POINTS TAKEN FROM G .I.A.N COURSE PROFESSOR PRAMOD.K.

VARSHNEY

COGNIITTIVE RADIOS

1. SPECTRUM IS THE RESOURCE WHICH NEEDED TO BE USED WISELY.

2. THE UNDER UTILIATION OF THE SPECTRUM LEADS TO SPECTRUM HOLES

OBBJECTIVES:

A. LITTLE INTERFERNCE WITH PRIMAR USER

B. NO CHANGE IN PRIMAR USERS DESIN

TWO ERRORS:

1. SPECTRUM UNDERLAY: DON’T WAIT FOR AN OPPORTUNIT CREATE ONE (INVOLVES UWB)
2. SPECTRUM OVERLAY: WAIT FOR AN OPPORTUNITY AND GRAB IT

IN 1999 A REVOLUTIONARY SOLUTION FOR EFFICIENT SPECTRUM USAGE WAS PROPOSED BY JOSEPH
MITOLA : COGNITIVE RADIO

DEFINITION:

AN INTELLIGENT WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM THAT SENSES ITS SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT

AND ADAPTS ITS INTERNAL STATES TO THE STATISTICAL VARIATIONS IN THE INCOMING RF SIGNALS BY
MAKING CORRESPONDINGG CHANGGES IN CERTAIN OPERATINGG PARAMETERS IN REAL-TIME.

CO-EXISTENCE WITH OTHER WIRELESS SYSTMS IS MUST.

EXAMPLE: BLUETOOTH COEXISTS WITH WI-FI TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE

STANDARD: IEEE 802.22 IS A STANDARD FOR CR DEVICES TO DEPLOY WIRELESS REGGIONAL AREA
NETWORK
COGNITIVE TASKS:

1. RADIO SCENE ANALYSIS:

 WIRELESS CHANNEL SESING
 ESTIMATION OF INTERFERENCE
 OBSERVING OF PHENOMENON
2. ESTIMATION AND DECISION MAKING
 ESTIMATION OF CHANNEL STATE INFORMATION
 DETECTION OF SPECTRUM HOLES
 DECISION MAKING PROCESS
 PREDICTION OF CHANNEL THROUGHPUT OR CAPACITY FOR THE TRANSMITTER
3. WIRELESS ACCESS AND LINK CONTROL
 TRANSMIT POWER CONTROL
 DYNAMIC SPECTRA MANAGEMENT
 GAME THEOROTIC RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

FADING:

A key trait of wireless channels is fluctuations of channel strength over time and frequency.

Types of fading:

1. Fading in frequency: frequency flat fading, selective fading.

2. Fading in time: slow fading, time fading.

MODELLING AS:

Y=hx + n

Where h is the channel gain and can be modelled as a random variable with normal distribution with
mean 0 and standard deviation ᾩ

Urban scenario-rayleigh fading channel model-means large no. of reflectors assuming NLOS condition
with assumption that multi paths are statistically independent.

Rural or suburban scenario-ricean fading channel model-means a dominant LOS exists ,although NLOS
also exists but Dominance is of LOS.

As per Shannons finding we also have results as:

Capacity of AWGN Channel is given as:

C= LOG (1+ P/N0) bits/s/Hz

Capacity of Flat Fading channel the capacity is given as:

C=LOG (1+P|h|/N0) bits/s/Hz

Capacity of frequency selective fading channels is given as:

Ch=LOG(1+PK|hk|2/N0)bits/s/Hz

PK is the Kth sub channel.

Capacity of fast fading channel is given as:

C=Eh(Ch)bits/s/Hz

Capacity of slow fading channel is given as:

C=P(Ch<=c) ,c is the outage and its defined in terms of outage probability

Transmitting over fading channels:

Modulation types all including coherent and non coherent

Diversity in wireless systems:

[swasthik brahma] [milcom]

What is diversity, why we need it? How to achive it through how many ways?

Consider a flat fading channel model as:

Y[m]=h[m]*x[m] + w[m]
Where w[m]~CN(0,N0). Assume Rayleigh fading.

 Non-Coherent: No prior knowledge of channel phase, therefore BPSK fails here

Now if the case is coherent the prior knowledge makes things possible and thus bit error probability can
be improved.

3-dB difference between coherent and non-coherent cases

Therefore Diversity is one of the solution to this and it means providing multiple copies of the signal at
the reciever through multiple ways.

Note- The probability of error decays exponentially with SNR and this decay is inverse of SNR in fading
channels.

TYPES OF DIVERSITY:

1. TEMPORAL DIVERSITY: Can be obtained via. Coding and interleaving. Information is coded and
coded symbols are dispersed over time in different coherence periods so that different parts of
the code words experiences independent fades.
2. FREQUENCY DIVERSITY: If channel is frequency selective information can be transmitted by
coding the information over different frequency sub-bands.
3. SPATIAL DIVERSITY: Can be achieved with multiple transmit and receive antennas.

Further you can combine and use these techniques like: time diversity, space-time diversity, space
frequency diversity, time-frequency diversity.

Simple idea is that : TRANSMIT THE SAME SIGNAL * THROUGH L DIFFERENT CHANNEL INSTANTIATIONS.

Y=hX+W

Where , Y=[Y1,Y2,….,YL]T , h= [h1,h2,h3,…..hL]T and W=[W1,W2,….WL]T

Probability of Error Multiple Repitition Code for BPSK i.e., x=±a

Conditioned over h

So considering a Rayleigh fading channel SNR no more remains same and it bacomes to the power to
different instantiations (say L)

FREQUENCY DIVERSITY :WIDEBAND SYSTEMS

The transmission bandwidth W is greater than the coherence bandwidth Wc, Issue of ISI Is the research
area, many solutions are available.

SPATIAL DIVERSITY:
Siso, simo, mimo

For a Nt *Nr MIMO system SNR becomes 1/SNR^(Nt*Nr)

Remember Diversity can be defined very variously.

For SLOW FADING Channels Outage Probability is the important parameter (Outage- meanswe do not
have relaible SNR)

SPECTRUM SENSING

OBTAINING AWARENESS ABOUT THE SPECTRUM USAGE OF PRIMARY USERS IN A GEOGRAPHICAL AREA.

METHODS OF SPECTRUM SENSING: (WE WILL FOCUS ON JUST ONE USED BY CR’S)

1. BINARY HYPOTHESIS TESTING: DETECTING PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF THE PRIMARY SIGNAL

H0 : Y=W (ONLY NOISE)

H1: Y=X+W (SIGNAL+ NOISE)

Performance of spectrum sensing is represented by three probabilities: Pd, Pfa, Pm

Probability of error:

1. Probability that the primary is absent – H0 is true is say q0

2. Probability that the primary is present –H1 is true is asy q1
3. Probability of Detection

Cooperative sensing in cognitive radios

Multiple cognitive radios are used at different locations to sense the spectrum because of:

1. To counter noise uncertainity, fadiing and shadowing

2. Reducces probability of missed detection and false alarm
 3. Can help solve hidden primary user problem.
4. This is example of spatial diversity.

ESTIMATION THEORY

THREE FUNDAMENTAL TASKS IN CR’S:

1. RADIO SCENE ANALYSIS

2. CHANNEL STATE ESTIMATION AND PREDICTIVE MODELLING
3. TRANSMIT POWER CONTROL & DYNAMIC SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT

NEED FOR PARAMETER ESTIMATION IN:

RAIO SCENE ANAYSIS AND CHANNEL SATE ESTIMATION

USE OF ESTIMATED PARAMETERS IN NEXT CASE

RADIO SCENE ENCOMPASSES:

1. ESTIMATION OF INTERFERENCE TEMPERATURE (DEFINED LAYER)

2. ESTIMATING THE POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY OF INTERFERENCE AT COGNITIVE RADIO RECIVER
3. DETECTION OF SPECTRUM HOLES
4. DETECTING THE AVAILABILITY OF SPECTRUM