline
o Capable of supporting the airplane during an aborted takeoff without causing structural damage
to the aircraft
o Designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted
takeoff
 CLEARWAY: is the length of an obstacle free area at the end of the runway in the direction of the take-off,
with a minimum width of 75 m either side of the extended runway center line that is under the control of
authority. It is an area over which an aircraft may make a portion of its initial climb to a screen height,
35ft and the area could be water as well.

2) AIR SPEEDs and CONVERSIONS

SPEEDs CORRECTION CONVERSION

IAS Instrument TAS= IAS + 3% / Thousands of Feet
CAS Pressure TAS= CAS + 1.75% Thousands of Feet
EAS Compressibility TAS = EAS / √air density
TAS Density TAS= IAS + (IAS/60 x ALT/1000)
MACH - Mach=TAS/Speed of Sound

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3) V SPEEDS

V-speed
Description
designator

V1 Take – Off decision Speed.

V2 Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely become airborne with one
engine inoperative.[7][8][9]

V2min Minimum takeoff safety speed.[7][8][9]

V3 Flap retraction speed.[8][9]

V4 Steady initial climb speed. The all engines operating take-off climb speed used to the point where
acceleration to flap retraction speed is initiated. Should be attained by a gross height of 400
feet.[10]

VA Design maneuvering speed.This is the speed above which it is unwise to make full application of
any single flight control (or "pull to the stops") as it may generate a force greater than the
aircraft's structural limitations.

Vat Indicated airspeed at threshold, which is equal to the stall speed VS0 multiplied by 1.3 or stall
speed VS1g multiplied by 1.23 in the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing
mass. If both VS0 and VS1g are available, the higher resulting Vat shall be applied.[12] Also called
"approach speed".

VB Turbulence penetration speed.

VC Design cruise speed, used to show compliance with gust intensity loading. [13]

VD Design diving speed.

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 VF Designed flap speed.

VFE Maximum flap extended speed.

VH Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power.

VLE Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is safe to fly a
retractable gear aircraft with the landing gear extended.

VLO Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is safe to extend
or retract the landing gear on a retractable gear aircraft.

VLOF Lift-off speed.[7][9]

VMC Minimum control speed. Mostly used as the minimum control speed for the takeoff configuration
(takeoff flaps). Several VMC's exist for different flight phases and airplane configurations: VMCG,
VMCA, VMCA1, VMCA2, VMCL, VMCL1, VMCL2. Refer to the minimum control speed article for a thorough
explanation.[7]

VMCA Minimum control speed in the air (or airborne). The minimum speed at which steady straight flight
can be maintained when an engine fails or is inoperative and with the corresponding opposite
engine set to provide maximum thrust, provided a small (3° - 5°) bank angle is being maintained
away from the inoperative engine and the rudder is used up to maximum to maintain straight
flight. VMCA is also presented as VMC in many manuals.

VMCG Minimum control speed on the ground is the lowest speed at which the takeoff may be safely
continued following an engine failure during the takeoff run. Below V MCG, the throttles need to be
closed at once when an engine fails, to avoid veering off the runway. [16]

VMCL Minimum control speed in the landing configuration with one engine inoperative.[9][16]

VMO Maximum operating limit speed.[7][8][9]

VMU Minimum unstick speed. Lowest speed that aircraft can lift of maximum geometrical pitch angle.

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 VNE Never exceed speed.[7][8][9][17]

VNO Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations. [7][8][9]

VO Maximum operating maneuvering speed.[18]

Rotation speed. The speed at which the aircraft's nosewheel leaves the ground.[7][8][9] Also see
VR
note on Vref below.

VRef Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed. 1.3 times the stalling speed in the stated
landing configuration and at the prevailing aircraft weight. This is the speed required as the
landing runway threshold is crossed at 50 feet height if calculated aircraft performance is to be
achieved.

VS Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable. [7][8][9]

VS0 Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration. [7][8][9]

Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable in a specific
VS1
configuration.[7][8]

VSR Reference stall speed.[7]

VSR0 Reference stall speed in landing configuration.[7]

VSR1 Reference stall speed in a specific configuration.[7]

VX Speed that will allow for best angle of climb. Most Altitude gain / Unit of Horizontal Distance

VY Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb. Most altitude gain / Unit of Time. (scarify)

Other V-Speeds

Some of these V-speeds are specific to particular types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations.

V-speed
Description
designator

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 V1min-max Minimum V1 is equals to Vmcg and Maximum V1 is equal to Vr.

Best range speed – the speed that gives the greatest range for fuel consumed – often identical to
VBR
Vmd.[20]

Vt Threshold speed[23]

VXSE Best angle of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the
speed that provides the most altitude gain per unit of horizontal distance following an engine
failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out climb
performance data.[27]

VYSE Best rate of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed
that provides the most altitude gain per unit of time following an engine failure, while maintaining
a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out climb performance data.[15][27]

V1 Definitions

V1 is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the decision speed nominated
by the pilot which satisfies all safety rules, and above which the takeoff will continue even if an engine
fails.[9] The speed will vary among aircraft types and varies according to factors such as aircraft weight,
runway length, wing flap setting, engine thrust used and runway surface contamination.

4) V Speeds Sequence and relations

Vmcg – V1 – Vmca – Vr – Vlof – V2

Where;

Vr > Vmca(1.05)
Vr >= V1
Vr > Vmu(1.1)
V1 > VMBE
V1 > Vmcg
V2 > Vmca(1.1) Vs (1.2) Vr

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Meteorology
1) METAR-TAF-SPECI-SIGMET-VOLMET

1) METAR: is abbreviated by Meteorological Terminal Aviation Routine Report and METAR is a format for
reporting weather information. Reports are generated two times in an hour.
2) TAF: Terminal Area Forecast is the best source of weather for the specific aerodrome. It is issued 4 times
a day and each one is valid for 24 hours.
3) SPECI: is issued between routine METAR reports and generated whenever a critical meteorological
condition exists such as Windshear, Thunderstorms or Microbursts.
4) SIGMET: Significant Meteorological Information is in flight advisory concerning convective weather that is
potentially hazardous to all aircraft. Reports may be about severe icing, extreme turbulence, CAT, dust
and sand storms or volcanic ash. SIGMET is generally broadcasting by ATIS, ATC stations or VOLMET
stations and valid up to 4 hours.
5) VOLMET: Meteorological Information for Aircraft in Flight, is a worldwide network of radio stations that
broadcast TAF, SIGMET and METAR reports on shortwave frequencies, and in some countries on VHF too.
Reports are sent in upper sideband mode, using automated voice transmissions.

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2) CAVOK – VMC – IMC

11. CAVOK – Ceiling and Visibility OK

a. No clouds below 5000 ft. above aerodrome level (AAL) or MSA whichever is higher.
b. Visibility is at least 10 km or more.
c. No cumulonimbus or Towering Cumulus in the vicinity.
d. No Precipitation, Thunderstorms, Shallow Fog or Drifting Snow.
12. Visual Meteorological Conditions
e. 5 km visibility or more,
f. 1500 m horizontally away from cloud,
g. 1000 m vertically from cloud,
h. Ground inside.

13. Why Moist Air is less dense than Dry Air?

Because at the same temperature, volume and pressure

there always same number of molecules according to
Avogadro’s Law. So if we add some water molecules in dry
air some N2 and O2 should be replaced by H2O and the
weight of H2O is lighter than both N2 and O2. Actually, the
weight of

N2 = 28 unit O2 = 32 unit H2O = 18 unit

Therefore if Mass decreases Density also decrease.

14. Difference between CB clouds over the equator and the poles?

The main difference is the height of

tropopause which is 30.000 ft. at the poles
and 56.000 ft. at the equator. In addition
Poles are High Pressure area and have Dry Air
therefore less probability of CB cloud
formation; on the other hand at the Equator
the risk of convection is higher and trade
winds brings moist air over the oceans and
moist air mass converges and forms huge CB
clouds. So the formation of CB cloud is higher
at the equator.

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 15. What is Lapse Rate?
Lapse Rate is defined as the rate at which temperature is decreasing with increasing altitude. We use Lapse Rate
in order to understand whether the air stable or unstable at a certain area.

 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): 3C / 1000 ft.

 Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR): 2C / 1000 ft. (According to Standard Atmosphere Rules)
 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR): 1.5C / 1000 ft.

In addition if there is increasing Temperature with increasing Altitude, we called the phenomena as Temperature
INVERSION which brings us very stable air and smoggy or foggy weather conditions.

16. Cloud Ceiling Calculation?

Temperature in Antalya = 14C; Dew Point = 7C at which height do we expect clouds (Rough Estimation)?

1st Way: (14C – 7C) x 400 = 2800 ft. 2nd Way: (14C-7C) / DALR (3C) x 1000 = 2300ft

17. How does the altimeter read when you are flying hot area to cold
area with maintaining 3000 ft.?
Flying hot air to cold air with maintaining same altitude altimeter over reads and this could be hazardous.

18. ICAO Standard Atmosphere Conditions

 Pressure is 1013.25 millibars (29.92 inhg) and pressure is falling 30 ft. per 1 millibar.
 Temperature +15C and Lapse Rate 2C/1000 ft. until 36000 ft. -56,5C
 Density 1,225 g/m3

19. Tilt of the earth’s axis? And what is the reason for climates?
The seasons result from the Earth's axis of rotation being tilted with respect to its orbital plane by an angle of
approximately 23.5degrees.

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 20. Thunderstorm Occurrence and Avoidance
TS's are one of the most dangerous weather hazards that pilots should avoid. Thunderstorms are associated
with cumulonimbus clouds, and there may be several thunderstorm cells within a single cloud. It occurs in
these conditions;

1. Unstable lapse rate (instability)

2. Some type of lifting action
3. High moisture content

Embedded TS is one which is obscured by massive cloud layers and cannot be seen.

There are three steps of TS which are

cumulus stage, mature stage, dissipating
stage. Wind shear areas can be found on
all sides TS and directly under it. There are
several hazards of thunderstorms which
are wind shear, gusty winds, hail, icing
conditions, lightening, turbulence, reduced
visibility and radio/com interference. Pilots
should avoid TS at least 20-25 NM.

In order to avoid the possible dangers of

TS, a pilot should pass around the CB cloud
according to the movement direction of
the cloud. In this picture wind direction is on the Left, so cloud is moving Left to Right. In this case pilot should
turn left in order to avoid TS cloud.

21. Mountain Waves

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Formation of Mountain Waves
 Stable waves
 +20 knots of surface wind increasing with altitude
 Perpendicular to the ridge of mountain within ± 30 degrees

Characteristics
 The wind direction at the lower side of the rotor clouds is opposite to the prevailing wind direction.
 Rotor axis is horizontal and parallel to the mountains.
 Mountain Waves are efficient up to 20 NM.

Threats
 Rotor clouds are very dangerous especially when flying from leeward side with headwind.
 AC Lenticular brings severe turbulence.
 CAP clouds are appear to be harmless but 5000 ft./min down droughts at the leeward side.

22. Types of Turbulence

Picture shows the different types of turbulence that can affect an aircraft. In the first segment the aircraft is
experiencing Thermal turbulence. When the aircraft flies over the mountain it is then experiencing Mechanical
turbulence. As it flies through the thunderstorm cloud it experiences Shear turbulence as it passes through the
different flows of air within the thunderstorm. In addition of those types turbulence there are,

 CAT is formed in the colder side of a Jet Stream.

 Wake Turbulence is form when an aircraft generates lift.

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 23. QNH – QNE – QFE

 QNH is barometric pressure adjusted to sea level.

 QNE is barometric pressure used for standard altimeter (1013). When QNE is selected, the altimeter will
display pressure altitude, which is actual altitude corrected for non-standard pressure. (i.e. if pressure is
lower than standard, pressure altitude is higher)
 QFE is the barometric altimeter setting that causes an altimeter to read zero when at the reference
datum of a particular airfield.

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Power Plant
1) Jet Engine

N1 is the percentage of rotational speed and connected to Fan – Low Pressure Compressor and Low Pressure
Turbine.

N2 is the percentage of rotational speed and connected to High Pressure Compressor and High Pressure Turbine.

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Navigation
1) Holding Entry Calculation

2) Fix – To – Fix

3) VOR – ILS Needle Deflection

 Full scale of CDI needle deflection 10 degrees either sides of the track.
 Full scale of CDI (Localizer) deflection 2,5 degrees either sides of the track.

A pilot should not exceed half-deflection due to regulatory rules, which is equal to 5 degrees in VOR approaches
and 1,25 degrees in ILS or Localizer approaches.

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4) Reversal Tracks

5) Cone of Silence
Cone of Silence (NM) = Altitude / 3000

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a. Base Turn

b. Procedure Turn

c. Race Track

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6) Q Codes

QDR MAGNETIC bearing FROM the station Magnetic Radial

QDM MAGNETIC bearing TO the station Magnetic Course

QTE TRUE bearing FROM the station True Radial

QUJ TRUE bearing TO the station True Course

7) MAA – MCA – MEA – MHA – MRA – MSA - MVA - MOCA – MORA

1) MAA – Max. Authorized Altitude

Published altitude which representing the maximum usable altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or
route segment.

2) MCA – Max. Crossing Altitude

The lowest altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the direction of a
higher MEA.

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 3) MEA – Min. Enroute Altitude

The lowest published altitude between radio-fixes that meets obstacle clearance requirements between
those fixes and in many countries assures acceptable navigational signal coverage.

4) MHA – Min. Holding Altitude

The lowest altitude prescribed for a holding pattern which assures navigation signal coverage,
communications, and meets obstacle clearance requirements.

5) MRA – Min. Reception Altitude

The lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined.

6) MSA – Min. SAFE Altitude

Altitude depicted on an Instrument Approach Chart and identified as the minimum altitude which provides a
1000 ft. obstacle clearance within a 25 NM radius from the navigational facility upon which the MSA is
predicated. If the radius limit is other than 25 NM, it is stated. This altitude is for EMERGENCY USE only and
does not necessarily guarantee NAVAID reception.

When the MSA is divided into sectors, with each sector a different altitude, the altitudes in these sectors are
deferred to as "Minimum Sector Altitudes".

An obstacle clearance criterion is Obstacles are cleared by 1000 ft. even for terrain or structures higher than
5000 ft.

7) MVA – Min. Vectoring Altitude

An IFR altitude lower than the minimum en route altitude (MEA) that provides terrain and obstacle clearance.

8) MOCA – Min. Obstruction Clearance Altitude

The lowest published altitude in effect between Radio Fixes on VOR airways, off-airway routes, or route
segments which meet obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment and in the USA assure
acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 22 NM of a VOR.

9) MORA – Min. Off-Route Altitude

The MORA provides reference point clearance within 10 NM of the route centerline (regardless of the route
width) and end fixes.

The GRID MORA provides reference point clearance within the section outlined by latitude and longitude
lines.

An obstacle clearance criterion is Standard Jeppesen1.

1
Standard JEPPESEN Obstacle Clearance Criteria
Obstacles with reference point at or below 6000 ft. MSL are cleared by 1000 ft.
Obstacles with reference point above 6000 ft. MSL are cleared by 2000 ft.

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 MAA Bir IFR Route yada Air Spacede NavAidleri sağlıklı alabileceğimiz max. İrtifadır.

Düşük bir MEA dan daha yüksek bir MEA ya giderken tırmanmaya başlarız. Tırmanma sebebimiz
MCA altımızdaki yükselen maniadır. Altımızdaki maniaya gelmeden 2000 ft clear olacak şekilde bir fix
atanır. Bu fixi geçmemiz gereken min irtifa MCA dır.

IFR EnRoute Chartlarda kullanılan irtifadır. Tam route üzerinde Terrein Clearance ve NavAid garantisi
MEA
verir. (NavAid bazen gidebilir.) Cross Radiallerde herhangi bir garantisi yoktur.

MHA Bekleme yapılabilecek en düşük irtifa.

IFR EnRoute Chartlarda Intersection noktalarını identify etmek istediğimizde ve MEA dan daha yüksek
MRA
olduklarında belirtilir. Ör: MEA 5000 ft. Ancak gerekli sinyali 5600 ft. Den alabiliyorsak belirtilir.

Alet yaklaşma kartlarında 25nm içinde HEP 1000 ft obstacle clearance verir. 25nm başka bi
MSA yarıçaptaysa mutlaka belirtilir. NavAid garantisi yoktur. Eğer sectorlere bölünmüş ise ismi Minimum
Sector ALT olarak değişir.

10-1 chartlardaki minimum radar irtifaları. ATC tarafından vektörlenirken verilebilir. ATC geldiğimiz
MVA
istikametteki 10-1 chartında basılmış MVA irtifasından düşük bir irtifa verirse kabul edilmez.

MEA'ya eşit yada az olmalıdır. Sadece az olduğunda basılır. Route boyu NavAid garantisi vermez
MOCA sadece 22NM mesafedeyken NavAid garantisi verir. Bu yüzden 22nm içerisindeysek ve MEA altına
inmek istersek MOCA'ya kadar inebiliriz. "T" ile gösterilir.

MORA Route 'un 10nm etrafında (Cross Radiallerde) obstacle clearance verir.

8) Instrument Approach Segment

1) Arrival segment: The segment from where the aircraft leaves an en-route airway to the initial
approach fix (IAF).
2) Initial approach: The segment from the initial approach fix2 (IAF) to either the intermediate fix (IF) or
the point where the aircraft is established on the intermediate or final approach course.
3) Intermediate approach: The segment from the IF or point, to the final approach fix (FAF).
4) Final approach: The segment from the FAF or point, to the runway, airport, or missed approach
point (MAP).
5) Missed approach: The segment from the MAP to the missed approach fix at the prescribed altitude.

9) Dry Lease vs Wet Lease

A dry lease means just the physical airplane without crew, maintenance or even fuel. A wet lease would generally
include all the above.

2
Fix: Described by a NAVAID and Precise
Point: Non-Precise Ex: Sağlık Point

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10) Take-off Segments

11) Precision Approach

A precision approach is an instrument approach and landing
using precision lateral and vertical guidance with minima as
determined by the category of operation.[1]

Note. Lateral and vertical guidance refers to the guidance

provided either by:

a) A ground-based navigation aid; or

b) Computer generated navigation data displayed to the pilot

of an aircraft.

c) A controller interpreting the display on radar screen

(Precision Approach Radar (PAR)).

Categories of precision approach and landing (including ILS and Auto land) operations are defined according to
the applicable DA/H and RVR or visibility as shown in the following table.

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 Category of Operation Decision Height (DH) (2) RVR Visibility not less than

CAT I ≥ 200 ft. 550 meters 800m

CAT II ≥ 100 ft. 350 meters

CAT IIIA 100 ft. – 50 ft. or no DH 200 meters

CAT IIIB lower than 50 ft. or no DH 200m – 50m

CAT IIIC - -

Notes:

(1) Appendix 1 to JAR-OPS 1.430, Table 6, permits the use of an RVR of 300m for Category D aircraft conducting
an auto land.

(2) Vertical minima:

 CAT I Because the aircraft is unlikely to be flying over level ground at the same elevation as the touch-
down zone when passing the Missed Approach Point, the vertical minima used in a CAT I approach is
measured by reference to a barometric altimeter. In practice, this means that when flying a CAT I
approach either a DA or DH may be used.

 CAT II/III Because greater precision is required when flying a CAT II or CAT III approach, special attention
is given to the terrain in the runway undershoot to enable a radio altimeter to be used. CAT II and CAT III
approaches are therefore always flown to a DH with reference to a radio altimeter.

CAT II and CAT III instrument approach and landing operations are not permitted unless RVR information is
provided.

12) Non – Precision Approach

A non-precision approach is an instrument approach and landing which utilizes lateral guidance but does not
utilize vertical guidance. (ICAO Annex 6)

Non-precision approaches which are pilot-interpreted make use of ground beacons and aircraft equipment
such as VOR, NDB and the LLZ element of an ILS system, often in combination with DME for range. Lateral
guidance is provided by a display of either bearing to/from a radio beacon on the approach track or at the
airfield or, in the case of an LLZ only approach, by display of the relative position of the LLZ track on the
aircraft ILS instruments and vertical guidance is based on the range from the airfield as indicated by a DME at
the airfield or on track or by timing based upon passage overhead radio beacons on the track described by
the designated procedure.

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Non-precision approaches are often conducted with less use of automated systems than precision
approaches. However, on many modern aircraft, automatic systems may be left engaged until reaching the
MDA/H, or beyond.

For pilots of older aircraft, in which use of automated systems to assist in flying the approach is limited, a high
degree of piloting skill is required to fly such approaches accurately and the frequent practice which many
pilots need to achieve this can be difficult to come by if precision approaches are the normal method used.

A high proportion of CFIT accidents have been shown to occur during non-precision approaches. This is in
part a result of loss of situational awareness, e.g. resulting in descent before the initial approach fix; and in
part a consequence of the lack of precise vertical guidance, which may involve leveling off at intermediate
points between the initial approach fix and MDA/H (a step-down approach).

13) Climb & Descent Gradient

14) Marker Beacon

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Mass and Balance
1) Design Weight Limits (Structural Design Weights)
The aircraft gross weight is limited by several weight restrictions in order to avoid overloading the structure or to
avoid unacceptable performance or handling qualities during operation.

Aircraft gross weight limits are established during aircraft design and certification and are laid down in the aircraft
type certificate and manufacturer specification documents.

The absolute maximum weight capabilities for a given aircraft are referred to as the structural weight limits.

The structural weight limits are based on aircraft maximum structural capability and define the envelope for the
CG charts(both maximum weight and CG limits).

Aircraft structural weight capability is typically a function of when the aircraft was manufactured, and in some
cases, old aircraft can have their structural weight capability increased by structural modifications.

a. Maximum design taxi weight (MDTW)

The maximum design taxi weight (also known as the maximum design ramp weight (MDRW)) is the maximum
weight certificated for aircraft maneuvering on the ground (taxiing or towing) as limited by aircraft strength and
airworthiness requirements. It includes the weight of taxi and run-up fuel.

b. Maximum design takeoff weight (MDTOW)

Is the maximum certificated design weight when the brakes are released for takeoff and is the greatest weight for
which compliance with the relevant structural and engineering requirements has been demonstrated by the
manufacturer.

c. Maximum design landing weight (MDLW)

The maximum certificated design weight at which the aircraft meets the appropriate landing certification
requirements. It generally depends on the landing gear strength or the landing impact loads on certain parts of
the wing structure. The MDLW must not exceed the MDTOW.

The maximum landing weight is typically designed for 10 feet per second (600 feet per minute) sink rate at touch
down with no structural damage.

d. Maximum design zero-fuel weight (MDZFW)[edit]

The maximum certificated design weight of the aircraft less all usable fuel and other specified usable agents
(engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion agents). It is the maximum weight permitted before
usable fuel and other specified usable fluids are loaded in specified sections of the airplane. The MDZFW is
limited by strength and airworthiness requirements. At this weight, the subsequent addition of fuel will not result
in the aircraft design strength being exceeded. The weight difference between the MDTOW and the MDZFW may
be utilised only for the addition of fuel.

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2) Authorized Weight Limits
Aircraft authorized gross weight limits (also referred to as certified weight limits) are laid down in the aircraft
flight manuals (AFM) and/or associated certificate of airworthiness (C of A). The authorized or permitted limits
may be equal to or lower than the structural design weight limits.

The authorized weight limits that can legally be used by an operator or airline are those listed in the AFM and the
weight and balance manual.

The authorized (or certified) weight limits are chosen by the customer/airline and they are referred to as the
"purchased weights". An operator may purchase a certified weight below the maximum design weights because
many of the airports operating fees are based on the aircraft AFM maximum allowable weight values. An aircraft
purchase price is, typically, a function of the certified weight purchased.

Maximum weights established, for each aircraft, by design and certification must not be exceeded during aircraft
operation (ramp or taxying, takeoff, en-route flight, approach, and landing) and during aircraft loading (zero fuel
conditions, center of gravity position, and weight distribution).

In addition, the authorized maximum weight limits may be less as limited by center of gravity, fuel density, and
fuel loading limits.

a. Maximum taxi weight (MTW)[edit]

The maximum taxi weight (MTW) (also known as the maximum ramp weight (MRW) is the maximum weight
authorized for maneuvering (taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground as limited by aircraft strength and
airworthiness requirements. It includes the weight of taxi and run-up fuel for the engines and the APU.

It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and run-up
operations.

The difference between the maximum taxi/ramp weight and the maximum take-off weight (maximum taxi fuel
allowance) depends on the size of the aircraft, the number of engines, APU operation, and engines/APU fuel
consumption, and is typically assumed for 10 to 15 minutes allowance of taxi and run-up operations.

b. Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)[edit]

The maximum takeoff weight (also known as the maximum brake-release weight) is the maximum weight
authorized at brake release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll.

The maximum takeoff weight is always less than the maximum taxi/ramp weight to allow for fuel burned during
taxi by the engines and the APU.

In operation, the maximum weight for takeoff may be limited to values less than the maximum takeoff weight
due to aircraft performance, environmental conditions, airfield characteristics (takeoff field length, altitude),
maximum tire speed and brake energy, obstacle clearances, and/or en route and landing weight requirements.

c. Maximum landing weight (MLW)[edit]

The maximum weight authorized for normal landing of an aircraft. The MLW must not exceed the MTOW.

The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight lower than the Maximum Landing Weight by the most
restrictive of the following requirements:

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  Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude and temperature:

Landing field length requirements,

Approach and landing climb requirements

 Noise requirements

If the flight has been of short duration, fuel may have to be jettisoned to reduce the landing weight.

Overweight landings require a structural inspection or evaluation of the touch-down loads before the next aircraft
operation.

d. Maximum zero-fuel weight (MZFW)[edit]

The maximum permissible weight of the aircraft less all usable fuel and other specified usable agents (engine
injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion agents). It is the maximum weight permitted before usable fuel
and other specified usable fluids are loaded in specified sections of the airplane. The MZFW is limited by strength
and airworthiness requirements. At this weight, the subsequent addition of fuel will not result in the aircraft
design strength being exceeded. The weight difference between the MTOW and the MZFW may be utilized only
for the addition of fuel.

3) Weight Calculation

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4) Fuel - Flight Planning Definitions
a. Additional Fuel

Additional fuel is fuel which is added to comply with a specific regulatory or company requirement. Examples
include ETOPS fuel, fuel required for a remote or island destination where no alternate is available and fuel
required to satisfy an MEL or CDL performance penalty.

b. Alternate Fuel

Alternate fuel is the amount of fuel required from the missed approach point at the destination aerodrome until
landing at the alternate aerodrome. It takes into account the required fuel for:

 Missed approach at the destination airport

 Climb to en-route altitude, cruise and descent at alternate aerodrome
 Approach at alternate
 Landing at the alternate aerodrome

When two alternates are required by the Authority, alternate fuel must be sufficient to proceed to the alternate
which requires the greater amount of fuel.

c. Ballast Fuel

Ballast fuel is sometimes carried to maintain the aircraft center of gravity within limits. In certain airplanes, a zero
fuel weight above a defined threshold requires that a minimum amount of fuel be carried in the wings through all
phases of flight to prevent excessive wing bending. In both cases, this fuel is considered ballast and, under
anything other than emergency circumstances, is not to be burned during the flight.

d. Block Fuel / Ramp Fuel / Total Fuel On Board

Block fuel is the total fuel required for the flight and is the sum of the Taxi fuel, the Trip fuel, the Contingency fuel,
the Alternate fuel, the Final Reserve fuel, the Additional fuel and any Extra fuel carried.

e. Contingency Fuel / Route Reserve

Contingency fuel is carried to account for additional en-route fuel consumption caused by wind, routing changes
or ATM restrictions. In general terms, the minimum contingency fuel is the greatest of 5% of the trip fuel or 5
minutes holding consumption at 1500' above destination airfield elevation computed based on calculated arrival
weight. However, some regulators, with special approval, allow reduction to 3% of trip fuel with use of en-route
alternates or to specific time increments depending upon demonstrated performance criteria from the Operator.
At least one authority allows, under very specific circumstances, for contingency fuel to be reduced to 0.

f. Extra Fuel

Fuel added at the discretion of the Captain

g. Final Reserve Fuel / Fixed Reserve Fuel / Holding Fuel

Final reserve fuel is the minimum fuel required to fly for 30 minutes at 1,500 feet above the alternate aerodrome
or, if an alternate is not required, at the destination aerodrome at holding speed in ISA conditions. Some
Regulating Authorities require sufficient fuel to hold for 45 minutes.

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h. Minimum Brake Release Fuel

Minimum brake release fuel is that quantity of fuel which, at the commencement of the takeoff roll, complies
with all regulatory requirements for the flight in question. This is the minimum legal fuel required for departure.

i. Reserve Fuel / Minimum Diversion Fuel

Reserve fuel is the sum of Alternate fuel plus Final Reserve fuel.

j. Taxi Fuel

Taxi fuel is the fuel used prior to takeoff and will normally include pre-start APU consumption, engine start and
taxi fuel. Taxi fuel is usually a fixed quantity for average taxi duration. However, local conditions at the departure
aerodrome such as average taxi time, normal ground delays and any anticipated deicing delays should be taken
into consideration and the taxi fuel adjusted accordingly.

k. Trip Fuel / Burn / Fuel to Destination

The Trip fuel is the required fuel quantity from brake release on takeoff at the departure aerodrome to the
landing touchdown at the destination aerodrome. This quantity includes the fuel required for:

 Takeoff
 Climb to cruise level
 Flight in level cruise including any planned step climb or step descent
 Flight from the beginning of descent to the beginning of approach,
 Approach
 Landing at the destination

Trip fuel must be adjusted to account for any additional fuel that would be required for known ATS restrictions
that would result in delayed climb to or early descent from planned cruising altitude.

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Air Law
1) RVSM – Reduced Vertical Separation Minima

Reduced Vertical Separation Minima is the reduction of the standard vertical separation required between FL290
and FL410 inclusive, from 2000 ft. to 1000 ft. Therefore increases the number of aircraft by 6 levels that can safely
fly in a particular volume of airspace.

Historically, standard vertical separation was 1000 ft. from the surface to FL290, 2000 ft. to FL290 and 4000 ft.
above. This was because the accuracy of the pressure altimeter decreases with height. Over time, air data
computers (ADCs) combined with altimeters have become more accurate and autopilots more adept at
maintaining a set level, therefore it became apparent that for many modern aircraft, the 2,000 feet separation
was too cautious. It was therefore proposed by ICAO that this be reduced to 1000 ft.

2) ETOPS – Extended Twin Engine Operations

ETOPS is an acronym for Extended range Twin Operations as re-defined by the US Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) in 2007. This rule allows Twin - Engined airliners (such as the Airbus
A300, A310, A320, A330 andA350, the Boeing 737, 757, 767, 777, 787, the Embraer E-Jets, and the ATR 72) to fly
long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to Twin - Engined aircraft. There are different levels of ETOPS
certification, each allowing aircraft to fly on routes that are a certain amount of single-engine flying time away
from the nearest suitable airport. For example, if an aircraft is certified for 180 minutes, it is permitted to fly any
route not more than 180 minutes single-engine flying time to the nearest suitable airport.

3) Noise Abatement Procedures

 Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 1

This procedure involves a power reduction at or above the prescribed minimum altitude and delaying flap/slat
retraction until the prescribed maximum altitude is attained.

At the prescribed maximum altitude, accelerate and retract flaps/slats on schedule while maintaining a positive
rate of climb and complete the transition to normal en-route climb speed.

The noise abatement procedure is not to be initiated at less than 800 feet AGL. The initial climbing speed to the
noise abatement initiation point shall not be less than V2 + 10 knots.

On reaching an altitude at or above 800 feet AGL, adjust and maintain engine thrust in accordance with the noise
abatement thrust schedule provided in the aircraft operating manual. Maintain a climb speed of V2 + 10 to 20
knots with flaps and slats in the take-off configuration.

At no more than an altitude equivalent to 3000 feet AGL, while maintaining a positive rate of climb, accelerate
and retract flaps/slats on schedule.

At 3000 feet AGL, accelerate to normal en-route climb speed.

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 Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 2

This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction on reaching the minimum prescribed altitude. The
flaps/slats are to be retracted on schedule while maintaining a positive rate of climb. The thrust reduction is to be
performed with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction or when the zero flap/slat configuration is attained.
At the prescribed altitude, complete the transition to normal en-route climb procedures.

The noise abatement procedure is not to be initiated at less than 800 feet AGL. The initial climbing speed to the
noise abatement initiation point is V2 + 10 to 20 knots.

On reaching an altitude equivalent to at least 800 feet AGL, decrease aircraft body angle whilst maintaining a
positive rate of climb, accelerate towards Flaps Up speed and reduce thrust with the initiation of the first
flaps/slats retraction or reduce thrust after flaps/slats retraction.

Maintain a positive rate of climb and accelerate to and maintain a climb speed equal to Flaps Up speed + 10 to 20
knots till 3000 feet AGL.

At 3000 feet AGL, accelerate to normal en-route climb speed.

4) Go – Around
Initiation of a go – around procedure may be either ordered by ATC (normally Tower) or decided by the pilot.

At a towered field, the local controller may instruct the pilot to go around if there is an unsafe condition such as
an aircraft, vehicle, or object on the runway. The pilot in command may decide to go around at any time, for
example, if the aircraft is not lined up or configured properly for a safe landing; an aircraft, vehicle or other object
has not cleared the runway; no landing clearance was received (at a towered field); the landing gear is not
properly extended; a dangerous meteorological condition is experienced on final approach (e.g., poor visibility,
excessive cross-winds, windshear, etc.); excessive energy (too high or too fast); or any other unsafe condition is
detected.

5) Contaminated Runway
Contaminated runway: A runway is contaminated when more than 25 per cent of the runway surface area
(whether in isolated areas or not) within the required length and width being used is covered by:

 Water, or slush more than 3 mm (0.125 in) deep;

 Loose snow more than 20 mm (0.75 in) deep; or
 Compacted snow or ice, including wet ice.

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6) Aircraft Lights & Beacons

 Navigation lights: All aircraft are equipped with a steady light near the leading edge of each wingtip.
When facing forward from the perspective of the pilot, the light on the right wingtip is green while that on the left
wing is red. The different colors make it possible for an outside observer, such as the pilot of another aircraft, to
determine which direction the plane is flying. These navigation lights are most useful at night when it is more
difficult to tell the direction the plane is going without them.
 Navigation or Position lights: In addition to the red and green lights, most planes are also fitted with
other steady white navigation lights in various locations. Large airliners, in particular, will often have such lighting
on the trailing edge of each wingtip. These lights are also sometimes placed along the trailing edges of the
horizontal tail. Another popular location is at the very aft end of the fuselage or at the top of the vertical tail. One
of these latter lights placed along the aircraft centerline is especially common on smaller airliners and commuter
planes. Whatever the location, the purpose of these steady white lights is to improve the plane's visibility from
behind the aircraft.
 Anti-Collision Beacon lights: Two beacon lights are fitted to aircraft near the center of the fuselage. One
is located on top of the fuselage and the other on the bottom. These lights are colored reddish orange and rotate
to produce a flashing effect. The beacons are turned on just before the engines are started and they remain
active until the last engine is shut down. The beacons help to serve as a safety warning to ground personnel that
the engines are operational.
 Strobe lights: High-intensity strobe lights that flash a white-colored light are located on each wingtip.
Smaller planes are only equipped with one of these strobes near the leading edge just behind the red or green
navigation light. Larger airliners may be equipped with an additional strobe at the trailing edge as well. These
flashing lights are very bright and intended to attract attention during flight. They are sometimes also used on the
runway and during taxi to make the plane more conspicuous.

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