Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80

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Journal of Materials Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Tool assisted friction welding: A FSW related technique for the linear
lap welding of very thin steel plates
T. Mira-Aguiar a , D. Verdera b , C. Leitão a , D.M. Rodrigues a,c,∗
a
CEMUC, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Luís Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
b
AIMEN, Relva 27A Torneiros, 36410 Porriño, Spain
c
ISISE, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Luís Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A Friction Stir Welding (FSW) related technique, which will be labelled Tool Assisted Friction Welding
Received 4 March 2016 (TAFW), is presented in the current paper. Using this technique, linear lap welding of very thin steel plates
Received in revised form 14 June 2016 is obtained by using a non-consumable columnar tool, with a featureless shoulder, to generate heat by
Accepted 3 July 2016
friction with the components to be welded, as in FSW, and also to promote the joining of the plates,
Available online 5 July 2016
under pressure, as in Friction Welding (FW). The joining mechanisms, as well as the thermomechanical
conditions developed during welding, will be discussed based on the metallurgical analysis of similar
Keywords:
welds produced in two steels: a galvanised low carbon steel (DX51D) and a mild steel (DC01). Mechanical
FSW
Steel
testing, using Digital Image Correlation (DIC) for strain data acquisition, enabled to assess welds strength
Lap joining and plastic properties. The results obtained prove that the TAFW technique enables to obtain very good
Microstructure quality welds, for both base materials, at a very high welding speed and low tool wear/damage. An
Pinless tool important influence of the galvanised coating of the DX51D steel on the welding conditions and weld
microstructure was also observed.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction labelled as Tool Assisted Friction Welding (TAFW) by the current

In the present paper a Friction Stir Welding (FSW) related tech-
nique, for the lap joining of very thin steel plates, is presented. The
main operation principles of this technique are very similar to that
of the FSW technology, i.e., a non-consumable cylindrical tool, ani-
mated of rotation and translation speeds, is used to generate heat
by friction with the upper surface of the plates to be welded. How-
ever, while in FSW, the tool has a pin to promote base materials
stirring/mixing during welding, in the current technique, a pinless
tool, with a flat featureless surface, is used. The absence of a pin,
or non-flat shoulder features, leads to completely different joining
mechanism between the overlapped plates. In fact, instead of the
base materials stirring, characteristic of FSW, no mixture of base
materials is observed to take place when using the pinless tool,
with the connection being achieved through a combination of heat
and pressure, in the same way as it happens in forging and fric-
tion welding. Based on this knowledge, this joining technique was
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Coimbra, Rua Luís Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal.
E-mail address: dulce.rodrigues@dem.uc.pt (D.M. Rodrigues).
authors.
The use of tools without pin, in lap and butt joining, has been
previously studied by other authors. Zhang et al. (2010) performed
friction stir lap welding of 1.8 mm thick aluminium plates using
a simple columnar tool without a pin. The microstructural analy-
sis revealed a black bond line, at the central region of the weld,
and traces of vertical base materials intermixing resulting in the
formation of multiple bonded micro-zones. The black line disap-
peared at the advancing side (AS) of the weld, where ring structures
were observed together with a hooking defect. In spite of this, the
authors found that the lap welds failed at the retreating side (RS),
in tensile-shear testing, due to top sheet thinning. It was concluded
that the formation of a vertical intermixed ring, at the advancing
side, was the main joining mechanism.
In order to improve base materials stirring during the welding
with pinless tools, Tozaki et al. (2010) and Bakavos et al. (2011)
tested pinless tools with grooved surfaces in friction stir spot weld-
ing of aluminium alloys. Tozaki et al. (2010) concluded that the
grooves on the pinless tool surface played an important role in the
material stirring. The welds obtained with the grooved surface tool
revealed to have higher tensile-shear strength than those obtained
with the tool with a pin. The use of a plain pinless tool resulted
in low strength welds. Bakavos et al. (2011), who tested several

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.07.006
0924-0136/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
74 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80
pinless tools, with and without grooved surfaces, concluded that
the grooved surface tools promoted material flow between the
overlapped plates, giving rise to hooking defects. On the other hand,
for the welds obtained with the featureless surface tool, the orig-
inal interface line remained intact and no traces of material flow
were seen by the authors. The authors concluded that the strength
of the welds was dependent on the surface groove configuration,
and that the welds produced with the feature and featureless sur-
face tools could display similar strength values, depending on the
welding parameters.
Zhang et al. (2011) also used a pinless tool for the dissimilar lap
joining of 1. 8 mm thick aluminium and low carbon steel plates.
However, these authors used a zinc foil (0.1 mm thick) in between
the two overlapped plates. The zinc foil melted during the process
and the connection between the plates resulted from an Al-Zn-Fe
metallurgical reaction, instead of the mechanical mixing between
the overlapped materials. Based on this conclusion the authors
labelled this technique as friction stir brazing.
Kuang et al. (2015) and Khorrami et al. (2015) also used friction
stir brazing related techniques for the lap welding of aluminium-
copper and copper–copper joints, respectively. Kuang et al. (2015)
used a zinc foil insert (0.2 mm thick) in between the 2 mm thick
aluminium and copper plates, identifying zinc melting as the main
bonding mechanism. Khorrami et al. (2015) inserted a Pb-Sn foil in
between the 3 mm thick copper overlapped plates. Since the Pb-
Sn foil melting was found to promote the joining of the copper
sheets, the authors labelled the technique as friction stir soldering.
The authors tested the friction stir soldering technique with pin and
pin-free tools, concluding that higher weld strengths were obtained
when welding with tools with a pin, i.e. FSW.
Finally, Van der Rest et al. (2014) performed dissimilar lap weld-
ing between a microalloyed ultralow carbon steel (0.8 mm thick)
and aluminium alloys 1050 and 2024 using a pinless tool. The
higher-melting point material was placed at the top of the joint.
According to the authors, the heat generated at the contact inter-
face between the pinless tool and the high melting point material is
transmitted to the bottom sheet, which is partially melted in con-
tact with the upper sheet, promoting joining by the formation of
Al-Fe intermetallics. The authors labelled this technique as friction
melt bonding process.
According to the literature review, pinless tools can be success-
fully used in similar and dissimilar lap joining of several metallic
alloys. Base materials stirring (Zhang et al., 2010), melting of
an interlayer material (Zhang et al., 2011; Kuang et al., 2015;
Khorrami et al., 2015) and metallurgical reactions at the bond-
Fig. 1. Scheme of the TAFW process (a), TAFW tool (b) and FSW tool (c).
Table 1
Nominal chemical composition of the base materials (wt-%).
Fe C Si Mn S P
DC01 Bal. 0.078 0.004 0.314 0.016 0.012
DX51D Bal. 0.05 0.02 0.35 0.01 0.008
ing interface (Van der Rest et al., 2014), were pointed as the main
mechanisms promoting the joining. This paper demonstrates that
excellent quality steel lap welds can be performed using a fea-
tureless pinless tool with no interlayer material melting, dissimilar
material reactions nor vertical material intermixing. As shown in
the following sections, the TAFW technique, which is based in very
simple thermo-mechanical principles, allows for the creating of
high strength steel welds at much higher welding speeds than that
used in current friction stir lap welding literature.
Since no base materials stirring takes place during TAFW, this
technique enables to overcome some lap welding defects typical
of the FSW process, such as the hooking, at one or both sides of
the weld, and the keyhole left by the tool at the end of the weld.
According to Rai et al. (2011), another important FSW limitation
consists in the tool destruction due to the pin wear/rupture dur-
ing the welding of high melting point materials, such as steels and
titanium alloys. By supressing the pin, in TAFW, tool life is maxi-
mized since the only failure mechanism becomes the tool wear at
the shoulder/base materials contact surface.
2. Experimental procedure
In this work, similar lap welds in a galvanised low carbon steel
DX51D (0.11%C) and a mild steel DC01 (0.078%C), both 1 mm thick,
were performed. The nominal chemical compositions of the base
materials are shown in Table 1. The welds were performed in posi-
tion control, using a carbide tungsten pinless tool with 16 mm
diameter and a flat featureless surface (Fig. 1b). The tool was tilted
backwards by 2◦ , and the sheets were welded at a rotational speed
(ω) of 1000 rpm and a travel speed (v) of 600 mm/min, as shown in
Fig. 1a. For comparative analysis, a tool with a conical non-threaded
pin was used to join the two different steels in a dissimilar lap joint
configuration (Fig. 1c). This weld was performed under force con-
trol, with a tool rotation speed of 1000 rpm, a traverse speed of
100 mm/min and an axial force of 12 kN.
Weld specimens were prepared for metallographic analysis
following standard practices. The transverse cross-section of the
welds was etched, using Nital (49 ml ethyl alcohol; 1 ml HNO3),
and observed using an optical microscope Leica DM 4000 M LED.
 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80
Fig. 2. Transverse cross-sections: DX51D (a) and DC01 (b) welds.
SEM/EDS analysis was also performed in order to determine the
chemical composition in localised areas of the welds using a Philips
XL30 SE microscope.
Tensile-shear advancing and retreating side samples, with
16 mm width, were extracted from the welds following the pro-
cedures described in Costa et al. (2015a). An optical system
(Aramis 3D 5 M) was used for strain data acquisition during the
tensile-shear testing. All the procedures used for the specimen’s
preparation and strain data analysis are described in Leitão et al.
(2012, 2013).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructural analysis
Transverse cross-sections of the similar welds produced with
the pinless tool, for the DX51D and DC01 steels, are shown in
Figs. 2a and b, respectively. A large process affected region, with
the microstructure contrasting with that of the base material,
is clearly visible in both cross-sections. The shape of the trans-
formed region reveals that, despite the welding tool having no
pin, the thermo-mechanical conditions developed during welding,
promoted through-thickness metallurgical transformations in both
plates. A continuous dark line aligned with the abutting plate’s
initial interface is also visible in both images, corresponding to
remnants of the base metals surface oxides. The presence of this
continuous line, in both cross-sections, indicates that no vertical
material flow took place from the upper to the lower plate, or
vice-versa, proving that the weld does not result from base mate-
rials stirring as in FSW. To better illustrate this assumption, Fig. 3
shows the cross-section of the dissimilar DC01-DX51D weld, made
by FSW, using a tool with a conical pin and conical flat shoulder.
The presence of the typical onion ring structure, resulting from base
materials stirring during welding, is clearly visible in the image, in
opposition to that observed for the welds in Fig. 2. It is also possible
to see the presence of the hooking defect, due to the upward mate-
Fig. 3. Transverse cross-section of the dissimilar friction stir weld using a tool with pin.
75
rial flow of the lower plate base material (Cederqvist and Reynolds,
2001), in both sides of the friction stir weld. No hooking can be
detected in the cross-sections of the welds in Fig. 2, which is another
indicator of the absence of material flow across the faying interface.
Figs. 4 and 5 show magnifications of the through-thickness
microstructural evolution, from the centre of the weld, as marked
in Fig. 2, for the DX51D and DC01 welds, respectively. Both fig-
ures show an evident microstructural gradient across the thickness,
characterized by structures with decreasing grain size, from the
top to the bottom of the welds. Another common feature between
the two welds is the presence of a very thin dark region, at the
very top of both welds, which, according to the magnifications in
Figs. 4b and 5b, has a layered morphology. An SEM/EDS analysis
in these regions allowed the detection, for both welds, of the pres-
ence of tungsten (Figs. 4g and 5g). For the DX51D weld, in addition
to tungsten, Zinc was also detected (Fig. 4g) in the dark top layer.
Meanwhile, the presence of tungsten has to result from the con-
tact with the WC welding tool. The zinc element, in the top layer
of the DX51D weld, are remnants of the galvanised coating of this
base material. As a result of the tungsten content, very high hard-
ness values were registered at the top of both welds, reaching peak
values around 800 Hv, for the DX51D weld (Fig. 4h), and around
900 Hv, for the DX51D weld (Fig. 5h). No vestiges of tungsten or
zinc, nor any brittle particles were detected inside any of the welds,
in the area under this top dark layer, which again points for the
inexistence of vertical material stirring. Zinc was only found at the
borders of the weld, where remnants of the galvanised coating,
which was expelled from the interface by the compression load,
remained trapped (Fig. 2a).
In spite of all the similarities in morphology between the DX51D
and DC01welds, as stressed previously, important differences in the
microstructural evolution, from the top to the bottom of the weld,
can also be easily depicted by comparing Figs. 4 and 5. Meanwhile,
for the DC01 weld, a clear change in microstructure between the
upper and lower plates, can be seen by comparing Fig. 5b–f. For
the DX51D weld, no important changes in microstructure can be
76 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80
Fig. 4. Magnifications of the microstructure of the DX51D weld, in the areas marked in the transverse cross-section in Fig. 2a, EDS analysis (g) and micro-hardness
measurements in the dark layer at the top of the weld (h).
depicted by comparing Fig. 4b–f. In fact, the DX51D weld displays a
ferritic structure, very similar to that of the base material (Fig. 4k).
The main difference relative to the base material is that the grain
size decreases from the top to the bottom of the weld, as shown in
Fig. 6a, where the grain size distribution for the base material and
for the weld zones in Figs. 4c and f are plotted. The results show that
at the top of the weld the grain is coarser than that of the base mate-
rial. At the bottom of the weld, despite the average grain size being
similar to that of the base material, the grain size distribution is
different, showing that some microstructural transformations also
took place in this zone of the weld.
The through-thickness microstructural gradient, registered for
the DX51D weld, can be easily related to the thermal gradient devel-
oped across the thickness during welding. In TAFW, the friction
between the flat tool and the surface of the top plate constitutes
the heat source for the process. The heat generated at the tool-
workpiece interface is dissipated, through the plates, in a process
very similar to that registered in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of any
weld. The microstructural evolution registered for the DX51D weld
is actually very similar to the traditional HAZ microstructure in car-
bon steel fusion welds: a coarse grained zone, near the top of the
weld, where the peak temperatures reached may be in the super-
critical domain, and a fine grained structure, near to the bottom
of the weld, where the temperatures may not exceed that charac-
teristic of the intercritical domain (Easterling, 2013). The ferritic
structure, all across the weld thickness, also indicates that slow
cooling took place after welding.
Similarly to what was registered for the DX51D weld, a fer-
ritic fine grained structure, characteristic of “low” heating and slow
cooling rates was registered at the bottom of the DC01 weld (Fig. 5f).
Analysing Fig. 6b, where the grain size distribution for this region
and for the DC01 base material is plotted, enables the conclusion
that no grain refinement or coarsening occurred in the lower part of
the weld. On the other hand, at the top of the DC01 weld (Fig. 5c),
a microstructure with a large percentage of acicular ferrite nee-
dles, randomly oriented, completely different from that of the base
 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80 77

Fig. 5. Magnifications of the microstructure of the DC01 weld, in the areas marked in the transverse cross-section in Fig. 2b, EDS analysis (g) and micro-hardness measurements
in the dark layer at the top of the weld (h).

Fig. 6. Grain size distribution in the base material (BM), (Fig. 4f and c) for DX51D weld (a); in BM and Fig. 5f) for DC01 weld.
78 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80

Fig. 7. DC01 weld microstructure at the interface level: AS (a) and RS (b).

Fig. 8. Transverse cross-section of the DX51D weld performed at 200 mm/min (a); details of the microstructure at the central region (b, c) and at the base material (d).

material (Fig. 5k) and DX51D weld (Fig. 4c), can be seen. Acicu-
lar ferrite is usually associated with low carbon and micro-alloyed
steels, being nucleated inside the austenite grains, at non-metallic
inclusions (Krauss and Thompson, 1995). Since both base materi-
als analysed in the current work are low carbon steels, with similar
alloy content, subjected to similar welding procedures, the acic-
ular ferrite formation, in the DC01 weld, could not be driven by
nucleation at non-metallic inclusions. Otherwise, the same type of
structures would have to be present at the bottom of the weld and
in the DX51D weld. However, ferrite nucleation inside austenite
grains can also be promoted by plastic deformation, in a process
which can be labelled Strain Induced Transformation, or Dynamic
Strain Induced Transformation, when the ferrite grains are formed
dynamically during austenite deformation (Sun et al., 2014). Recent
studies proved that plastic deformation augments, in large scale,
the ferrite nucleation sites, contributing towards activating non-
equilibrium transformations (Zhang et al., 2014, 2015). This way,
it is plausible to assume that plastic deformation taking place dur-
ing DC01 base material welding promoted ferrite nucleation inside
the austenite grains, conducting to acicular ferrite formation upon
cooling.
Strain induced transformation happens when two precondi-
tions are met, a critical strain and temperatures above Ar3 , the
austenite transformation temperature (Sun et al., 2014). Since the
coarse grained structure, at the top of the DX51D weld, is a clear
evidence that the base material was in the austenitic domain, the
absence of acicular ferrite is indicative that no intense plastic defor-
mation took place during the welding of this base material. The
tool was in contact with the surface of the plates, generating heat
by friction, but the material under the tool was not stirred by it,
i.e., sliding was the predominant contact condition at the tool-
workpiece interface. On the other hand, the presence of acicular
ferrite in the DC01 weld, is indicative that base material stirring
took place under the tool, which implies that sticking was the pre-
 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80
Fig. 9. DX51D weld shear-tensile test curves (a), specimen rupture (b) and strain maps (c).
dominant contact condition at the tool-workpiece interface. The
acicular ferritic structure extends to the lower plate, in a thin layer,
few microns thin, located immediately below the interface line in
the middle of the weld (Fig. 5d). This observation enables to con-
clude that the joining of the plates is assisted by a combination of
plastic deformation, at the interface, as in friction welding, and dif-
fusion across the overlapped base materials interface. The acicular
ferritic structure is not visible near the unconnected interface, at the
advancing (Fig. 7a) and retreating (Fig. 7b) extremities of the weld,
where no deformation could have taken place. In spite of this, a clear
HAZ, characterized by a refined grain structure, can be seen above
and under the unconnected interface. The refined microstructure
is a result of thermal induced metallurgical transformations.
For the DX51D weld, no evidence of plastic deformation near
the interface can be perceived from Fig. 4d. For this base mate-
rial, the joining of the plates results only from diffusion across the
contacting surfaces under compression. The microstructure of the
HAZ, above and below the interface is similar, which confirms the
hypothesis that no severe plastic deformation took place at the
interface, in the middle of the weld. As already reported when
analysing Fig. 4, the SEM/EDS analysis revealed the presence of
the zinc element at the top layer of the weld. This way, the slid-
ing contacting conditions at the tool/workpiece interface may be
attributed to the melting/vaporization of the galvanised coating,
which acts as a lubricant during welding. By reducing the welding
speed from 600 mm/min to 200 mm/min, the microstructure of the
DX51D weld changed drastically, as shown in Fig. 8, where an aci-
cular ferritic rich structure is shown all across the weld thickness
(Figs. 8b and c). It can be concluded that at this very slow welding
Fig. 10. DC01 weld shear-tensile test curves (a), specimen rupture (b) and strain maps (c).
79
speed, there was time for the melted/vaporized galvanised coating
to be expelled from the tool-workpiece contacting area giving rise
to sticking contacting conditions and base materials stirring under
the tool. This microstructure corroborates the previous assump-
tion of strain induced phase transformation taking place during
welding.
3.2. Tensile tests
The load-displacement curves obtained in the tensile-shear test-
ing of advancing and retreating side samples of the DX51D and
DC01welds are shown in Figs. 9a and 10a, respectively, together
with the load-displacement curve obtained in the tensile testing
of base material samples with the same width of the tensile-shear
samples. Figs. 9c and 10c, show strain distribution maps, at max-
imum load, for the two welds. Analysing the results it is possible
to conclude that both welds displayed excellent mechanical per-
formance reaching tensile-shear strength values very close to the
tensile strength of the respective base material. Actually, the strain
distributions maps in Figs. 9c and 10c and the specimens in Figs.
9b and 10b clearly show that the failure of the tensile-shear sam-
ples occurred in the base material, far from the welded interface,
after significant plastic deformation took place. No plastic strain
was registered in the weld area, for any of the base materials.
Finally, it is also important to remark that no significant differences
in advancing and the retreating sides strength were registered for
these welds, in contrast to that registered for traditional friction
stir lap welds (Costa et al., 2015a,b).
80 T. Mira-Aguiar et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 238 (2016) 73–80
4. Conclusions
A new FSW related technique, labelled tool assisted friction
welding (TAFW), is proposed for the welding of very thin steel
plates. Taking into account the results displayed in the paper, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
- Non-defective steel welds, with tensile-shear strength similar to
the tensile strength of the base material, may be obtained for
galvanised and non-galvanised low carbon steels.
- Weld microstructure is influenced by the thermo-mechanical
conditions developed during welding, which in turn depends
on the base materials surface condition, i.e., on the presence or
absence of a galvanised coating, and on the welding speed.
- The main joining mechanisms responsible for the welding are
plastic deformation, at the abutting plates interface, and atomic
diffusion at high temperature and pressure. No base materials
inter-mixing takes place during welding, as is the case for FSW.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Sci-
ence and Technology), within ISISE, project UID/ECI/04029/2013,
and CEMUC, project Pest-C/EME/UI0285/2013. The author C. Leitão
is supported by FCT through SFRH/BPD/93685/2013 fellowship. All
supports are gratefully acknowledged.
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