FAO Canning Sterilization Packing of Meat Products PDF

Canning / Sterilization of meat products 277
CANNING / STERILIZATION OF MEAT PRODUCTS
Principles of food canning
Unlike pasteurized “cooked” meat products where the survival of heat

resistant microorganisms is accepted1, the aim of sterilization of meat
products is the destruction of all contaminating bacteria including their
spores. Heat treatment of such products must be intensive enough to
inactivate/kill the most heat resistant bacterial microorganisms, which
are the spores of Bacillus and Clostridium (see page 95). In practice,
the meat products filled in sealed containers are exposed to
temperatures above 100°C in pressure cookers. Temperatures above
100°C, usually ranging from 110-121°C depending on the type of
product, must be reached inside the product. Products are kept for a
defined period of time at temperature levels required for the sterilization2
(see details on pages 293, 294), depending on type of product and size
of container.
If spores are not completely inactivated3 in canned goods, vegetative

microorganisms will grow from the spores as soon as conditions are
favourable again. In the case of heat treated processed meat, favourable
conditions will exist when the heat treatment is completed and the
products are stored under ambient temperatures. The surviving
microorganisms can either spoil preserved meat products (see page
354) or produce toxins which cause food poisoning of consumers,
(see page 357).
__________
1)
The acceptance of surviving microorganisms implies that strict cooling conditions for the
storage of such products have to be observed. As heat resistant microorganisms are
mesosphilic or thermophilic, i.e. their growth is only possible in the temperature range of
approximately 20-37°C, an uninterrupted cold chain in the range of 0°-7°C will suppress
their growth.
2)
In this chapter only fully sterilized meat products, which can be stored under ambient
temperatures, are discussed. So called semi– or three-quarter sterilized products, which
require lower than ambient storage temperatures, are not considered as they are not
particularly well suited for developing countries.
3)
Heat treatment, which due to erroneous sterilization parameters used, did not inactivate all
spores in the meat product is called “under-sterilization”. Another reason for the
presence of viable microorganisms in canned food may be recontamination due to faulty
sealing or faults of the containers. In these cases microorganisms penetrate into the cans
after sterilization during the cooling phase in cold water or during handling and distribution
of the cans.
278 Canning / Sterilization of meat products
Amongst the two groups of spore producing microorganisms (see page

277), Clostridium is more heat resistant than Bacillus. Temperatures of
110°C will kill most Bacillus spores1 within a short time. In the case of
Clostridium temperatures of up to 121°C are needed to kill the spores
within a relatively short time.
The above sterilization temperatures are needed for short-term

inactivation (within a few seconds) of spores of Bacillus or Clostridium.
These spores can also be killed at slightly lower temperatures, but longer
heat treatment periods must be applied in such cases to arrive at the
same summary effect of heat treatment.
From the microbial point of view, it would be ideal to employ very

intensive heat treatment which would eliminate the risk of any surviving
microorganisms. However, most canned meat products cannot be
submitted to such intensive heat stress without suffering
¾ degradation of their sensory quality such as very soft texture,
jelly and fat separation, discolouration, undesirable heat
treatment taste and
¾ loss of nutritional value (destruction of vitamins and protein
components).
In order to comply with above aspects, a compromise has to be reached

in order to keep the heat sterilization intensive enough for the
microbiological safety of the products and as moderate as
possible for product quality reasons.
A method was developed for such a balance between food safety and
food quality requirements by measuring and quantifying the summary
amount of heat treatment to which a canned product is exposed
during the entire sterilization process.
Fig. 359: Cold point in cans with solid (a) and liquid (b) content
__________
1)
The exception are the group of thermophilic bacillus strains, in particular Bac.
stearothermophilus, which are extremely heat resistant but need high storage temperature
(>35°C) for growth. Even in case of survival of such strains they pose only a risk (spoilage
of cans) if the storage temperatures are extremely high (35°C and above), which, however,
may occur in tropical regions.
The amount of heat treatment applied to a meat product can be

measured using the F-value-concept (see page 289). This concept is
practiced in canning plants, in particular as part of the HACCP-system
(see page 344). Small
producers, who are not
equipped to employ the F-
value concept, are not
excluded from producing
properly sterilized canned
goods. In these cases
established technical
reference parameters of
sterilization temperatures
and times to the type of
product and to the size of
the cans can be employed.
The size and format of cans
is of utmost importance for
the speed of heat
penetration. Temperatures
to be achieved at the “cold
point” (Fig. 359) of the can
where the heat arrives last,
are reached faster in small Size of 99/36 99/63 99/113
cans: 200 g 400 g 800 g
cans due to the shorter Fig. 360: Heat penetration into centre of cans
distance to the heat source (Cans filled with meat mix of Luncheon meat type)
than in large cans. Temperature of autoclave water 118°C
When comparing cans with the

same bottom area (99 mm) but
different height (36, 63 and 113
mm) (Fig. 360), heat penetration
to the cold point of the high can
(Fig. 360, c1) takes twice the time
as needed for the lowest can (a1).
These are approximate values,
which can differ slightly depending
on the materials filled into the cans.
When comparing cans of same
volume but different format (see
Fig. 361), heat penetrates faster to
the cold point of flat cans (a2, b2)
than to compact square cans (c2),
Fig. 361: Ways of heat penetration
although the content (volume) of into horizontal (a2) and vertical
all these cans is the same. (b2) flat cans and square (c2) cans
Processes and equipment with solid (not liquid) content.
Process
The sterilization process in the canned product can be subdivided into

three phases (see Fig. 385). By means of a heating medium (water or
steam) the product temperature is increased from ambient to the
required sterilization temperature (phase 1 = heating phase). This
temperature is maintained for a defined time (phase 2 = holding
phasing). In (phase 3 = cooling phase) the temperature in the can is
decreased by introduction of cold water into the autoclave.
Autoclaves or retorts
In order to reach
temperatures above
100°C (“sterilization”),
the thermal treatment
has to be performed
under pressure in
pressure cookers,
also called autoclaves
or retorts.
In autoclaves (retorts)
(Fig. 362) high
temperatures are
generated either by
direct steam injection,
by heating water up
to temperatures over
100°C or by combined
steam and water
heating. The autoclave Fig. 362: Vertical retort
must be fitted with a
thermometer, pressure
gauge, pressure relief valve, vent to manually release pressure, safety
relief valve where steam is released when reaching a certain pressure
(e.g. 2,5 bar)1, water supply valve and a steam supply valve. The steam
supply valve is applicable when the autoclave is run with steam as the
sterilization medium or when steam is used for heating up the
sterilization medium water.
__________
1)
See table 16 showing the autoclave temperature and associated pressure (page 296).
Simple small autoclaves are usually vertical autoclaves (Fig. 362, 364)
with the lid on top. Through the opened lid the goods to be sterilized are
loaded into the autoclave. The cans are normally placed in metal baskets.
The baskets are placed in the autoclave, either singly or several stapled
on top of each other. Before starting the sterilization, the lid must be
firmly locked onto the body of the autoclave. The autoclave and lid are
designed to withstand pressures up to 5.0 bar (pressure/temperature
relation see table 16). These types of autoclaves are best suited for
smaller operations as they do not require complicated supply lines and
should be available at affordable prices.
Larger autoclaves are usually

horizontal and loaded through a
front lid (Fig. 365). Horizontal
autoclaves can be built as single
or double vessel system. The
double vessel systems (Fig. 363)
have the advantage that the
water is heated up in the upper
vessel to the sterilization
temperature and released into
the lower (processing) vessel,
when it is loaded and
hermetically closed. Using the
two–vessel system, the heat
treatment can begin immediately
without lengthy heating up of the
processing vessel and the hot
water can be recycled afterwards
for immediate use in the
following sterilization cycle.
If steam is used instead of water Fig. 363: Double vessel system

as the sterilization medium, the 1 = Upper vessel
2 = Basket (for rotation)
injection of steam into a single 3 = Lower vessel
vessel autoclave will instantly
build up the autoclave
temperature desired for the process.
Another technology employed is rotary autoclaves in which the basket

containing the cans rotates during sterilization. This technique is useful
for cans with liquid or semi-liquid content as it achieves a mixing effect
of the liquid/semi-liquid goods resulting in accelerated heat penetration.
The sterilization process can be kept shorter and better sensory quality
of the goods is ensured (Fig. 363, No. 2).
Fig. 364: Double purpose

equipment (for small-scale). Fig. 365: Large horizontal autoclave
Can be used as cooking vat or
autoclave
At the final stage of the sterilization process the products must be

cooled down as quickly as possible. This operation is done in the
autoclave by introducing cold water. The contact of cold water with
steam causes the latter to condense with a rapid pressure drop in the
retort. However, the overpressure built up during thermal treatment
within the cans, jars or pouches remains for a certain period (Fig. 366).
During this phase, when the outside pressure is low but the pressure
inside the containers is still high due to high temperatures there, the
pressure difference may induce permanent deformation of the containers.
Fig. 367: Producing counter

pressure on cans (see arrows)
inside the autoclave with
Fig. 366: Pressure inside autoclave (blue) and compressed air
inside cans (red) during heating and cooling phase
(schematic)
Therefore, high pressure difference between the autoclave and the

thermal pressure in the containers must be avoided. This is generally
achieved by a blast of compressed air into the autoclave at the initial
phase of the cooling (Fig. 367). Sufficient hydrostatic pressure of the
introduced cooling water can also build up counter pressure so that in
specific cases, in particular where strong resistant metallic cans are used,
the water pressure can be sufficient and compressed air may not be
needed. For the stabilization of metallic cans, stabilization rims (Fig. 368)
can be moulded in lids, bottom and bodies.
Types of containers for thermally treated preserves
Containers for heat-preserved food must be hermetically sealed and

airtight to avoid recontamination from environmental microflora. Most
of the thermally preserved products are in metal containers (cans),.
Others are packed in glass jars or plastic or aluminum/plastic
laminated pouches.
Most metal containers are cans or “tins” produced from tinplate. They
are usually cylindrical (Fig. 369, 370). However, other shapes such as
rectangular or pear-shaped cans also exist (Fig. 368, 380, 382). Tinplate
consists of steel plate which is electrolytically coated with tin on both
sides. The steel body is usually 0.22 to 0.28mm in thickness. The tin
layer is very thin (from 0.38 to 3.08 µm). In addition, the interior of the
cans is lined with a synthetic compound to prevent any chemical
reaction of the tinplate with the enclosed food.
Tin cans consist of two or three

elements. In the case of three-piece
steel cans, they are composed of the
body and two ends (bottom and lid)
(Fig. 370). The body is made of a thin
steel strip, the smaller ends of which
are soldered together to a cylindrical
shape. Modern cans are induction-
soldered (Fig. 370) and the
soldering area is covered inside with
a side-strip coating for protection
and coverage of the seam. The use of
lead soldered food cans was stopped
decades ago. Hence the risk of
poisonous lead entering canned food
no longer exists. Fig. 368: Tin cans and aluminium
cans of different sizes and shapes
Two-piece steel cans have a lid similar to the three-piece cans but the
bottom and body consist of one piece, which is moulded from a circular
flat piece of metal into a cup. These cup-shaped parts may be shallow-
drawn (with short side wall) or deep-drawn (with longer side walls)
(Fig. 369, 371). However, the length of the side walls is limited through
the low moulding ability of steel (example: tuna tins 42/85mm, i.e. side
wall: diameter =1:2)
Aluminium is frequently used for smaller and easy-to-open cans,.

Aluminium cans are usually deep-drawn two-piece cans, i.e. the body
and the bottom end are formed out of one piece and only the top end is
seamed on after the filling operation. The advantages of aluminium cans
compared to tin cans are their better deep-drawing capability, low weight,
resistance to corrosion, good thermal conductivity and easy recycability.
They are less rigid but more expensive than steel plate cans.
Fig. 369: Cans of different size but same format (= relation of diameter to
height)
Fig. 370: Three pieces steel cans of Fig. 371: Two-piece cans. Left steel
different format, inside lining with can, right aluminium can. Steel can be
synthetic compound, side wall induction shallow drawn, aluminium can be
soldered, lid with easy-to-open ring deep drawn
Glass jars are sometimes used

for meat products but are not
common due to their fragility.
They consist of a glass body and
a metal lid (Fig. 372). The
seaming panel of the metal lid
has a lining of synthetic material.
Glass lids on jars are fitted by
means of a rubber ring.
Fig. 372: Glass jars

Retortable pouches, which are
containers made either of laminates of synthetic materials only or
laminates of aluminium foil with synthetic materials, are of growing
importance in thermal food preservation. Thermo-stabilized laminated
food pouches, have a seal layer which is usually PP (polypropylene) or
PP-PE (polyethylene) polymer, and the outside layers are usually made
of polyester (PETP) or nylon. They can be used for frankfurters in brine,
ready-to-eat meat dishes etc. From certain laminated films, for instance,
polyester / polyethylene (PETP/PE) or polyamide/polyethylene (PA/PE),
relatively rigid containers (Fig. 374) can be made, usually by deep
drawing. They are used for pieces of cured ham or other kinds of
processed meat. Small can-shaped round containers are made from
aluminium foil and polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP) laminate (Fig.
373) and are widely used for small portions, particularly of sausage mix.
PE or PP permits the heat-sealing of the lid made of the same laminate
onto these containers, which can then be subjected to intensive heat
treatment of 125°C or above. One advantage of the retortable
pouches/laminated containers is their good thermal conductivity which
can considerably reduce the required heat treatment time and hence is
beneficial for the sensory product quality.
Fig. 374: Cans made of synthetic

material with sealed aluminium foil as
Fig. 373: Cans moulded of strong lid (can be torn off)
aluminium foil, lid made of flexible
aluminium foil to be heat sealed on body
Cleaning of containers prior to filling
Rigid containers (cans, glass jars) are

delivered open to meat processing plants,
i.e. with the lids separate. During transport
and storage, dust can settle inside the cans,
which must be removed prior to filling the
cans. This can be done at the small-scale
level by manually washing the cans with
hot water. Industrial production canning
lines are equipped with steam cleaning
facilities, where steam is blown into the
cans prior to filling (Fig. 375).
Seaming of cans
Fig. 375: Empty cans being
After the can is filled with the product mix cleaned by steam injection
the can is sealed with a tight mechanical
structure - the so-called double seam (Fig 376). The double seam, in its
final form and shape, consists of three layers of lid (D, black colour) and
two layers of body material (D, striated). The layers must overlap
significantly and all curves must be of rounded shape to avoid small
cracks. Each double seam is achieved in two unit operations referred to
as “first operation” (A, B) and “second operation” (C, D).
Fig. 376: Can seaming operation (schematic)
First operation
Steps (pre-seaming):
of operation Second operation (seaming):
Start of operation (above left) Start of operation (above right)
End of operation (below left) End of operation (below right)
The can covered with the lid is placed on the base plate of the can
seaming machine. The can is moved upwards while the seaming chuck
(Fig. 376, 1) keeps the lid fixed in position. The pressure applied to the
can from the base plate can be regulated and must be strong enough to
ensure simultaneous movement of the lid and the can to avoid
scratching-off of the sealing compound.
In the first operation the lid hook and body hook are interlocked by
rolling the two into each other using the seaming roll with the deep and
narrow groove (Fig.376, A/B). The body hook is now almost parallel to
the lid hook and the curl of the lid adjacent to or touching the body wall
of the can. In the second operation, the interlocked hooks are pressed
together by a seaming roll with a flat and wide groove (Fig 376, C/D).
Wrinkles are ironed out and the rubber-based material is equally
distributed in the seam, filling all existing gaps thus resulting in a
hermetically sealed container.
Design of seaming rolls
The seaming rolls for the first and

second operations are designed
differently in order to facilitate the
respective operations. The seaming roll
for the first operation has a deep but
narrow groove to interlock body and
lid hock (rolling the hocks into each
other) (Fig. 376, A/B). The seaming Fig. 377: Cross section of double
roll for the second operation has a flat seam. Routine check of correct seam
in cannery by cutting out seam
but wide groove to press the segment and using computerized
interlocked hooks together (sealing the testing
seam) (Fig. 376 C/D). The different
grooves of the first and the second seaming roll are shown in the
pictures below. The first action (first roll) is rolling (interlocking) the
hooks, the second action (second roll) is compressing (sealing) the seam
(Fig. 378).
Fig. 378: Can seaming using semi-manual can seaming machine
S1 - First operation W - Width of the seam BH - Body hook OL – Overlap

S2 - Second Operation LH - Lid hook RS - Rubber seal
Meat products suitable for canning
Practically all processed meat products which require heat treatment

during preparation for consumption are suitable for heat preservation.
Meat products which do not receive any form of heat treatment before
being consumed, such as dried meat, raw hams or dry sausages, are
naturally not suitable for canning as they are preserved by low pH and/or
low water activity.
The following groups of meat products are frequently manufactured as

canned products:
¾ cooked hams or pork shoulders (Fig. 380)
¾ sausages with brine of the frankfurter type (Fig. 238, 372)
¾ sausage mix of the bologna or liver sausage type (Fig. 374, 381)
¾ meat preparations such as corned beef, chopped pork (Fig. 382,
383)
¾ ready-to-eat dishes with meat ingredients such as beef in gravy,
chicken with rice (Fig. 239, 379, 384)
¾ soups with meat ingredients such as chicken soup, oxtail soup
Fig. 379: Meat mix with Fig. 380: Canned pork

potatoes shoulder
Fig. 382: Corned beef

Fig. 381: Bologna sausage mix,
variety of same type is
Luncheon meat
Fig. 383: Corned pork Fig. 384: Pork knuckle meat in gravy
(“Adobo”, a Philippine specialty)
Definition of F-value and practical applications
The need for safe but not excessive heat sterilization requires practical
methods for the exact measurement of the amount of heat treatment received
by a product. For the development of such a method the following physical
facts have to be considered:
a) The amount of heat treatment applied to a product is the combination

of two components
¾ heat treatment temperature and
¾ heat treatment time.
b) Heat sterilization at a lower temperature, e.g. 110°C over the period of
20 minutes results in a lower summary amount of heat treatment than
at a higher temperature, e.g. 117°C over the same period of 20 minutes.
Similarly, when using the same temperature, e.g. 117°C but different
sterilization periods (e.g. 20 and 30 minutes respectively), the longer
sterilization period (30 minutes) accounts for the higher summary
amount of heat treatment.
c) The same amount of heat treatment can be achieved when using
either lower temperature/longer heat treatment time or higher
temperature/shorter heat treatment time (different time-temperature
regimes resulting in same heat impact).
As measurement for the amount of heat treatment imposed on a product,

the term F-value1 has been created, which represents the combination of
heat treatment time and heat treatment temperature.
__________
1)
The denomination “F-value” is derived from “Fahrenheit” (Fahrenheit temperature scale
used in the USA). For practical reasons a simplified approach has been taken in this
context. The F-values mentioned always refer to the amount of heat treatment
received in the critical thermal point, the cold point, where heating is slowest. For solid
canned goods it is the centre of the can. In liquid or semi-liquid goods it is one third of
the height from the can bottom (see Fig. 359).
For practical applications the reference temperature of 121°C and reference

time of one minute is the basis of the F-value unit. The amount of heat
treatment delivered at 121°C during one minute is F-value 1.
Definition:
F-value 1 = amount of heat treatment at 121oC over 1 min and
similarly:
F-value 2 = 121°C over 2 min
F-value 3 = 121°C over 3 min, etc.
The reference temperature of 121°C does not mean that this is the
recommended or optimal sterilization temperature. For any other relevant
temperature, the amount of heat treatment per minute (expressed in F-value)
can also be determined. Temperatures lower than 121°C will result in partial
F-values per minute of less then 1 and temperatures of higher than 121°C will
result in partial F-values per minute of higher than 1. For easy reference the
F-values associated with temperatures starting from 100°C and referring to
one minute heat impact time are summarized in table 1.1
Table 14: F-values (per minute) for the temperature range of 100oC to
135oC
°C F – value °C F – value
100 0.0077 118 0.4885

101 0.0097 119 0.6150
102 0.0123 120 0.7746
103 0.0154 121 1.0000
104 0.0194 122 1.2270
105 0.0245 123 1.5446
106 0.0308 124 1.9444
107 0.0388 125 2.4480
108 0.0489 126 3.0817
109 0.0615 127 3.8805
110 0.0775 128 4.8852
111 0.0975 129 6.1501
112 0.1227 130 7.7459
113 0.1545 131 9.7466
114 0.1945 132 12.2699
115 0.2449 133 15.4560
116 0.3083 134 19.4553
117 0.3880 135 24.5098
__________
1)
The partial F-values indicated in table 1 have been established experimentally and
mathematically.
The overall amount of heat treatment (= summary F-value) for a fully

sterilized product can be calculated by adding up/summarizing partial F-
values achieved during sterilization. For this purpose the temperatures
achieved in a product during sterilization must be registered every minute.
The individual temperature measurements (readings per minute) at the cold
point (Fig. 359) of the can, result in a temperature curve for the entire
sterilization process composed of heating, holding and cooling phase (Fig.
385).
The temperature inside the containers during heat treatment must be

measured at the “coldest” or critical thermal point of the product, which is
the point where the heat transferred arrives last. This is usually the centre of
the container (can), except in case of liquid fillings (see Fig. 359). This
situation also implies that the outer parts of the canned product always
receive higher amounts of heat treatment than the centre. But for product
safety reasons the summary F-value required for a product must be reached
and measured at the critical thermal point (cold point). The outer parts of the
product will always receive higher F-values, which means that these areas will
be more intensively heat treated than the central parts (see Fig. 361). This
fact plays a role in the sensory quality of the product. The sterilization process
must therefore be carried out in a way that also the outer product portions
are not deteriorated by excessive heat treatment and are acceptable to
consumers both in texture and taste.
The reference temperature for the F-value definition is 121oC. In commercial

meat canning, for quality reasons, temperatures lower than 121°C are applied
for most meat products due to their heat sensitivity. Theoretically
temperatures above 100°C can be used for meat product sterilization.
However, temperatures close to 100°C are associated with very low F-values
(see table 14), which would require a long period of heat treatment in order
to reach summary F-values considered sufficient for full sterilization. On the
other hand, F-values associated with temperatures higher than 121°C would
assure a short-term sterilization process. But these high temperatures have to
be applied with caution, as they may have a negative impact on the product
quality.
There are a number of meat products, e.g. Cooked ham, Luncheon meat or
Liver pate, which would suffer quality losses if heated up to internal
temperatures of around 121°C. These products are usually sterilized at
temperatures between 112 and 115°C. Other meat products such as Corned
beef or meat pieces in gravy are less heat sensitive and can be sterilized at
higher temperatures, e.g. 118-121°C. The temperatures to be used also
depend on the size of the cans. Solid products in large-size cans may have to
be sterilized by using lower autoclave temperatures to prevent the outer parts
to be exposed to high temperatures for too long a time (Fig. 360).
The proper application of the F-value approach in heat sterilization is a

important part of product quality. It allows for all container sizes and types of
products to determine the optimal sterilization pattern and to find the balance
between food safety and food quality requirements.
Calculation of summary F-value achieved in a product
By measuring the product temperature during thermal treatment through

inserting a thermocouple into the critical thermal point (cold point) of the
container (can), the summary F–value achieved can be determined. The
temperature taken in the critical thermal point of the can/container each
minute during sterilization corresponds to a partial F-value (see table 14).
All partial F–values obtained starting from the internal temperature of 100oC1
until the sterilization is ended and including the cooling phase until the
product temperature falls below 100oC are added up. The sum of all partial F–
values is the summary F-value achieved in the product.
Please note: It is important that the F–value calculation is continued during

the cooling phase (until the product temperature falls to 100oC)1), as the F–
values achieved during the initial phase of cooling contribute considerably to
the overall F–value (Fig. 385). Omitting this would result in over-sterilizing of
the product possibly resulting in quality losses.
Fig. 385: F-value calculations during heating, holding and cooling

phase
a b
Starting from +100°C during the heating phase (a) – measured in the critical thermal
point of the product – the F-values (per minute) are added up until a temperature below
+100°C is reached during the cooling phase (b).
__________
1)
The partial F-values associated with temperatures below 100°C are very small and
hence do not contribute significantly to the overall amount of heat treatment or
summary F-value of the product. Partial F-values below 100°C can therefore be
neglected in the summary F-value calculation for meat product sterilization.
Production of fully sterilized canned products
Canned meat products must be microbiologically safe, which means pathogen

free and non-spoiling. This implies that apart from all vegetative
microorganisms, the spores must also be inactivated. Thermal processing
uses the most heat resistant known organisms that could cause spoilage or
disease/food poisoning as reference organisms for a safe and stable product.
In the food industry the most heat resistant pathogens are Clostridium
botulinum spores (see also page 358) for which a minimum F-value of
2.52 needed. The most heat resistant spores for spoilage are the
Clostridium sporogenes spores which require minimum F-values of 2.58.
Based on these microbiological considerations and including a sufficient safety

margin, sterilized canned products should be produced with F-values of 4.0-
5.5. The retort temperatures to be used may vary between 117 and 130oC
(depending on the heat sensitivity of the individual products). A shelf life of up
to four years at storage temperatures of 25oC or below can be achieved.
In tropical countries, where the storage temperatures may exceed 25oC,

specific canned products for tropical conditions are manufactured. In these
cases the summary F-values have to be increased to F-value 12-151, which
permits safe storage of the finished products under storage temperatures up
to 40oC.
Information about the exact summary F-value of a product is of great

importance to food processors because
¾ it ensures the appropriate thermal treatment of the product, thus

avoiding over- or undercooking.
¾ it enables the determination of the product storage conditions.
In practice it is not necessary to calculate the F-value repeatedly for the same
type of products processed in the cannery. The F-value can be determined
once for each batch taking into account the size of the containers and
intensity and duration of thermal treatment. If these parameters remain
unchanged, the F-value will be constant during subsequent production.
__________
1)
The sterilization technologies used are generally based on the elimination of mesophilic
bacteria. Certain thermophilic organisms such as Bac. stearothermophilus are
extremely heat resistant and may survive F-values of 4-5.5. In case of survival they
will not grow under normal storage conditions of up to 25°C and do not pose a risk in
countries with moderate temperatures. However, they may grow under tropical
conditions in particular with storage temperatures of 25oC and above. Hence, F-values
of 12-15 have to be employed in such cases to contain this risk (see also page 278).
Commercial sterility
F-values of 4 and above as required for fully sterilized canned products are
often detrimental for the quality of certain canned goods. Thus
technologies have been developed, which use a sterilization pattern of slightly
less than F-value 4, which means that under certain circumstances some
spores may survive. In order to tackle this risk, other “hurdles” can be
employed to curb microbiological growth. In the first place, the curing
substance nitrite, which is added to many canned meat products, as an
additional safety measure or “hurdle”. Nitrite inhibits the growth of spores.
Lowered water activity (aw) due to reduced water content or aw-reducing
ingredients (fat, non-meat proteins, salts) can also be useful.
Product acidity (low pH) such as in many canned vegetable or fruit products,
is effective to allow the “softening” of the sterilization pattern, as Clostridium
species do not grow below pH 4.5. However it is not applicable for canned
meat products, which practically all fall in the category of low-acid products
(pH higher than 5.5).
The definition for commercially sterile products according to Codex

Alimentarius1 is:
“Commercial sterility of food means the conditions achieved by application of

heat which renders such food free from microorganisms capable of growing in
the food at temperatures at which the food is likely to be held during
distribution and storage.” The criterion is ability to grow not presence or
absence.
Commercially sterile goods are canned products sterilized under not too
intensive heat treatment in order to maintain good sensory product quality. It
is accepted that non-pathogenic microorganisms may not have been
completely inactivated, but it must be ensured that their growth is practically
not feasible as one or more of the above “hurdles” are present in the product
(see also page 92).
The characteristic of commercially sterile products is that they have been

heat treated to eliminate all pathogenic organisms and to reduce spoilage
organisms to a level where they will not produce a health hazard or reduce
the quality and acceptability of a product.
__________
1)
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION
Recommended International Code of Hygienic Practice for Low Acid Canned Foods,
1993
Experimental and mathematical determination of F-values
F-values (per minute), at and above the reference temperature of 121°C as

indicated in table 14, are based on the heat tolerance / heat resistance of
microorganisms relevant in food/meat canning. In order to facilitate the
approach, one single microbial species was selected, Clostridium botulinum,
which is the most heat resistant pathogenic microorganism (see also page
357). Canned food, where Cl. botulinum is inactivated, is hygienically safe, as
it can be assumed that also all other food poisoning and food intoxicating
microorganisms are eliminated. By adding a defined safety margin to the heat
treatment, it can further be assumed that any surviving food spoilage bacteria
will also be inactivated.
For the calculation of the Cl. botulinum–based partial F-values (F-value per
minutes) the following additional parameters apply (which are based on
experimental results):
D-value = decimal reduction time of Cl. botulinum, which is the time at a

given temperature needed to reduce the microbial population to 10%, of its
original numbers (e.g. at 121° approximately 12 seconds)
z-value indicates the necessary increase in temperature (°C), which is

needed to decrease the decimal reduction time (in the above example 12
seconds) to 10% (=1,2 seconds in the example). For Cl. botulinum this z-
value is 10°C (is different for all other microorganisms).
This fact of the z-value being 10 for the reference microorganism Cl.
botulinum facilitates F-value calculations. The rule is that temperature
increases/decreases by 10°C will change partial F-values by the factor 10
(decimal increase/decrease) (see table 15)
Table 15: Time / temperature effect for Z-value
F-value Minutes at 121°C to

Temp. Temp.
(minutes) achieve F-value 1
101°C 0,01 101°C 100
111°C 0,1 111°C 10
121°C 1 121°C 1
131°C 10 131°C 0.1
12 - D - concept
Knowledge of the decimal reduction rate of Cl. botulinum enables the

calculation of the safe elimination of this microorganism. It is assumed that a
batch of cans is contaminated with one spore of Cl. botulinum per can (which
is extremely unlikely). It is required that the sterilization be such that there is
a likelihood of only one spore surviving in a trillion (1012) cans, or in other
words a 12-fold decimal reduction (down to 10-12). Mathematically the
complete elimination to zero microorganisms cannot be established.
The decimal reduction time of Cl. botulinum at 121°C is 0,21 min., and for the
12-fold effect the result is 12x0.21 min. = 2,5 min. The period of 2,5 min. at
121°C is equivalent with F-value 2,5. This F-value of 2,5 is also called
“botulinum cook” or “12-D-concept” and signifies the elimination of Cl.
botulinum under practical conditions.
When applying the above decimal increase/decrease rule at 111°C (10°C

lower than 121°C), the “botulinum cook” would be achieved only after the
ten-fold time = 25 min. instead of 2.5 min. at 121°C (see also box on page
295).
Table 16: Steam temperature and associated pressure1
°C Bar °C Bar °C Bar °C Bar

100 1 164 7 234 30 322 120
111 1.5 170 8 248 40 328 130
120 2 174 9 260 50 334 140
128 2.5 179 10 271 60 340 150
134 3 185 11 281 70 345 160
139 3.5 187 12 290 80 354 180
144 4 191 13 300 90 363 200
148 4.5 198 15 304 95 372 225
152 5 213 20 308 100
158 6 225 25 315 110
__________
1)
Autoclaves are usually designed to withstand 6 bar. In practice autoclave temperatures remain below or
do not exceed 128°C (=2,5 bar).
Handling and maintenance of tools and core equipment 297
HANDLING AND MAINTENANCE OF TOOLS AND

CORE EQUIPMENT
Meat processing plants should supply personnel with the correct types of
hand tools and basic equipment. Such tools and equipment must be
subject to simple routine servicing and maintenance to be carried out by
the personnel on a regular basis. This does not include the servicing of
more sophisticated equipment which has to be undertaken by specialized
technicians usually sourced through the equipment supplier.
Knives
Due to the multiple operations in the meat sector different types of

knives are used for different purposes. There are knives for bleeding,
flaying and evisceration of animals as well as for deboning of
carcasses, cutting of meat and slicing of choice cuts and processed
products. All these knives have very specific design features to support
the operations they are made for (Fig. 387). Knives are also used for
cutting of other raw materials and casings.
Knives used in meat

operations should have
basic safety features. The
handle should be made
of plastic material with
non-slip surface and
designed to allow a firm
and safe grip. Plastic
handles are also a
hygienic requirement. The
end of the handle is often
slightly enlarged (handle
knob) to prevent the
knife from slipping out of
the hand and the portion
close to the blade should
have a similar enlarged
design to avoid the hand Fig. 386: The recommended knife design to facilitate
safe handling and avoid injuries
from slipping over onto
the blade (see Fig. 386,
387).
298 Handling and maintenance of tools and core equipment
It is of utmost importance that knives are handled with care to avoid

injuries to workers and damages to the knife itself. When working with
meat, knives must be cleaned
frequently to eliminate the risk of
cross-contamination. Knives
must also be sharpened in a
proper way to avoid unnecessary
wear and kept sharp to reduce
the potential for injuries.
Working with a blunt knife
requires more force and results
in a higher risk of slipping off the
meat or bone. It also leads to
early fatigue and slower work
speed.
The correct shape of the blade at

the cutting edge is very
important to facilitate a long-
lasting sharpness and allow for
easy whetting during
Fig. 387: Knives used in meat operations
operations. The recommended
shape is a slightly convex cutting
edge area as this ensures a firm structure and facilitates smooth cutting
through meat and sausages (Fig. 388). Cutting edges showing straight or
even concave shapes result in very thin blade edges with an increased
risk of small cracks and also require more handling force by workers.
Knife sharpening is a delicate process and requires a special device

(Fig. 389). The knife sharpening machines (sand-paper abrasive belts,
sand-paper flap-wheels, rotating
stones) should be air-ventilated or
water-cooled and rotate at a moderate
speed. Air ventilated sharpening often
causes overheating of the blades,
which increases the risk of cutting
edge breakage.
During work operations, all knives
should be whetted regularly using
special steels. These steels are often
called sharpening steel, but are in fact
only for whetting (polishing of the
knife edge). Care must be taken that
only steels with safety handles (knob-
type handle front for finger protection)
Fig. 388: The correct cutting edge
shape
are used.
Fig. 389: Knife sharpening

machine with sand-paper flap-
wheel for grinding (right) and
whetting (left)
Right side: wet stone for Fig. 390: Sequence during knife
sharpening polishing with steel
Below in front: polishing steel
During knife whetting (Fig.

390), the steel is firmly gripped
with one hand and the other
hand holds the knife. The hand
with the steel remains static.
Starting from close to the grip
of the knife (1), the blade is
moved down along the steel
from the steel’s tip towards the
handle. During this movement
the edge slides in its full length
over the steel. This move is
performed several times on
both sides of the steel (2), thus
polishing both sides of the edge
of the knife (3).
Knives must be kept clean and

dry and should also be stored
safely and visible to avoid
accidental injuries to workers
(Fig. 391). Fig. 391: Options for storing knives
Hooks used in the meat sector
In general, two types of hooks are essential for smooth operations in the
meat sector. Slaughterhouse or carcass hooks are used for moving and
hanging of carcasses. Their design depends on the type of rails (tubular,
flat bar) installed. These heavy duty hooks are for sliding or moving on
rollers along the rails and have a rotating lower hook part.
Fig. 392: Various hook designs used in slaughterhouses and meat shops
The meat shop hooks are used for hanging meat pieces or sausages.
To avoid injuries during handling, the upper end of those hooks is always
kept flat. A flat lower end is also used for sausage hooks, while meat
hooks display a sharp tip which facilitates the penetration into the meat
piece to be suspended.
Grinders and grinder plates and knives
Meat grinders are indispensable equipment in the meat processing

industry and are part of practically every meat processing line. Meat
processors must be familiar with this type of equipment (see page 18).
Installation:
Care must be taken that grinders are positioned properly. Most grinders
have adjustable rubber feet. This allows the horizontal levelling and
avoids transfer of vibration from the machine to the table (small models)
and floor (industrial grinders). The initial electrical connection to the
power supply line should be done with an empty housing (auger /
feeding worm and cutting set removed) for safety reasons. Industrial size
meat grinders are usually driven by three-phase motors and the direction
of rotation must be checked. When viewed from the front, the feeding
worm must rotate counter-clockwise. The cutting set is attached to the
feeding worm with the cutting edges of the star knives facing counter-
clockwise. Before starting the machine for the first time, all parts must
be thoroughly cleaned and dried. A useful option often used by meat
processors, is to run some clean fat through the system to make sure
that remains of grease are removed from the housing and the cutting
set.
Operations:
Apart from the need for frequent cleaning (see page 379), the cutting
system of grinders has to be assembled and dismantled at various
times per shift or day to be adjusted to the desired particle size. Care
must be taken of the following:
¾ The grinder plates must be frequently checked for any damage to

the surface, as a clear cut is only possible when the grinder
plates are kept smooth. If damage such as grooves or scratches
appear, the grinder plates must be planed (reground)
immediately.
Fig. 393: Cutting sets in meat grinders, assembled on feeding worm (auger)
Left: UNGER five-piece cutting set Right: ENTERPRISE two-piece cutting set
¾ The star-knives (cutters) must also be kept sharp. Cutters are

usually sharpened at the cutting edges. In systems with
replaceable blades these blades are not sharpened but replaced
regularly.
¾ Grooved grinder plates and blunt star-knives result in poor
cutting (mashed ground meats).
¾ Parts from different cutting sets must not be mounted together,
as they might be made of materials of different hardness. This
can result in grooved grinder plates or damaged star-knives.
¾ The cutting assembly must never be over-tightened to avoid
excessive friction heat and undesirable heat transfer to the meat.
¾ A grinder should never run empty as this will damage the knives
and blades.
In industrial-size grinders, the electrical motor and driveshaft are

connected via V-shaped belts. These belts usually require little servicing.
Care must only be taken that the belts are kept at the correct tension. If
the belts are not sufficiently tightened they show increased wear,
excessively tightened belts lead to increased power consumption and
could cause damage to the motor or driveshaft.
Fig. 394: Feeding auger housing:

Critical areas for cleaning are the
threat (a) in the housing and the
connection point of feeding worm
and drive shaft (b)
Cleaning:
Ginders are normally used for mincing raw fresh meat and other animal
tissue. Meat grinders and their cutting parts must therefore be cleaned
and disinfected frequently - during or at the end of each production
cycle in order to maintain a good hygienic status. The most critical spots
for cleaning are inside the barrel (feed auger housing). Any meat
materials or fats left in the grooves of the thread must be removed by
hand, followed by thorough flushing and brushing until all residues are
washed out.
The driveshaft pin, where the feeding auger is interlocked, must also be
brushed and flushed with plenty of water. The use of a high-pressure
water cleaner is discouraged here, as this could damage the rubber seal
in which the driveshaft pin rotates. After cleaning, the barrel should be
dried properly, also to avoid metal corrosion.
Cleaning of grinder plates provides a special challenge for responsible

staff as care must be taken that the many holes are totally free of
impurities. This is very difficult in discs with tiny holes for smaller particle
sizes. If a high-pressure water cleaner is available, it should be used.
Bowl cutter
Most meat processing lines include a bowl cutter as these machines allow
improved processing (“comminuting”) and production of a greater variety
of products. Bowl cutters are available in different sizes from single-
phase table models for small-scale butcheries and restaurants to bigger
three-phase models for medium to larger industries (see page 20). The
basic maintenance requirements are the same for all models.
Installation:
Small table models

operate on single-phase
electrical power. The
equipment is usually
positioned on a suitable
working table. The
operator has to make
sure that the knives are
installed in the right
position and securely
tightened (see page
21). Upon connection to
the power supply, the
bowl cutter is
operational. Other Fig. 395: Standard design bowl cutter:
a = bowl, b = knife head, c = knife,
details are similar to d = knife shaft, e = clearance between knife from bowl
bigger models and are
explained in the
following paragraphs.
Bigger bowl cutters (floor models) need to be positioned with the rim of
the bowl levelled horizontally, using the adjustable rubber-feet. The
rubber feet should not be replaced by metal bolts, as they facilitate the
smooth running of the bowl cutter.
The knives (blades) (Fig. 395c) are inserted following the recommended
scheme (Fig. 396) and must be tightened firmly. Care must be taken
that the knife head (Fig. 395d) rotates freely in the bowl and cover
(always rotate one initial round by hand) and all knives have a sufficient
but not too wide clearance (1-2 mm) from the bowl (Fig. 27, 395e). After
a few rounds at slow speed, the knives must be tightened again firmly.
To avoid unnecessary vibrations from the knife head, bowl cutter knives
should be balanced (equilibrated). In bigger bowl cutters with large
knives, special balancing sets are used.
The following knife assemblies are common:
Bowl cutters up to 100 litres

3 knives – coarse products, partly frozen materials
4 knives – coarse products, fresh soft materials
6 knives – finely chopped products, pre-ground meats
Bowl cutters above 100 litres
4 knives – all coarse products
8 knives – all finely chopped products
The tension of the drive belt should also be checked. A correct tension
Fig. 396: Different bowl cutter knife settings, with typical cutting sequences
Left top: 3 knives, cutting sequence 1-3-2
Left low: 4 knives, cutting sequence 1-3-2-4
Right top: 6 knives, cutting sequence 1-3-5-2-4-6
Right low: 8 knives, cutting sequence 1-5-3-7-2-6-4-8
is achieved when the belt can be manually pressed down between its two
fixations only as far as the thickness of the belt itself. A weak tension of
the belt will cause premature wear and insufficient drive force. If the belt
tension is too strong, it can cause damage to shaft and bearings. The
maintenance manual by the equipment manufacturer should always be
checked for details.
Operation:
Care must be taken that no metal or other hard materials accidentally

find their way into the bowl cutter. It is advisable to frequently check all
bolts, nuts and screws, especially around the cover. The cut-out safety
switch must be checked regularly to ensure that the knife shaft brake
stops the machine immediately if the cover is erroneously opened during
operations. The built-in thermometer should also be frequently
checked as it could get damaged by vibrations.
All lubrication points (grease

nipples) (Fig. 397) have to be
greased following the
instructions given by the
equipment manufacturer and
oil changing intervals must be
observed. As a rule of the
thumb, the knife shaft (Fig.
395d) is usually greased
monthly and the motor shaft
six-monthly. The oil in the
gear assembly (gear box)
should be changed yearly.
Fig. 397: Grease nipple on knife shaft housing
Cleaning:
Special care must be taken during cleaning. The spaces between the
knives (Fig. 398) must be properly cleaned to remove all residues of
batter mixes. A brush with long handle should be used to avoid injuries.
A critical spot for cleaning is the narrow gap between the rotating bowl
and the housing of the knife shaft (Fig. 399) as well as the paddle on the
bowl cover (Fig. 400). The knife head should be dismantled regularly for
proper cleaning (once a week) and reassembled following the
instructions given before.
Moisture and defective seals in switches have a significant negative effect

on the functioning of a bowl cutter. When high pressure cleaners are
used, direct contact of the water jet with the switches must be avoided.
The noise protection lids and front parts of vacuum covers are often
made of transparent plastic and must be cleaned with mild cleaning

agents to maintain their see-through appearance.
Fig. 399: Gap between bowl and

knife shaft.
Fig. 398: Cleaning of spaces between

knives with small brush Fig. 400: Paddle on bowl cover
with critical spot for cleaning
Sausage stuffer
A sausage stuffers is one of the core pieces of machinery for every meat
processor. The different designs and sizes are described on page 22. In
this context, the focus is on the hydraulic piston stuffer as this model
is commonly used in small and medium enterprises. This type consists of
a steel frame mounted stainless steel cylinder with a stainless steel
piston. The piston is attached to a solid shaft, which is moved up and
down inside the cylinder by hydraulic force. The top of the cylinder is
covered by a horizontally sliding lid, which can be hermetically closed.
Some models have the outlet opening for the stuffing funnels integrated
in the upper edge of the cylinder, others attached to the lid (Fig. 401).
Packaging of fresh and processed meat 265
PACKAGING OF FRESH AND PROCESSED MEAT

The function of packaging is to surround or wrap meat products with
suitable protective material (Fig. 335). Packaging materials were in the
old days simple natural materials, e.g. leaves, but nowadays exclusively
manufactured materials such as paper or synthetic films.
Purpose of packaging
The basic purpose of packaging is to protect meat and meat products

from undesirable impacts on quality including microbiological and physio-
chemical alterations. Packaging protects foodstuffs during processing,
storage and distribution from:
¾ contamination by dirt (by contact with surfaces and hands)

¾ contamination by micro-organisms (bacteria, moulds, yeasts)
¾ contamination by parasites (mainly insects)
¾ contamination by toxic substances (chemicals)
¾ influences affecting colour, smell and taste (off-odour, light,
oxygen)
¾ loss or uptake of moisture (evaporation or water absorption)
Adequate packaging can prevent the above listed secondary

contamination of meat and meat products. But the further growth of
microorganisms, which are
already present in meat and
meat products, cannot be
interrupted through packaging
only. To halt or reduce
microbial growth, packaging
has to be combined with
other treatments, such as
refrigeration, which will slow
down or stop the further
growth of microorganisms, or
with heating/sterilization,
which will reduce or
completely eliminate
contaminating microorganisms. Fig. 335: Meat products in different packages
of synthetic materials
266 Packaging of fresh and processed meat
The packaging procedure results in an inner package, where the

packaging material is in direct contact with the product. In some cases it
is combined with an outer package often a cardboard boxe, or other
materials.
There are various synthetic packaging films available for the inner
packaging, e.g. transparent or opaque, flexible or semi-rigid, gas
proof or permeable to certain gases. These materials are selected to
serve specific purposes, such as protection from unwanted impacts or
attractive presentation.
Requirements for packaging materials
A range of synthetic materials suitable for meat packaging are available

mainly in the form of plastic films1 or foils.
Packaging films must be/have:
¾ flexible
¾ mechanical strength
¾ light weight
¾ odourless
¾ hygienic (clean and toxicologically harmless)
¾ easy recycling
¾ resistance to hot and cold temperatures
¾ resistance to oil and fats
¾ good barrier properties against gases
¾ sealing capability
¾ low-cost
Barrier against gases
Good barrier properties against oxygen and evaporation are the most
important features in order to ensure:
a) Exclusion of oxygen
Air contains about 20 percent oxygen. Oxygen negatively affects

unpackaged meat and meat products during prolonged storage periods.
It changes the red meat colour to grey or green and causes oxidation
and rancidity of fats resulting in an undesirable off-flavour.
__________
1)
Oil is the raw material for plastics, 4% of the annual production of crude oil is used for
making plastics.
The oxygen permeability of films used for the packaging of meat

products varies. The lower the oxygen permeability the more efficient the
protection of product quality. The best protection will be achieved using
oxygen-proof packaging films together with vacuum packaging of the
product (see page 271). This ensures that practically no oxygen remains
in the package and no oxygen will penetrate from the air into the
packaged product.
While oxygen is generally undesirable in packages of meat and meat

products, there is one exception where oxygen-permeable foils are
desirable, namely for fresh ready-to-sell meat portions in self-service
outlets. In this specific case the utilization of oxygen-permeable foils
produces a desirable bright red meat colour (see page 269 “Fresh Meat
Packaging” and page 276 “Modified Atmosphere Packaging”)
b) Prevention of evaporation of product moisture
Fresh meat or fresh sausages, cooked ham, etc. have a relatively high
moisture content and will suffer considerable weight and quality losses
by evaporation and drying during storage if such products remain
unpacked. The packaging material must therefore be sufficiently water-
vapour-proof.
Barrier against light
The prolonged exposure of meat

and meat products to daylight or
artificial light accelerates
unattractive colour changes,
oxidation and rancidity
because light provides the energy
for these processes. Transparent Fig. 336: Opaque and printed films as
packaging films normally used for light barrier
meat products allow attractive
product presentation as the packaged
product is visible. However, such films
provide no protection against light impact.
Normally products in transparent packaging
films are sufficiently protected when stored in
the dark or moderate llight conditions. For
light sensitive products or products exposed
to strong light, coloured or opaque films (Fig.
336) should be used. Films laminated with
aluminium foil (Fig 337) are very effective.
Fig: 337: Aluminium foil bag
Sealing capability
Some packaging materials are required to have good thermoplastic

properties. They are heat sealable, which means that two of these films,
put closely in contact to each other under slight pressure and with
simultaneous high temperature application, will melt or seal together
along the heated area, resulting in hermetically closed plastic pouches or
bags.
Types of packaging films
Practically all films used for meat packaging derive from synthetic
“plastic” materials.
Cellulose, which is not a synthetic but a natural material derived from

wood, was formerly widely used in the form of transparent films. It is
now no longer of great importance in meat packaging although still used
for some specific purposes. However, cellulose is still important for the
manufacture of certain kinds of artificial sausage casings (see page 261).
The most common synthetic materials used for meat packaging are:
Polyethylene (PE) (oxygen + , water vapour -)

Polypropylene (PP) (oxygen + , water vapour -)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) (soft) (oxygen + , water vapour -)
Polyester (PET) (oxygen ± , water vapour -)
Polyamide (PA) (oxygen - , water vapour +)
+ = relatively permeable
- = relatively impermeable
Polyvinylidenchloride (PVDC) used as barrier plastics

Ethylenvinyl alcohol (EVOH) (see Fig. 342B)
Foils made from the above

synthetic materials are selected
based on their different properties
related to oxygen and water
vapour.
For the various purposes in the

meat industry packaging films can
be divided into
¾ Single-layer films or
Fig. 338: Single-layer film
¾ Multi-layer films
Single-layer films
One common use of single-layer films

(Fig. 338, 339) is the wrapping of meat
pieces, processed meat products, bone-in
or boneless meat cuts or even entire
carcasses. These films are usually self-
adhesive, i.e. they cling together -“cling
film”- in the overlapping areas. Hence
they provide good protection from
external contamination and to some
extend from evaporation, but no
protection from oxygen, as they are not Fig. 339: Wrapping with single-
layer film
hermetically closed or sealed packages.
Foils with good self-adhesive properties
are PE, PA, PVC and PP.
Another important utilization for single-

layer films is in freezer storage. For
meat blocks, meat cuts or smaller
portions of meat or meat products,
single-layer films are stretched tightly
around the meat surface before freezing.
The tight film prevents evaporation
losses, which occur during freezer
storage of unpacked products. The film is
Fig. 340: Freezer burn
in tight contact with the products surface, developed during freezer
in order to avoid evaporation, ice storage because of insufficient
formation and freezer burn at non protection against evaporation.
contact spots (Fig. 340). Suitable cold Meat surface with greyish colour
and dry (left)
resistant films for freezer storage are PA
or PE.
One specific utilization for single-layer

films is the wrapping of chilled meat
portions for self-service outlets
(supermarkets, etc.) (Fig. 341). Those
meat pieces (beef, pork or chicken) are
placed in a hygienic cellulose or plastic
tray and tightly wrapped with single-layer
plastic film. The ends of the foil are
overlapped at the bottom side of the tray,
Fig. 341: Fresh meat being
where they firmly cling together. Films to packed in self-service tray,
be used should have low water vapour covering foil is cut to right size
permeability to avoid the drying out of for overlapping at the bottom
the meat during storage. But for making
attractive to customers, such meat needs to retain an attractive bright

red meat surface colour (oximyoglobin) (see page 7) especially in the
case of fresh portioned beef. For this reason the plastic foils to be used
shall have a high oxygen permeability so that the oxygen of the air can
react with the myoglobin of the meat and form the bright red
oximyoglobin. Oximyoglobin is not a chemical compound but a loose
aggregation of oxygen to the red meat pigment myoglobin, which keeps
meat bright red for a number of hours. Suitable single-layer films for
fresh meat packaging are PE or soft PVC. Formerly cellulose films were
also used, which have the same permeability pattern but are less self-
adhesive and the overlapping ends do not cling together very well.
Multi-layer films
Practically all the other films used for meat packaging are designed as
strong oxygen and water-vapour barriers. In order to fully achieve
these requirements, films with good barrier properties for oxygen and
water vapour respectively are combined.
Fig. 342: Typical multi-layer films (a = two layers, b = three layers)

Layer A: Outside layer (mechanically strong, gas barrier to oxygen)
Layer B: Middle layer (barrier to oxygen)
Layer C: Inside layer = sealant layer (capable of being melted and welded
under pressure to the sealant layer of the opposite sheet of the
bag/pouch, serves also as barrier to water vapour)
A very efficient combination is PA/PE. PA is used as the outside layer

for example for films for vacuum bags. PA is relatively oxygen proof but
permeable to some extend to water vapour. PE has the opposite
properties, it is water vapour proof but permeable to oxygen. The
combination of both renders such a multi-layer film very tight against
oxygen and water vapour evaporation. Moreover, the PE used as the
inside layer has good thermoplastic properties and is therefore well
suited for heat sealing. The PA/PE combination is the most simple
structure for a multi-layer film (Fig. 342a). The packaging industry has
refined the systems by introducing additional layers which serve as
strong oxygen barriers (Fig. 342b).
Sealant layers consist mostly of

Polyethylene (PE) or Ionomer (I)
(Fig. 345, 346, 347). Outside layers
may be Polyamide (PA), Polyester
(PET) or Polypropylene (PP). Barrier
layers for oxygen are made of
Polyvinylidenchloride (PVDC) or
materials with similar properties
(see page 268).
Vacuum bags, used for vacuum Fig. 343: Sausage slices placed in
vacuum bag prior to sealing
packaging machines (Fig. 343, 344,
350) are composed of two or more
sheets of multi-layer films. By
drawing the vacuum and sealing of
such bags, the air is excluded from
the package and the damaging
effects of oxygen such as rancidity
or discoloration of the packed
products will be significantly slowed
down or not develop at all.
However, exposure to strong light
may cause discoloration even under
vacuum. Fig. 344: Start of evacuation in vacuum
packaging machine
Fig. 345: Evacuated and sealed Fig. 346: Good sealing seam
product
Fig. 347: Faulty sealing seam: risk of

air penetrating inside the package
because of film overlapping Fig. 348: Simple vacuum
Processed meat products in slices or as entire pieces are packed in small

to medium-size vacuum bags. For larger sized products, bags made of
shrinkable films can be used where, after vacuum-packaging, the
product in its package of synthetic film is sprayed with or dipped into hot
water (80oC). The contact with the hot water causes the shrinkage of the
thermoplastic film and results in tight impermeable wrapping of the
goods. Shrink films may for example be composed as follows:
PET/PA/EVOH/PO
Vacuum packaging for fresh chilled boneless beef cuts is mainly done to
promote meat ripening. The beef meat cuts can remain for a number of
weeks (maximum 3 months) in
the vacuum bag, provided
oxygen remains excluded and
the storage temperature is kept
at -1oC (which is just above the
freezing point of meat). During
these storage conditions lactic
acid bacteria (which do not cause
spoilage!) will inhibit the growth
of most other bacteria, which
results in the prolonged microbial
stability. Beef becomes very
tender during such extended Fig. 349: Vacuum packed beef cuts /
ripening periods without losing rump, tenderloin, roast beef, (three layer
much of its typical flavour (Fig. co-extruded film with EVOH as oxygen
barrier, shelf-life of chilled beef up to 3
349). months at -1°/0° can be achieved)
Fig. 350: Manual vacuum packaging machine – Phases of operation

Heat treatment or cooking for some meat products can be carried out
in the package after vacuum-packing. Temperatures of 60°-80oC or even
higher up to sterilization temperatures (above +100°C) can be employed
for hams, sausages, etc. In these cases a pasteurization or sterilization
effect of the uncooked packaged products is achieved and re-
contamination avoided as long as the package is not opened.
For specific products such as entire sausages, semi-automatic

vacuum-packaging can be employed. A bottom film is moulded
according to the shape of the sausages by using heat and force (by
compressed air or mechanical) (Fig. 351). These machines are called
thermo-formers. The sausages are loaded (Fig. 351) and a rigid top film
is sealed on after evacuating the moulded spaces. Individual product
portions are cut apart along their sealing layers (Fig. 352).
Fig. 351: Semi-automatic vacuum

Fig. 352: Product vacuum packed in
packaging. Loading sausages in
moulded bottom film and rigid top
moulded bottom film. Top film to
film. (For presentation to customers
be sealed on bottom film after
the bottom film becomes the top of
drawing vacuum. Individual
the package and verse visa)
portions to be cut apart (see Fig.
352)
A packaging method commonly used in larger meat industries is skin

packaging. For this method the products are placed in the packaging
machine, usually on a rigid film,
which serves as the bottom layer of
the final package. Another flexible
film (top layer, which is heated for
increased flexibility) drapes itself
from above around the product,
resembling a tight “skin” on the
product surface avoiding wrinkles and
purges. The skin-like coverage of the
product takes place in a sealing
station in the packaging machine, Fig. 353: Skin packaging
where the top and bottom film are
sealed around the edges. Individual
packages are separated by cutting around the bottom seal perimeter (Fig.
353, 354).
The latest development in this sector

is the “form-shrink” packaging
technology. Products e.g. meat cuts,
chicken carcasses, entire sausages,
smaller portions of meat products,
are placed between two shrinkable
films, which are moulded without
wrinkles around the goods. Sealing
seams can be kept extremely small.
This technology is very cost-effective
Fig. 354: Skin packaging
in terms of usage of packaging films
but requires high-tech equipment and is only of relevance for large-scale
industries.
A useful technology is Modified

Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) of
meat and meat products. The
packaging materials used are gas-
proof multi-layer films composed
for example of PE, PA and barrier
layers. Rigid films may be used to
mould cup or box shaped
containers which are filled. A
flexible lid foil is then sealed on (Fig.
355). MAP packaging can also be
done for ordinary plastic
Fig. 355: Modified atmosphere
bags/pouches. MAP packages are packaging MAP). Lid foil of one
firstly subjected to a vacuum. A package segment opened (right)
mixtures of gases is the introduced
into the air-free space before sealing. The gas mixture usually contains
nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). N2, which is also the major
constituent of atmospheric air, is inert, i.e. it does not react with meat
product components such as fat or myoglobin. Its function is to replace
the atmospheric oxygen (O2) and thus prevents O2 induced negative
impacts (see page 266). The other component of the gas mix, CO2, has a
protective function, as it inhibits to some extend the growth of bacteria
and moulds.
The gas mixture commonly used is 20%-30% CO2 and 70%-80% N2.
This is applicable for all processed meat products. If fresh meat
pieces are to be packed in gas-proof packages instead of wrapping them
with oxygen-permeable foil (see Fig. 341), the bright-red fresh meat
colour can be achieved by adding oxygen to the gas mix to be injected
into the package and replacing the N2 content accordingly. As sufficient

oxygen is needed to maintain the bright-red colour, gas mixes for fresh
meat are usually composed of 70%-80% O2 and 20-%30% CO2.
Skin- and MAP-packaging are often too sophisticated for the small
producers, but may be of increasing interest to medium-size meat plants.
There are now small manual and semi-automatic packaging machines
available (Fig. 356, 357, 358), which are designed for smaller
throughputs. However, the utilization of those machines implies that the
necessary types of synthetic films, and in the case of MAP-packaging,
also the relevant gases, are available.
Fig. 356: Simple manual machine for

sealing plastic trays with flexible lid
foil (tray-sealing machine)
Fig. 358: Small equipment for skin

packaging and MAP-packaging
Fig. 357: Close view of manual tray

sealing machine

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FAO Canning Sterilization Packing of Meat Products PDF

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Canning / Sterilization of meat products 277

CANNING / STERILIZATION OF MEAT PRODUCTS

Principles of food canning

Unlike pasteurized “cooked” meat products where the survival of heat

If spores are not completely inactivated3 in canned goods, vegetative

Amongst the two groups of spore producing microorganisms (see page

The above sterilization temperatures are needed for short-term

From the microbial point of view, it would be ideal to employ very

In order to comply with above aspects, a compromise has to be reached

The amount of heat treatment applied to a meat product can be

When comparing cans with the

The sterilization process in the canned product can be subdivided into

Larger autoclaves are usually

If steam is used instead of water Fig. 363: Double vessel system

Another technology employed is rotary autoclaves in which the basket

Fig. 364: Double purpose

At the final stage of the sterilization process the products must be

Fig. 367: Producing counter

Therefore, high pressure difference between the autoclave and the

Types of containers for thermally treated preserves

Containers for heat-preserved food must be hermetically sealed and

Tin cans consist of two or three

Aluminium is frequently used for smaller and easy-to-open cans,.

Glass jars are sometimes used

Fig. 372: Glass jars

Fig. 374: Cans made of synthetic

Cleaning of containers prior to filling

Rigid containers (cans, glass jars) are

Fig. 376: Can seaming operation (schematic)

Design of seaming rolls

The seaming rolls for the first and

Fig. 378: Can seaming using semi-manual can seaming machine

S1 - First operation W - Width of the seam BH - Body hook OL – Overlap

Meat products suitable for canning

Practically all processed meat products which require heat treatment

The following groups of meat products are frequently manufactured as

Fig. 379: Meat mix with Fig. 380: Canned pork

Fig. 382: Corned beef

Definition of F-value and practical applications

a) The amount of heat treatment applied to a product is the combination

As measurement for the amount of heat treatment imposed on a product,

For practical applications the reference temperature of 121°C and reference

100 0.0077 118 0.4885

The overall amount of heat treatment (= summary F-value) for a fully

The temperature inside the containers during heat treatment must be

The reference temperature for the F-value definition is 121oC. In commercial

The proper application of the F-value approach in heat sterilization is a

Calculation of summary F-value achieved in a product

By measuring the product temperature during thermal treatment through

Please note: It is important that the F–value calculation is continued during

Fig. 385: F-value calculations during heating, holding and cooling

Production of fully sterilized canned products

Canned meat products must be microbiologically safe, which means pathogen

Based on these microbiological considerations and including a sufficient safety

In tropical countries, where the storage temperatures may exceed 25oC,

Information about the exact summary F-value of a product is of great

¾ it ensures the appropriate thermal treatment of the product, thus

The definition for commercially sterile products according to Codex

“Commercial sterility of food means the conditions achieved by application of

The characteristic of commercially sterile products is that they have been

Experimental and mathematical determination of F-values

F-values (per minute), at and above the reference temperature of 121°C as