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 The
Institute of
Concrete Technology

Yearbook: 2011-2012
16th Edition
 ICT YEARBOOK 2011-2012

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

Professor Peter C. Hewlett (Chairman)

GROUP TECHNICAL ADVISOR, DOYLE PLC

Raman Mangabhai
CONSULTANT

Graham Taylor
CONSULTANT

Edwin Trout
INSTITUTE OF CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
/ THE CONCRETE SOCIETY

Ian Berrie
BASF CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS (UK) LTD
(corresponding)

Peter Domone
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON

Darryl Killoran
THE CONCRETE SOCIETY
(Publisher)

Engineering Council
Professional Affiliate

Published for:
THE INSTITUTE OF
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
4 Meadows Business Park,
Blackwater, Camberley,
Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: 01276 607140
Email: ict@concrete.org.uk
Website: http://ict.concrete.org.uk
Previous editions of the ICT Yearbook, from
1999 to 2010, are available for download at
http://ict.concrete.org.uk

Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form without the
prior written consent of the publisher. The comments
expressed in this publication are those of the Author and
not necessarily those of the ICT.

ISBN 978-1-904482-66-6
£50.00
 The
Institute of
Concrete Technology
Yearbook: 2011-2012
16th Edition

Contents
President’s Perspective 3

The Institute 4

Council, Officers and Committees 5

Face to Face - with Professor Nick Buenfeld 7

Milestones in the History of Concrete Technology: 9

Early Reinforced Concrete Bridges - Some Hidden Gems.
Mike Chrimes

Annual Convention Symposium - Papers Presented 2011 15

ICT Diploma in Advanced Concrete Technology: 54

Individual Assignments – An Alternative to the Individual Project.
Tony Binns, Peter Domone and John Newman

ICT Diploma in Advanced Concrete Technology: 56

Summaries of Project Reports 2010

ICT Related Institutions and Organisations Inside Back Cover
Institute of Concrete
Technology
President’s Perspective
You may recall in my piece
in the last Yearbook, I
expressed the view that
2011/12 could be a year
of opportunity for both
the Concrete Society and
the ICT. That hope and
aspiration is, I am glad to
say, being realised on a
number of counts.
Reflecting this optimism you will have noticed the Yearbook has
changed its livery, format and the inclusion of colour in the body of
the book. The Concrete Society is now the publisher and I hope you
will agree that the new presentation – which actually results in cost
savings – works well.
Firstly, the annexe to the 2007 Memorandum of Understanding was
signed by myself and the then Concrete Society President, David Ball,
and as a consequence two more ICT Council Members now sit on the
Concrete Society Council as a matter of right in addition to myself as
your President. These additional persons are Peter Rhodes of Cemex
and Mike Connell of Hanson. Their presence is apparent at Concrete
Society Council meetings and will help maintain ICT’s influence over
Concrete Society matters that affect us.
Secondly, Kathy Calverley was appointed Managing Director of the
Concrete Society and as you will remember Kathy was ICT’s Executive
Officer a short while back so is familiar with our requirements. In that
regard relationships between the two organisations have improved
and we are both endeavouring to work together to each other’s
benefit whilst retaining our separate identities.
Thirdly, our AMM/Convention/Symposium last April was a success
with a good attendance, bearing in mind trading conditions could be
better. The subject of “National Structural Concrete Specification: use and
application” was well received and is published in this, the 16th edition of
the Yearbook. We would like to thank Construct for their support and Grace
Construction Chemicals for sponsoring the convention/symposium.
Fourthly, a very successful seminar was held in February on the subject
of “Assessment of in-situ strength of Concrete Structures” and the
intention is to repeat it this November in London.
Demand for the CT & C stages 2 & 3 general principles and practice
applications plus aggregates was high with a total of 200 candidates
from five countries covering the UK, India, South Africa, New Zealand
and Qatar. The split being 120, 73 and 7 respectively with some 50%
from the UK provided by four centres for stage 2 and 19% for stage 3.
The ACT course is also well subscribed with some 28 candidates from
9 countries such as Lebanon, Ireland, Jordan, India, Malaysia, Vietnam,
Holland, Belgium and the UK. Almost 50% of the candidates are
from UK.
2011-2012 Yearbook
We signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Queens University
Belfast (QUB) in August to provide modules based on the ICT learning
objectives and syllabi. Candidates who passed these modules will
be eligible for membership of the ICT at both Affiliate (a new grading
approved by members) and Associate levels. It happens that QUB are
well connected in China and I, as your President, visited Beijing recently
with members of QUB via the Central Research Institute for Building
and Construction and the Science Bridge Concrete Centre in China to
encourage those involved with concrete to align with our courses and
obtain professional recognition via ICT Membership. I am pleased to
report that ICT’s influence both at home and overseas is significant.
Three eminent Chinese nationals were made Fellows of the ICT with
ceremonies being held in Beijing in September. A presentation about
Training, Qualifications and the ICT was made by myself at a conference
on the Durability of Concrete whilst in Beijing followed by business
meetings concerning Training and Education opportunities. These
meetings will be followed up by ourselves and QUB.
Looking ahead to 2012 we will reach our 40th Anniversary. To
mark this achievement the next AMM/Convention/Symposium
will be something special. Already the programme is taking shape
with world-recognised speakers attending to address the subject
of “Concrete – Science Technology and Experience”. At the 40th
Anniversary we will also be reintroducing the Sir Frederick Lea Memorial
Lecture. Please access the website for details and attend if you can.
Finally, all our Committees are working effectively, manned in the main
by volunteer effort. Kathy was replaced by Edwin Trout as Executive
Officer and he has made an immediate impact. The Newsletter has
been reintroduced and improvements made to the website and efforts
being maintained to keep contact with the Membership.
In all an active and fulfilling year that creates a basis on which we
can move forward with enthusiasm, confidence and a sense of
achievement.
May I acknowledge and thank our Members around the World for their
loyalty and representation as concrete professionals.
Professor Peter C. Hewlett
President
Institute of Concrete Technology
3
Institute of Concrete
Technology
The Institute
The Institute of Concrete Technology
was formed in 1972. Full membership
is open to all those who have obtained
the Diploma in Advanced Concrete
Technology. However, there are various
grades of membership from student
upwards that are aligned with a
candidate’s experience and competency.
This graded introduction to membership
is to encourage participation from
concrete technologists at an early
stage in their career onwards. Details
can be obtained from the Institute’s Executive Officer. The Institute is
internationally recognised and the Diploma has worldwide acceptance
as the leading qualification in concrete technology. The Institute sets
high educational standards and requires its members to abide by
a Code of Professional Conduct, thus enhancing the profession of
concrete technology. The Institute is a Professional Affiliate body of
the UK Engineering Council. In 2007 the ICT joined with the Concrete
Society to become the professional wing of the Society whilst retaining
its own identity.
MEMBERSHIP STRUCTURE
A guide on ‘Routes to Membership’ has been published and contains
full details on the qualifications required for entry to each grade of
membership, which are summarised below:
HONORARY FELLOWSHIP is awarded at the discretion of the ICT
Council to members that have demonstrated a committment and
aptitude in the field of concrete technology.
A FELLOW (FICT) shall have been a Corporate Member of the Institute
for at least 10 years and shall have a minimum of 15 years appropriate
experience, including CPD records from the date of introduction.
A MEMBER (MICT)(Corporate) shall hold the Diploma in Advanced
Concrete Technology and will have a minimum of 5 years appropriate
experience (including CPD). This will have been demonstrated in a
written ‘Technical and Managerial/Supervisory Experience Report’. An
alternative route exists for those not holding the ACT Diploma but is
deliberately more onerous.
AN ASSOCIATE (AMICT) shall hold the City and Guilds CGLI 6290
Certificate in Concrete Technology and Construction (General
Principles and Practical Applications), or current ICT equivalent, and
have a minimum of 3 years appropriate experience demonstrated in a
written report. An appropriate university degree exempts a Graduate
member from the requirement to hold CGLI 6290 qualifications. Those
who have passed the written papers of the ACT course but have yet
to complete their Diploma may also become Associate members. All
candidates for Associate membership will be invited to nominate a
corporate member to act as mentor.
AN AFFILITAE (AffICT) This is a non-corporate grade of membership.
Evidence of holding the Stage 2 Certificate in Concrete Technology
and Construction - General Principles or the previous versions of this
4
2011-2012 Yearbook
course is required. Other qualification judged to be equivalent by the
Membership committee will also be acceptable. Submit a written
summary demonstrating suitable experience which may include CPD,
in a position of responsibility in relation to concrete technology.
A TECHNICIAN (TechICT) holding the CGLI 5800 Certificate in
Concrete Practice or the current ICT equivalent, must also submit a
written report demonstrating 12 months experience in a technician
role in the concrete industry. An alternative route exists for those who
can demonstrate a minimum of 3 years appropriate experience in
a technician role. All candidates for Technician membership will be
invited to nominate a corporate member to act as mentor. There is no
minimum age limit in this grade.
A GRADUATE shall hold a relevant university degree containing
a significant concrete technology component. All candidates for
Graduate membership will be invited to nominate a corporate
member to act as mentor.
The STUDENT grade is intended to suit two types of applicant. i) The
school leaver working in the concrete industry working towards the
Technician grade of membership. ii) The undergraduate working towards
an appropriate university degree containing a significant concrete
technology component. All candidates for Student membership will
be invited to nominate a corporate member to act as Superintending
Technologist. There is no age limit but this grade can be held for a
maximum of four years only. Candidates are not obliged to attend
any course (including the ACT course) prior to sitting an examination
at any level.
Academic qualifications and relevant experience can be gained in any
order for any grade of membership.
Corporate members will need to be competent in the science of
concrete technology and have such commercial, legal and financial
awareness as is deemed necessary to discharge their duties in
accordance with the Institute’s Code of Professional Conduct. Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) is common to most professions to keep
their members up to date. All members except students, are obliged
to spend a minimum of 25 hours per annum on CPD; approximately
75% on technical development and 25% on personal development.
The Institute’s guide on ‘Continuing Professional Development’
includes a record sheet for use by members. This is included in the
Membership Handbook. Annual random checks are conducted
in addition to inspection at times of application for upgraded
membership.
ACT DIPLOMA
The Institute is the examining body for the Diploma in Advanced
Concrete Technology. Residential courses are run in South Africa and
Australia. The worldwide web-based course is run from the UK, starting
in September of alternate years. Further details of this course can be
found on the website: www.act -course.co.uk and the ICT office has
details of the others.
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

Council, Officers and Committees

- Summer 2011

Council
Peter Hewlett
(President)
Examinations Technical & Education
Committee Kevin Sutherland Committee
John Roberts (Honorary Secretary) Tony Binns
(Chair) (Chair)
Tony Binns
Kathy Calverley Lionel Abbey
(Secretary)
Kathy Calverley John Blakeman
Tony Binns Mike Connell Mike Burton
Peter Domone Michael Grantham Rob Greenfield
Jeff Dudden (Hon Treasurer) Bob Hutton
Rob Greenfield Richard Hall
Norman Greig
Peter Hewlett Peter Hewlett
Nick Jowett Tony Hullett
Petrus Jooste
John Lay Bryan Magee Colin Richards
John Newman John Taylor
Raman Mangabhai (Secretary)
John Taylor
Colin Nessfield Edwin Trout
Roger West
Steve Walton
Edwin Trout Peter Rhodes
John Roberts Corresponding
Corresponding Alan Walker
Rob Gaimster Corresponding
John Turton Rob Gaimster

Events and Marketing Executive officer Admissions and

Committee Edwin Trout Membership
Raman Mangabhai Mike Connell
(Chair) (Chairman)
Scottish Club
Ian Berrie Richard Hall
The Scottish Club works
Richard Boult Peter Hewlett
in conjunction with the
Edwin Trout Concrete Society Scottish Raman Mangabhai
(Secretary) Region and is represented Peter Rhodes
Dean Clarke by:
Edwin Trout
Peter Hewlett Bobby Brown
(Chairman)
Bryan Magee
Richard Majek Iain Callander
Harpal Sehmi

Corresponding
Michael Grantham
Iain Callander

5
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

Face to Face
- with Nick Buenfeld

Professor Nick Buenfeld has spent virtually all of his career dealing with concrete;
his latest crowning glories are being appointed Head of the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at London’s Imperial College as well as being made a
Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering. He is probably our leading expert in
concrete durability, having spent many years researching how reinforced concrete
deteriorates and what can be done to counteract it. He has written almost a
hundred publications as well as two books and has had papers presented at another
hundred conferences, including the prestigious ICT Sir Frederick Lea Memorial
Lecture.

This interview was carried out by Graham Taylor.

Q. Nick, can you tell us a little about your origins?
Your name sounds a little Germanic.
A. My great great grandfather Louis moved to England from the village
of Buenfeld in Germany in 1851 – I have documentary evidence for
this. The Buenfeld family folklore goes that he was an interpreter for
the Bavarian royal family who came to England for the Great Exhibition
in 1851, met an English girl and stayed here – I’m still looking for real
proof of this.
Q. What brought you into engineering? Did you
have any industrial experience before coming
into education?
A. My Dad was a mechanical engineer – very hands on and always
making things at home. I was strong at maths and interested
in architecture and originally aimed for a career in the structural
engineering of architecturally exciting structures.
Q. What was your first contact with concrete and
why have you concentrated on it?
A. After getting a BSc degree at Leeds University, under the
redoubtable Adam Neville, my first job was with Mott Hay and
Anderson (now Mott MacDonald) designing concrete structures. At
the time we were being asked to show that the structures we were
designing would last for their required design life. We were unable
to do this and my boss at Motts, Geoff Mills, encouraged me to enrol
on the MSc course in Concrete Structures at Imperial in 1980, and
to carry out my major project on concrete durability, to find out
more. Sir Alan Harris, prestressed concrete pioneer, was Professor of
Concrete Structures.
Following the MSc course, John Newman offered me a research
job with a PhD attached, to investigate the durability of concrete
exposed to seawater. I have been at Imperial ever since, as a
Research Fellow, Lecturer, Reader and, since 2000, Professor of
Concrete Structures. On 1st September I take over as Head of the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Europe’s leading
civil engineering department with around 100 staff and over 700
students.
Q. Congratulations on your appointment, but
how will this affect your commitment to concrete
research and teaching?
A. I shall definitely be continuing with the research (especially as
we have some fantastic new labs!) and especially the microstructure
of concrete in order to understand the deterioration processes, but
collaborating with others rather more than in the past. In my new
post I will be looking at new areas, networking within the construction
industry and beyond. There will be more administration, tighter
economics, looking at the equivalence of degrees across Europe, the
effects of the changing A levels – lots of new issues. Investigating
advances in the management of civil engineering also appeals to
me. I will also be looking at energy, the resilience of infrastructure to
earthquakes and tsunamis and low-carbon construction.
Q. What have been your major achievements in
the concrete world?
A. My work has been on three fronts: research, consulting and
teaching. My speciality is concrete durability. I have built up a multi-
disciplinary research group very well equipped to better understand
deterioration processes - we have developed more effective methods
for the design, assessment and repair of concrete structures. Chloride-
induced corrosion of reinforcement has been a particular interest.
I have been a consultant on some major construction projects around
the world covering a wide range of structure types including the
Channel Tunnel, Tsing Ma Bridge (Hong Kong), the Great Man-made
River (Libya), Belgium’s nuclear waste storage facility and the new Los
Angeles Cathedral.
I have taught materials and concrete technology to several thousand
students on undergraduate and postgraduate courses at Imperial.

7
Institute of Concrete
Technology
Q. Which of these projects have you enjoyed
most?
A. Most of them have been challenging but enjoyable. I was due to
go to Libya in February but had to postpone the visit – fortunately
for me, otherwise I would have been in the thick of the troubles.
Unfortunately most work on the project stopped a week after
hostilities broke out and I can’t see it starting up again in the near
future, although the 3000 km network is supplying Tripoli and
Benghazi.
Q. Will the raising of tuition fees affect the
number of students choosing to study civil
engineering and concrete in particular?
A. We don’t expect the new tuition fee structure to affect our civil
engineering undergraduate (MEng) intake at Imperial – in fact we have
raised our A level entry requirements for 2012 to A* A* A. The 2012
fees for our MSc courses (for example our MSc in Concrete Structures
course) have not been decided, but if they go up I would expect
demand to reduce.
Q. Does industry help?
A. My Department has plenty of help from the construction industry,
through support of academic posts, funding of our research, provision
of scholarships and work experience for our students and lecturing on
some of our more applied courses. For example, Laing O’Rourke has
recently funded the creation of a new multi-million pound Centre of
Excellence in Systems Engineering and Innovation which includes the
development of a new MSc course. At present the concrete industry
in the UK funds very little activity in universities - I would welcome
approaches from industrialists wanting to explore how we might work
together.
Q. Do you agree that concrete teaching in UK
universities has reduced in popularity and if so,
how do you think this trend can be reversed?
A. It is essential that civil engineering students get a good grounding
in concrete technology as it is the major civil engineering material and
will be so for years to come. The method of teaching has changed; it is
now selecting a material for a particular application that is considered,
whereas in the past we considered the molecular structure of a
material and the properties this provides.
Q. Will sustainability impact on the use of
concrete in the future?
A. Definitely, cement manufacture is a major contributor to the world’s
CO2 emissions. The hunt is on for new cements consuming less energy
and evolving less CO2 in their production. It is also important that
we produce adequately durable structures that do not need to be
replaced earlier than necessary.
8
2011-2012 Yearbook
Q. There are proposals for other materials to take
over from concrete, where does it go from here?
A. I don’t see concrete consumption reducing dramatically because
concrete does things that other materials can’t. But I do expect that
more environmentally acceptable concretes will gradually take over.
One particular invention, that came from Imperial College, is a cement
that consists of magnesium silicates rather than the calcium silicates
of traditional cement. The production process does not involve the
burning off of CO2 and there are billions of cubic metres of the raw
materials all around the world.
Q. What do you do outside the fields of
academia – do you have any interesting hobbies?
A. I am a keen tennis player and in the distant past played for London
University and Kent. Nowadays I play with my sons who are in their
teens, though I am increasingly relying on guile and bad line calls.
I have experienced pleasure and anguish from converting unusual
properties. We converted our current house from disused church
buildings. Before that we lived in an old post office – we had letter
shoots down into the basement sorting room and we used the safe
for storing toilet rolls.
Q. You mention tennis and I understand that you
have a patent on a tennis racket. How did this
come about?
A. This arose when the International Tennis Federation were looking
for a way to make the game more interesting to watch. I got involved
with advising various organizations on the performance and design
of rackets and my ‘invention’ has a lot in common with just a small, old
racket – one that can’t be used for merely slamming the ball at the
opponent.
Nick, thank you so much for taking the time to give us an insight
into your life. Your enthusiasm and dedication are much admired
and appreciated. We wish you well in your new appointment – and
congratulations on your new Fellowship.
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

Milestones in the History of Concrete Technology

The technology of cement-based materials has been developing since the first concrete mix was produced. Some
developments have been accidental, such as the benefits of air entrainment, some have been the result of foresight
and endeavour, or commercial gain, whilst others have been born of necessity, such as those for military and structural
reasons.

This series of milestones has included diverse papers on materials development and structural uses, including sporting
construction and nuclear energy generation; underlining such advances in training and education.

Mike Chrimes, MBE, is the Director, Engineering Policy & Innovation at His current external appointments include acting as an adviser to
the Institution of Civil Engineers. He has worked there for over 30 years, the University of Leuven project on “Engineering a New World. The
providing information on civil engineering through the Institution’s Role of Engineers in Modern Society, 1815 – c.1890”, and membership
Library and Information services of which he has been head for over of English Heritage’s Industrial Archaeology Panel.
20 years. His service for ICE was recognised by the award of the Garth
In January 2011 he was awarded the MBE for his services to civil
Watson medal in 1996, and the Spirit of Telford Award in 2007.
engineering, and in April his latest book (with Hugh Ferguson) was
Mike has written and lectured extensively on the history of civil published: The Civil Engineers: The Story of the Institution of Civil
engineering, including contributions to the recently published history Engineers and the People Who Made It.
of the ICE.  Since 1996 he has been involved with ICE’s Biographical
Dictionary of Civil Engineers Project. In 2007 Mike’s historical
contribution was recognised with the American Society of Civil
Engineers History and Heritage Award.

EARLY REINFORCED CONCRETE

BRIDGES – SOME HIDDEN GEMS
Mike Chrimes
In the mid-1990s a group of individuals associated with the Concrete
Archive – a joint initiative between the Concrete Society, ICE and
IStructE – determined that there was benefit in publishing a series of
papers on Historic concrete, and holding an exhibition and meeting
on the development of concrete over the previous century. The
motivation was identical to that which had inspired the Concrete Archive
in the first place – to enable practicing engineers to understand
design and construction practice of the past (Sutherland, 1996).
The organisers were fortunate that a number of key figures in the
development of concrete structures since the Second World War
were able to contribute from first hand knowledge. However, for the
period before 1940 more historical research was required, and the
author undertook two papers of which one was on The development
of concrete bridges in the British Isles prior to 1940 (Chrimes, 1996).
Subsequently, a book was produced, with additional papers.
Since compiling the original paper on bridges, research work has
continued by members of the Institution of Civil Engineers’ Panel for
Historical Engineering Works, aimed at improving our understanding
of the historically significant structures of the period before the Second
World War. This work has been led by David Greenfield, formerly a
Bridge Engineer with Somerset County Council.
Before the Second World War comparatively few bridges in the British
Isles were built of reinforced concrete. Generally reinforced concrete
bridges came to Britain twenty years later than the European continent,
and the majority of the early bridges were built to methods and
systems first developed abroad. This is surprising, as British engineers
had been using concrete regularly since the early nineteenth century,
and prompts the question why? Was the iron and steel lobby very
powerful, or are there some examples still to be uncovered?
In the early nineteenth century, British engineers began to use
concrete for bridge foundations and substructures. Possibly the
earliest example of a mass concrete bridge was designed by Thomas
Marr Johnson, for Sir John Fowler, on the District Line near Cromwell
Road. Very short-lived, the original lime concrete structure (1867) failed
when the centering was struck and the replacement Portland cement
concrete bridge was demolished by 1873. Although Fowler and Baker
were later responsible for experiments on expanded metal reinforced

9
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

arches (1895-96) no other concrete bridge designs by them are known.
However, other British engineers used plain concrete for bridge
superstructures in the last quarter of the century.
Philip Brannon erected a three span concrete arch at Seaton in
Devon (1877, 50 ft middle span). Railway engineers used blockwork
on the Callender line (1878) and ‘rubble’ concrete on the Dochart
Viaduct(1886). The best known examples are bridges on the West
Highland Railway (1897-98) and on the London and South Western
Railway at Holsworthy in Devon.
replacement by a near identical structure (Figure 2). The original Mizen
Head Bridge of 1909 provided access to a lighthouse on Cloghán
a tiny island off Mizen Head in south west Cork. Designed by Noel
Ridley, it comprised a pair of reinforced concrete arch ribs 50 m in
span supporting the deck from vertical reinforced concrete hangars. It
comprised precast and in situ elements and its construction in such a
challenging location was of interest in itself, providing an outstanding
early example of the use of precast concrete.

On the continent Coignet was building substantial concrete arched

structures in the late 1860s. Monier began experimenting with
reinforced concrete arches from 1873 and from the 1880s there were
rapid developments in the theory and application of reinforced
concrete on the continent and in the USA. By the turn of the century
their understanding of reinforced concrete was well advanced. These
developments, although known in Britain through international
exhibitions and engineering literature, were initially overlooked. British
engineers’ use of reinforced concrete for bridges was particularly
backward. There was only one isolated instance of the use of iron
embedded in concrete for bridges, Homersfield Bridge. This 50 ft span
bridge was built in 1870 by T & W Philips using their patented fireproof
system.. It was more than thirty years before the introduction of foreign
systems led to a rapid expansion in the use of reinforced concrete for
Figure 1: Mizen Head Footbridge prior to replacement.
bridges in the decade before the First World War.

These early bridges were built without design standards, and

specifications were provided by the designers without reference to
national guidelines. The structural forms of these bridges had all been
developed abroad. Without access to original drawings it is not easy
to establish the structural principles behind the design of some early
bridges, particularly arched bridges with solid spandrels, which may
have been designed as beams rather than arches in some cases.

In compiling the original paper it had been difficult to find early

examples of bowstring girders. Recently an example was part
of a listing decision for Milton Regis Viaduct near Sittingbourne
in Kent. This viaduct formed part of a narrow gauge railway and
harbour serving a paper mill of Edward Lloyd Limited (latterly part
of Bowater). Initially, the viaduct was to have been of steel, but this
was changed to reinforced concrete. At 800 m long it is the longest
historic reinforced concrete railway viaduct in the UK, and the longest
narrow gauge railway viaduct in the UK. The bulk of the viaduct is
a beam and trestle structure with 6.1 m (20 ft), 3.38 m and 4.72 m
bays, with two longitudinal girders supported on a pair of inwardly
inclined piers. There are five bridges in the viaduct, Gas Road Bridge
being a bowstring arch of 21.58 m span, skewed at a very high angle.
Completed in 1923 this is an early UK example of this structural form.
Currently used by Sittingbourne and Kemsley Light Railway, the
decision not to list puts its future in doubt despite its historical interest.
The bridge was apparently designed by Rendel Palmer & Tritton
although their involvement probably stemmed from the harbour
scheme and it is generally believed to have been a Mouchel design.
Unfortunately, no records survive to verify this. Inevitably in a structure
of this age there is evidence of spalling and some supplementary
strengthening.
Mizen Head Bridge
The condition of another early structure mentioned in the original paper,
Mizen Head Bridge, (Figure 1) has led to its demolition and recent
Figure 2: Mizen Head Footbridge – 2010 replacement.
In an exposed marine climate the durability of the bridge is of some
interest. Regularly monitored by the Commissioners of Irish Lights
(CIL) it only became a subject of concern in the last decade. In 2002
RPS Group plc were appointed by CIL to inspect the bridge and
carry out a structural assessment. A range of tests and methods of
observation were employed, revealing that the structure was generally
in good condition, although there were a number of defects related to
corrosion of reinforcement. Very high levels of chloride were recorded
throughout the structure, and in one hangar evidence was found of
an unusual form of anaerobic corrosion reducing the reinforcement to
black powder. Generally, the concrete was found to be sound with low
carbonation levels and little alkali aggregate deterioration. Initially, the
structure was felt to be structurally sound although the dependence
on the hangars led to a recommendation that they be strengthened
and measures to be taken to inhibit corrosion of the reinforcement.
The idea was to use Near Surface Mounted Fibre Reinforced Polymer
to strengthen the hangars and install a system for cathodic protection.
However, further investigation revealed there was no continuity in
the reinforcement in the deck structure, and dovetailed continuity in
the arch ribs and hangars. With this knowledge three schemes for the
future of the bridge were investigated, and in the end a new structure
has been built, showing as much ingenuity in construction as the
original design, the ribs of which were used to support the erection
of the new ribs. The details of the work were presented at a joint
meeting of the Irish Concrete Society, theInstitution of Engineering

10
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and Technology and the Institution of Structural Engineers at which
representatives of the consultants, contractors and clients were present
(Coleman, 2011).
Pont Gihirych (Crai Viaduct)
Pont Gihirych (Crai Viaduct) on the A4067 was designed and built
in 1924 by Lewis Rugg and Company (Figures 3 and 4). 241 ft 6 in
long it is a remarkable reinforced concrete trestle structure whose
future is in doubt as it is bypassed. Rugg (1877-1944), a subject of
the forthcoming Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers, Volume 3:
1890-1920, to be edited by Bob McWilliam, worked on railways in Sierra
Leone and in the First World War became a Major in the Royal Marines.
His contracting business before the war specialised in steelwork, but
he was an original member of the Concrete Institute, and was an
enterprising reinforced concrete contractor in the interwar years. He
worked with the Indented Bar Company and one suspects this may
have been an example of that collaboration.
Figure 3: Pont Gihirych.
Figure 4: Pont Gihirych.
Reigate Hill footbridge
Early British footbridges were generally built over railway tracks at
stations. Examples incorporating reinforced concrete arches were
built over the London and South Western Railway c. 1904. These
structures, because of the load gauge and lateral spacing, could
well be considered early ‘standard bridges’, and early precasting
techniques were used. The concrete girder usually reflected plate
girder appearance. Kew Garden Station footbridge (1911-12) was an
exception which used a concrete bow string for the main truss with
diagonal stiffness provided by thin concrete infill panels. Footbridges
were also required across large railway complexes like marshalling
yards. Their parapets were often 6 ft high and formed the structural
2011-2012 Yearbook
member. Such bridges could have spans of up to 130 ft. That over the
Great Eastern Railway at Enfield Lock had an overall length, including
two 63 ft spans and approaches, of 388 ft (1909).
With little road traffic there are few early examples of pedestrian over-
road bridges, a notable exception being the 96 ft arch bridge over the
Brighton Road at Reigate Hill (1908-1910), shown in Figure 5. This is
another bridge whose condition has recently demanded attention.
Grade II listed, it is located approximately 400 metres south of the M25
junction 8. Completed in 1910 to replace an earlier suspension bridge
it is a Mouchel-Hennebique reinforced concrete arch rib and deck slab
bridge with parapets of cast iron. The ribs are 65 ft 6 in long springing
from the chalk cutting sides. The bridge now carries the North Downs
Way, on the alignment here of the Pilgrims’ Way from Guildford to
Canterbury.
Figure 5: Reigate Hill Footbridge.
The bridge needs concrete repairs to improve its condition and to
extend its life. The cast iron parapets were badly corroded and sections
are missing. Temporary kee-klamp parapets have been installed within
the existing parapets alignment to maintain the safety of its users and
the users of the A217 below. Temporary netting has been fitted to the
existing parapets to prevent any part of the parapet falling on to the
A217 carriageway below.
Refurbishment works are intended to restore the condition of the
bridge, and improve the safety of its users and prolong its life. Work has
been postponed until 2012, when the bridge will be closed for several
months to allow the refurbishment work to take place. A temporary
bridge will be erected to maintain a safe crossing for bridleway
users for the duration of the work. In order to place and remove the
temporary bridge weekend closures of the A217 will be required at the
beginning and end of the contract.
William Kelly Wallace
One problem when we worked on the initial collection of essays in the
1990s was that the significance of lesser-known figures who worked
after 1940 was lost. One example is former ICE President. William Kelly
Wallace, (1883-1969) – see Figure 6. Thanks to the efforts of Michael
Gould, who had been looking at the early development of prestressed
concrete bridges, the innovative nature of Wallace’s career has been
revealed.
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Born on 2 August 1883 at 7 Brookvale

Avenue in Belfast, the only son of John
Orr Wallace, a Presbyterian corn broker
and merchant, and Mary Kelly, the
daughter of a sea captain, Wallace was
educated privately. He served a 3-year
pupillage with Berkeley Deane Wise
(1900- 1903), beginning a lifelong
career in railway engineering. From
1904-1930 he worked for the Belfast
and Northern Counties Railway under
Wise and his successors, becoming
Chief Engineer in 1924. The Company
had been absorbed by the Midland
Figure 6: W K Wallace. Railway in 1903.
Figure 7: Adam Bridge.
Wallace displayed an interest in innovative approach to engineering
ideas throughout his career, and the Northern Ireland Company Wallace served on most ICE committees, with ‘a twinkle in his eye, and
became well-known for its early and experimental use of reinforced by his amusing Irishisms and asides, which masked an extraordinary
concrete. Under Wise he worked on a variety of railway buildings, degree of determination and considerable shrewdness’ (Sir H. Shirley-
and from 1906 on bridges. He designed a series of steel plate girder Smith). Wallace was honoured with a CBE in 1946, and an HonDSc
under-bridges and some composite over-bridges. In 1909 Wallace was at Queen’s in 1956. He chaired the Department of Scientific and
asked to survey all 228 girder bridges on the system. Wallace analysed Industrial Research’s Building Research Board (1949-54). He died on 23
the stresses and in 1910 was given approval to replace the short span May 1969. Prestressed concrete bridges, which he had encouraged
timber decks with precast reinforced concrete units. The historical on railways, were at the core of the rapid early construction of the
significance of this was lost as the First World War led to an interruption motorways programme, and his former rail region was pioneering
to the work. This began in 1912-1913 and then not continued until high-speed rail, with former Northern Ireland colleagues; McIlmoyle
after the war. Precast units and other precast reinforced concrete and W F Beatty leading the work. While others deserve direct credit for
elements were used in platforms and buildings, in what was pioneering these achievements, Wallace provided the professional leadership that
work for a railway in the British Isles. Units included planks and L beams. enabled them to fulfil their destinies.
The Horseshoe Bridge, Carrickfergus, was the first reinforced concrete
flat slab bridge in the UK (1928), while the Greenisland loop line (1931- Readers interested in supporting ICE’s study of early concrete bridges
1933) included the longest reinforced concrete viaduct in the country. should contact David Greenfield, the convenor of the working group.
Wallace had drawn up the parliamentary plans for the 1928 Act,
although the work was carried out under his assistant R I McIlmoyle.

After the First World War the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway References
became part of the London, Midland and Scottish (LMS) grouping,
the largest in the United Kingdom, with the suffix (Northern Chrimes, M M (1996). The development of concrete bridges in the British
Ireland Committee). In 1930 Wallace was transferred to London, Isles prior to 1940. Structures and buildings, ICE Proceedings, 116, ST3-4,
becoming Chief Civil Engineer in 1933, retaining the position until his August-November, 1996, 404-431.
retirement in 1948. As such he was intimately connected with the
commandeering of the railways for the war effort. Identifying the Coleman, M and others (2011). The design and construction of New Mizen
potential of prestressed concrete beams for railway bridge repairs, the Head Footbridge. kieran.ruane@rpsgroup.com
LMS began to stockpile them before the war. They were fabricated at
the LMS depot at Newton le Willows, and first used near there in 1942. Sutherland, R J M (1996). Understanding historical concrete. Structures
Expertise was provided by the Mouchel subsidiary led by Karl Mautner and buildings, ICE Proceedings, ST3 and 4, August-November 1996,
who arrived in Britain as a refugee in1939. After the war Wallace was 255-263.
responsible for the country’s first prestressed concrete railway bridge:
Adam Bridge near Wigan (Figure 7). McImoyle had followed Wallace to
Britain in 1935 and helped Wallace with the introduction of concrete
on the LMS.

It is for another twentieth century development that Wallace perhaps

deserves greatest credit. Before the Second World War the UK
was lagging behind the USA and Germany in the adoption of soil
mechanics as an engineering discipline. As a member of the Institution
of Civil Engineers (ICE) Sub-Committee on Earth Pressure, Wallace
persuaded all the four main railway companies and the London
Passenger Transport Board to fund the Sub-Committee’s research
work from 1938, in turn funding work at the Building Research Station.
Wallace was the key figure in the ICE Council decision to take on the
publication of Géotechnqiue, the world’s first geotechnical journal, in
October 1949.

12
 The Institute of Concrete Technology
40th Annual Convention/Symposium

Cement and Concrete:

Science, Technology and Experience
22nd March 2012
Cement and Concrete always has been, and continues to be a material that evolves with time.  Such evolution up
to about 100 years ago was based on experience rather than detailed scientific and technological understanding. 
Notwithstanding the advances were significant.

However, modern concretes require fundamental understanding of the material both chemically and physically and the
last 50 years have seen major advances based on this knowledge.  Such advances create new uses and opportunities
that have to be adopted into practise based on experience.

We are now at the threshold of new prospects and these needs to be considered and understood. This Symposium
will address these changes, past, present and future given by eminent individuals expert in various fields.
The Frederick Lea Memorial Lecture will be delivered by Dr. John Newman.

Bosworth Hall Hotel, The Park, Market Bosworth,

Warwickshire, CV13 0LP
http://ict.concrete.org.uk
Sponsored by
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

Annual Convention Symposium

- Papers Presented 2011
A major part of the ICT Annual Convention is the Technical Symposium, where guest speakers who are eminent in
their field present papers on their specialist subjects. Each year papers are linked by a theme. The title of the 2011
Symposium was: National Structural Concrete Specification – Use and Application

Symposium Chairman: John Clarke, MA, PhD, MICE, MIStructE, CEng.

Formerly Advisor – Technical Services, The Concrete Society.

PAPERS PRESENTED: AUTHORS:

INTRODUCTION TO THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CONCRETE SPECIFICATION * Charles Goodchild
BSc, CEng, MCIOB, MIStructE
The Concrete Centre

A DESIGNER’S/SPECIFIER’S VIEW* Martin Everitt

BSc, CEng, CEnv, MICE
Skanska Technology

A CONTRACTOR/SUBCONTRACTOR VIEW Peter Goring

BSc(Hons), MSc, ACGI, C Eng, MIC
John Doyle Construction Ltd

CASE STUDY - CITY OF WESTMINSTER COURTS, LONDON* Alex Warrington & Mark Wadsworth
BEng
Expanded Ltd

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY* Dan Bannister

BSc (Hons)
A J Morrisroe & Sons Ltd

CONCRETE PROVIDER – READY-MIXED CONCRETE Peter Rhodes

MICT, FIQ
Cemex

A PRECAST MANUFACTURER’S VIEW* Alan Cooper

BSc (Hons)
Explore Manufacturing Ltd

THE CARES SUSTAINABLE REINFORCING STEEL SCHEME* Lee Brankley

BSc, MSc, MBA, MCQI, CQP
UK-CARES

FORMWORK technology for architectural concrete* Nigel Fletcher

BSc
PERI Ltd

* Edited versions of these papers are given in the following pages.

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Introduction to the National
Structural Concrete Specification
4th Edition
Charles Goodchild
BSc, CEng, MCIOB, MIStructE
MPA – The Concrete Centre
Charles Goodchild, Principal Structural
Engineer with MPA -The Concrete Centre,
has worked for contractors, both in the UK
and abroad, and for consulting engineers.
Since 1991 he has been involved in the
promotion of efficiency in concrete design
and construction. He has managed and
written many publications, instigated and
managed research and software development.
He is a member of numerous BSI and
industry committees and is currently engaged on the implementation
of Eurocode 2 in the UK.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of specifications is to
define the requirements for a project.
Specifications are an integral part
of all but the simplest construction
contract. They are vitally important so
that contracting parties understand
what each other mean: they are a
means of communication and a
pivotal factor in the success of any
project. Well-written and well-
presented specifications are easy to
understand and they help to improve
project delivery. They save money.
This was perhaps not the story
Figure 1: The National of specifications for multi-storey
Structural Concrete concrete construction twenty years
Specification 4th Edition[1]. ago. Members of a very early industry
working party sat round a table with
the concrete specifications from 27
projects to find they had 27 different specifications. It was realised that
the real requirements of projects were being lost in paper chases in
estimators’ offices and on site. Realistically, no-one could be expected
to read and understand the minutiae of the tomes for individual
projects. A master specification that suited the industry was needed.
And so the National Concrete Frame Specification was born and
launched in 1998.
With the 2nd edition, it became The National Structural Concrete
Specification (NSCS). This edition benefitted from experiences from
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2011-2012 Yearbook
ABSTRACT: This paper outlines the history of the National Structural
Concrete Specification and introduces the contents of its 4th edition.
The paper summarises the changes that have been made from the
3rd edition and the reasons for those changes. It also describes the
intentions for the specification’s use and future.
Keywords: Concrete, specification, concrete Construction,
communication.
The European Concrete Building Project at Cardington[2] and for the
first time included foundations and water-resisting construction. The
introduction of BS 8500 heralded the 3rd edition in 2004, (Table 1).
Edition & date Reason for change
1st - (Feb 1998) From need - 27 projects, 27 specs. Reinforced
Concrete Council/ Construct Working Party.
2nd - (Dec 2003) Experiences from Cardington, etc. Foundations
& water-resisting concrete construction
included.
3rd – (May 2004) BS 8500 – Concrete – Complementary BS to BS
EN 206-1.
4th – (April 2010) BS EN 13670 Execution of concrete structures.
BS EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures.
Table 1: The history of The National Structural Concrete
Specification[1].
The 4th edition of the NSCS was launched in April 2010 (Figure 1). It
was completely reviewed and revised to encompass the requirements
of BS EN 13670: 2009, Execution of concrete structures[3] and the
design Eurocodes, notably BS EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures[4]. It provides a BS EN 13670-compliant specification for use
in structural concrete building construction designed to the Eurocodes.
The intention of the NSCS has always been to provide a simple and
straightforward specification for structural concrete works. It has
always been prepared by industry – clients, designers, contractors
and specialists – for industry. It aims to benefit all, with information
collected together in one place. And so it is with the 4th edition.
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THE NSCS
The NSCS 4th edition contains three documents: the NSCS Standard
Specification, NSCS Project Specification and NSCS Guidance, which are
summarised below.
The NSCS Standard Specification provides a base specification with
standard clauses on execution, materials and construction for the
production of consistent and well-constructed reinforced concrete
structures.
The NSCS Project Specification provides the information and
requirements specific to the project. It records, by exception, any
amendments to the Standard Specification considered necessary by
the designer. It is also the part of the specification where information
is provided by the tenderer. This enables tender documents or the
contract for construction to consist of a Project Specification only,
because it refers explicitly to the Standard Specification as its base
document.
The specification has prompts to encourage best practice in
sustainable construction and environmental management. It is
expected that standards for these areas will continue to evolve
throughout the construction industry over the next few years and so
specifiers should add their own requirements as required.
The NSCS Guidance is a companion document to the Standard
and Project Specifications. It provides informative guidance on
interpretation and use of both these documents. It gives background
information together with explanations of why certain clauses have
been adopted. The information is intended to be of use to both the
designer and constructor. However, the Guidance does not form part
of the Execution Specification.
The NSCS Standard Specification is a part of the Execution Specification
as defined by BS EN 13670, and gives standards and technical data
for use in the UK. Clauses in BS EN 13670 have been repeated at
times for clarity. The interrelationship of this specification with BS EN
13670 and the contract documents is illustrated in Figure 2. The NSCS
Guidance to execution management describes how the NSCS Standard
Specification, a completed NSCS Project Specification, the drawings
and other documents taken together provide all the information
required to be included in the Execution Specification of BS EN 13670.
KEY CHANGES
Materials and workmanship used to be incorporated into design
standards such as BS8110[5]. No more. At least no more once design
to European standards becomes prevalent across all sectors of the
industry. Under the Eurocode system ‘execution’ (Figure 2) is subject to
a separate standard: in the case of concrete construction, BS EN 13670,
which was published in February 2010. Its adoption necessitated
changes to the structure of the NSCS document and to terminology.
Nonetheless, the 4th edition of the NSCS still has the same objectives: to
provide a definitive, simple and straightforward specification without
unnecessary constraints.

The sections are as follows:

1. Scope,
2. Bibliography,
3. Definitions,
4. Execution Management,
5. Falsework and Formwork,
6. Reinforcement,
7. Prestressed Concrete,
8. Concrete and Concreting,
9. Precast Concrete,
10. Geometric Tolerances.

The numbering of the specification

sections follows that of the standard.

Beyond the structure of the documents,

the key changes to the contents are:

a) Scope, Bibliography and Definitions,

b) Co-ordination with BS EN 13670,
c) Execution management,
d) Prestressed concrete,
e) Tolerances,
f ) Concrete Finishes,
g) How part 2 works,
h) How part 3 works.

The scope and content aligns with

BS EN 13670.
Figure 2: The NSCS and Execution Specification for concrete
construction.

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The new section on execution management follows the introduction
of this item in BS EN 13670. Essentially this section defines information
flow, which is essential on any construction project and quality
management. A good project needs well-managed information.
BS EN 13670 requires the use of an execution specification,
consisting of documents and drawings to communicate additional
and project-specific construction requirements between client,
designer and constructor. The NSCS for Building Construction forms
part of the Execution Specification, called for in BS EN 13670: 2009,
and has been designated by its National Annex as Non Contradictory
Complementary Information (NCCI).
NSCS assumes Execution Class 2 to BS EN 13670. This includes:
■■ Inspection of materials and products: materials for scaffolding,
formwork and falsework reinforcing steel, fresh concrete, precast
elements, prestressing systems, other items, inspection report.
(Note that there is facility in BS EN 13670 for CE marks to be
checked),
■■ Inspection of execution: scaffolding, formwork and falsework,
embedded items, reinforcement, casting and curing of concrete,
erection of precast elements, prestressing,
■■ Documentation of inspections: visual and systematic
measurements of major works, self and contractor’s QA systems.
Possible additional inspections in specification. Reports are
required. As-built drawings may be specified. (See P1.4.2)
If post-tensioning is involved then Execution Class 3 is assumed with
additional inspections and reports.
With respect to prestressed concrete, the NSCS now incorporates
the CARES model prestressing specification[6] and is coordinated with
the ENs for grout[7,8] and the ETAG (European Technology Assessment
Group)[9] requirements for stressing.
The tolerance requirements of BS EN 13670 have been drawn
up solely to assure structural safety of the building structure for a
Eurocode design and are therefore not always sufficient to ensure
reasonable construction co-ordination with following trades. The NSCS
tolerances provide additional requirements aimed at co-ordination
for normal circumstances and confirm the responsibility of different
parties for ensuring the issues are carefully considered, where required,
to suit the details of a particular project.
Tolerances (or more properly ‘allowable deviations’) ‘fit’ inside the
higher level:
■■ 1st level (Cl 10.2, 10.3 & 10.4) covers the position of the building,
■■ 2nd level (Cl 10.5, 10.6) covers each element overall (within level 1),
■■ 3rd level (Cl 10.7, 10.11 & 10.12) covers element sections (within
level 2),
■■ 4th level (Cl 10.8, 10.9 & 10.10) covers rebar and fixings (within
level 3).
They work mainly on centrelines and are not cumulative: they work on
the box principle.
With respect to finishes, NSCS as BS EN 13670, has:
■■ basic, ■■ plain, and
■■ ordinary, ■■ special
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2011-2012 Yearbook
finishes for formed and unformed surfaces. The BS8110 types of
surface finish A, B & C with finish classes 1,2 and special have been
replaced. For formed surfaces the definitions are developments of the
BS 8110 descriptions and NBS[10] descriptions of plain smooth and fine
smooth finishes. The “plain” is intended to be suitable as an exposed
finish almost “as struck”, but not a super quality architectural finish
which must be a special.
Part 2 is the “project special” part of the NSCS that allows the designers
to include all their particular requirements to add to or modify the Part
1 NSCS standard requirements. To aid the task of preparing a Project
Specification, CONSTRUCT give express permission to copy and use the
Project Specification without infringement of copyright. It is available
as a word template document both on the accompanying CD ROM
and via http://www.construct.org.uk/publications.asp . The file enables
easy electronic completion and distribution of the Project Specification.
It incorporates tinted panels to indicate where information is
required, and these panels expand to allow addition of text. There are
responsible sourcing options.
Part 3 is the Guidance part of the NSCS that gives guidance and
references.
RESPONSIBILITIES AND INTENTIONS
The NSCS assumes that the Engineer remains responsible for using
reasonable skill, care and diligence to design the structure and that
the Constructor builds what is shown on the drawings to the specified
standard.
The Constructor is expected to exercise in the performance of his
duties all such skill, care and diligence as may be expected of an
experienced Constructor used to working on projects of similar size,
scope and complexity of structural concrete works using appropriately
qualified and experienced staff. Prescriptive restraints have been
avoided, so enabling the Constructor’s experience to be used for
efficient construction.
The NSCS aims to ensure that the specification draws together
all the day-to-day information needed by the designers, Contract
Administrator and the Constructor; it therefore includes information
which may duplicate provisions in project preliminaries. It is
important that when the NSCS is used all the project team make
use of it and should the project preliminaries differ from the NSCS
standard specification the changes should be indicated in the Project
Specification.
In the light of the introduction of the Eurocodes and execution
standards, the NBS specification is being reviewed and revised. The
intention is to incorporate NSCS in the same way that the National
Structural Steelwork Specification (NSSS), is currently.
The benefits of using NSCS will best be achieved by continuing the
collaboration between contractors, specifiers and designers that arose
during its development. NSCS provides for agreement to be reached
between the constructor and the designer on project-specific items
that affect the pricing of the works.
A review panel will keep the document up to date in the light of
comments and feedback received from all parts of the industry. Any
inaccuracies and ambiguities found or proposals for future editions
should be submitted to CONSTRUCT at www.construct.org.uk .
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CONCLUSION
The 4th edition of the NSCS provides a definitive, simple and
straightforward specification for structural concrete works that
complies with the European standards for the execution and design of
concrete structures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express his appreciation to the other
members of the Technical Committee, as listed on the inside front
cover, who were responsible for the 4th edition. Special mention must
be made of the Chairman, Julian Maw, who has seen this project
through and who kept reins on the European Committee dealing with
BS EN 13670. I am indebted also to the Technical Editor, Paul Toplis,
for the basis of my presentation: his unstinting efforts lie behind the
success of the document.

REFERENCES
1. CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specification for
building construction, 4th edition, CCIP-050. The Concrete
Centre, Camberley, 2010.
2. The European Concrete Building Project, THE STRUCTURAL
ENGINEER, Vol 78 No 2, 18 January 2000.
3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 13670: Execution
of concrete structures. BSI, 2010.
4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992-1-1,
Eurocode 2 – Part 1-1: Design of concrete structures –
General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004. Including
National Annex to BS EN 1992-1-1 incorporating National
Amendment No 1. BSI, 2009.
5. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110-1:1997
Structural use of concrete Part 1: Code of practice for
design and construction, incorporating Amendments 1, 2, 3
and 4. BSI, 2007.
6. CARES Post-tensioning systems, Part 2 – The supply and/or
installation of post-tensioning systems, CARES, Sevenoaks,
2007.
7. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION BS EN 446 Grout for
prestressing tendons- Grouting procedures, BSI, 2007.
8. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION BS EN 447 Grout for
prestressing tendons- Basic requirements, BSI, 2007.
9. EUROPEAN ORGANISATION FOR TECHNICAL APPROVAL
(EOTA) ETAG 0103 Guideline for European Technical
approval of post-tensioning kits for prestressing of
structures, Brussels, EOTA, 2002.
10. NBS Building (National Building Specification) www.thenbs.
com/products/nbsBuilding/index.asp

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A DESIGNER’S/SPECIFIER’S VIEW
Martin Everitt
BSc, CEng, CEnv, MICE
Skanska Technology
Martin Everitt is Senior Project Engineer at
Skanska Technology. He has worked in the
UK and abroad within the contracting sector,
with most of his career as a design engineer
within contractor organisations. Currently
he is with Skanska Technology which is part
of Skanska UK. He has worked on many and
varied projects from residential, through
commercial and industrial, to infrastructure.
He is currently working on healthcare and
custodial projects, most notably the rebuilding of St Bartholomew’s
Hospital in London.
INTRODUCTION
There have been various national specifications for concrete available
for a number of years, including the National Building Specification
(NBS) and the National Concrete Frame Specification. However, many
of the early ones separated the constituent parts of construction
using concrete; e.g., the section on reinforcement was separated
into one for the concrete material and one for finishes. The National
Structural Concrete Specification (NSCS) provided a single specification
considering the whole of concrete construction in a simple and
easy-to-use framework. The 4th Edition was introduced in 2010 and
has been rewritten to meet the requirements of BS EN 13670:2009[2],
Execution of concrete structures, and the associated design Eurocodes.
The NSCS provides a straightforward guide to the new world of
designing and constructing to Eurocodes, with the guidance notes
being an invaluable help.
THE NSCS
The document has been written in an easy to read format with
guidance notes to assist the specifier in producing a specification
agreeable to all involved in a project.
There are significant differences between the 3rd and 4th Editions of the
NSCS, the most significant being associated with the need to bring
the specification into line with the British Standard EN 13670:2009
Execution of concrete structures. The introduction to the British
Standard states:
“This European Standard applies to the execution of concrete
structures to achieve the intended level of safety and serviceability
during its service life, as given in EN 1990, Eurocode – Basis of structural
design, EN 1992[3], Eurocode 2 – Design of concrete structures.”
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2011-2012 Yearbook
ABSTRACT: This paper describes how a designer/specifier has
received and applied the 4th Edition of the National Structural Concrete
Specification[1], highlighting some of challenges and opportunities that
arise.
Keywords: Concrete, Specification, Designer, Specifier,
Communication, Sustainable.
This European Standard has three functions:
1: to transfer the requirements set during design to the constructor
i.e. to be a link between design and execution;
2: to give a set of standardised technical requirements for the
execution when ordering a concrete structure;
3: to serve as a checklist for the designer to ensure that he provides
the constructor with all relevant technical information for the
execution of the structure (see Annex A).
In order to achieve these objectives, the design shall result in a set
of documents and drawings giving all information required for the
execution of the work in accordance with the plans. This set of
documents is, in this European Standard, referred to as the “Execution
Specification”. This standard leaves a number of items open to be
decided in the execution specification.
The NSCS for Building Construction forms a part of the Execution
Specification, and has been designated by the UK National Annex as
Non-Contradictory Complementary Information. Which means that
the document provides additional information that will assist the
engineer and does not conflict with any of the clauses of the EN.
The NSCS contains three documents, namely:
■■ The NSCS Standard Specification,
■■ The NSCS Project Specification,
■■ NSCS Guidance.
The Standard and Project documents provide the Project Specification
as defined in clause 3.16 of BS EN 13670.
As in previous versions of the NSCS, the Standard Specification section
provides baseline information that would normally be expected for the
production of well-constructed reinforced concrete structures.
The Project Specification provides information and requirements that
are particular to the project. This document records by exception
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Testing
Until 2003 concrete testing was for “acceptance
and compliance”; with the introduction of BS8500
and BS EN 206-1 this became “conformity and
identity” testing.

The conformity testing is under the control of

the producer and is to verify that the concrete
fulfils specified requirements; however it is quite
possible for the concrete used on a particular
project never to be tested.

Testing undertaken at site level is identity testing

and is used to show that the concrete is from a
conforming population.

The NSCS provides guidance on the rate

of identity testing for particular sections of
construction:
Figure 1: The NSCS in Context.
■■ Very critical (contract defined) –1 sample per load

amendments to the Standard Specification, and therefore at an early ■■ Critical elements (very high strength columns, masts, cantilevers,
stage considerations need to be made on the quality of workmanship etc.) –1 sample per 2 loads
expected on the project, not only with respect to finishes but surface ■■ Typical elements (beams, slabs, etc.) –1 sample per 4 to 10 loads
and dimensional tolerances and placement of reinforcement. ■■ Low risk elements (rafts, etc.) – May not be required

In BS8110-1: 1997[4], Sections 6, 7 and 8 dealt with workmanship

The guidance states that it is essential that the concrete producer is
aspects; however since this information was within what was often
made aware of an identity testing programme since this might affect
regarded as a design code it was often overlooked by the construction
their production margin to prevent test failure. The written guidance
team. Under Eurocode, the workmanship elements have been
has simplified writing the project specification since acceptance to the
separated out into BS EN 13670 and this effectively provides the
rate of testing is more readily obtained.
linking document between the designer, specifier and constructor,
and requires the designer to consider what type of structure is
The 4th Edition NSCS guidance notes (8.1.2) explain where the
being created and what associated level of workmanship should be
difference between the types of testing and questions to be asked by
expected. Early discussion with the construction team is of the utmost
the specifier when considering what, if any, additional testing ought to
importance when working on design and build projects to ensure a
be required.
joined-up approach is provided. The NSCS greatly assists the designer
in this by posing the questions that should be asked at early stages.
In addition to identity testing it might be desirable to obtain early
strength results. Guidance on such testing is given in the Construct
In the National Annex (NA) associated with BS EN 13670, Table
publication: Guide to Flat Slab Formwork and Falsework, CS 140[5].
1 indicates which clauses are to be responded to in the Project
Specification, and has been reproduced in the NSCS Guidance, page
60. The NSCS guides the designer/specifier to meet the requirements
in a straightforward way.
Surface Finishes
The project specification is laid out in a familiar way with the first
Surface finishes have always proved to be controversial and the
section requiring the specifier to confirm the project details and what
previous editions of the NSCS gave contact information about where
documentation is expected to be delivered, and by whom.
reference panels might be viewed (Figure 2). This has continued to be
the case although the contact information is also found at
The format has been changed to make it an easier document to
www.construct.org.uk/surfacefinishes
complete. For instance P1.7, Water resisting concrete, the option for the
constructor to select appropriate materials and systems to achieve the
It is important that the design and construction teams, together with
selected grade of environment has been enhanced.
the client, view the panels so that the appropriate finish is specified
and the acceptance criteria may be agreed, before any concrete has
In a similar way to the 3rd edition, concrete mixes are specified in P1.8
been cast. This has proved invaluable since the whole team knows
using the tabular format, the first column provides default values
what would and what would not be acceptable, then a protocol
followed by columns for use by the specifier. Each section of the table
devised as to how out-of-specification finishes might be remedied.
needs to be completed prior to submitting the specification to the
producer. To assist the specifier, Section 8 of the guidance notes to
the NSCS gives descriptions of aspects of concrete selection including
sustainability.

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Figure 2: Panel Locations.
The specification of finishes has now been rationalised so that both
formed and unformed finishes have the same type names, and are
shown in Table F.4 of BS EN 13670 (reproduced here as Table 1).
The NSCS provides further guidance on what finishes are suitable to
provide a suitable outcome without over- specifying the finish.
Table 1: From BS EN 13670 – Table F.4: Types of surface finish.
22
2011-2012 Yearbook
The NSCS recommends that the special finish should only be used for
architectural formed finishes where a worked finish is necessary. In
this case there will be a need to make site-specific panels so that the
whole team may agree on the acceptance criteria. Further guidance
is given in the NSCS on how to obtain consistent and high quality
special finishes.
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Tolerance and Execution
Class
The Eurocode defines the Tolerance Class as a set of limits for geometrical
deviations and the Execution Class as a set of requirements specified for
the execution of the works as a whole, or an individual component.
The default Tolerance Class is Class 1 which is tighter than the minimum
required under BS EN 1992 to achieve basic structural safety and BS
EN 13670 Section 10 Geometrical Tolerances provides the acceptable
permitted deviations. If smaller deviation allowances are required then
the element should be considered as being in Class 2, and Section 10
gives further guidance on the acceptable limits to Class 2; they should
also be specified in the Project Specification. Class 2 tolerances will
result in a Class 3 Execution Class. The use of smaller deviations should
not be routinely specified since the additional costs will not result in
appreciable benefits.
Eurocode 2 states that for normal structures an Execution Class 2 is
required, and the more onerous Class 3 should be considered for critical
elements or parts of a structure. It is expected that Buildings in Class 3
of Table 11 of Approved Document Part A of the Building Regulations
will be to Execution Class 3.
Below is an extract from BS EN 13670 (Table 2) in which the type of
documentation expected for a particular Execution Class is stated.
Again, an over-specified Execution Class may attract additional costs
but fail to yield significant benefits to the project.
Table 2: From BS EN 13670 – Table 3.
2011-2012 Yearbook
Conclusion
The 4th Edition of the NSCS has been written in a straightforward way to
provide the designer and specifier with an easy to use tool to specifying
concrete works. The guidance notes provide a clear commentary to the
process of specifying concrete to meet the requirements of the Eurocode
as well as how to improve the concrete works being produced.
REFERENCES
1. CONSTRUCT. National Structural Concrete Specification for
Building Construction, 4th edition, CCIP-050. The Concrete Centre,
Camberley, 2010.
2. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 13670: Execution of
Concrete Structures. BSI, 2010.
3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2-Part
1-1: Design of concrete structures – General rules and rules for
buildings. BSI, 2004 including National Annex to BS EN 1992 1-1.
4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110-1:1997, Structural use
of Concrete Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction
incorporating amendments 1, 2, 3, & 4. BSI 2007.
5. PALLET, P.F. Guide to flat slab falsework and formwork, CS140. The
Concrete Society on behalf of CONSTRUCT, 2003.
23
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CITY OF WESTMINSTER COURTS,

LONDON
Mark Wadsworth
B Eng
Expanded Structures
Presented by Alex Warrington

Mark Wadsworth is Operations Director
for Expanded Structures, part of the Laing
O’Rourke group, and has been with the
organisation for 24 years.
Alex Warrington (pictured) is an Operations
Manager for Expanded Structures, part of
the Laing O’Rourke group, and has been
with the organisation for 15 years.
ABSTRACT: Benefits of early engagement allowed us to produce
sample panels using NSCS guidance for consistency of colour
and quality of finish, whilst understanding the build -ability of the
installation of the embedded cooling pipework system incorporated
within the post tensioned slabs.
Keywords: BREEAM (Building Research Establishment
Assessment Method), Post-tensioned, Sustainability.

Introduction The contract

Westminster Court, situated along Marylebone Road, is the £50 million The 10 000 m2 structure is a post-tensioned reinforced concrete frame
project for Her Majesty’s Courts Service. which provides 60 holding cells in the basement and 3000 m2 of offices.

The project involved the demolition of the existing Marylebone Road

Magistrates Courts (Figure 1) and the design & build of a new five storey
building (Figures 2 and 3). The project has placed some demanding
challenges on the design and construction of the building services
systems and has required some extraordinary thinking.

Contract value
Demolition: £1.5m
Piling: £1.5m
Expanded Structures: £9m
Expanded package value: = £12m

Package Programme
Demolition: 20 weeks
Piling & Structures: 44 weeks

Materials
Figure 1: Demolition in progress, January 2009.
■■ 9000m3 concrete
■■ 500 tonnes reinforcement
■■ 75 tonnes post-tensioning strand

9000m2 of finished concrete soffits

Grade 1 basement environment – secant and liner wall
Exposed finished concrete stair cores and staircases

National Structural Concrete Specification adopted

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The provision of the new court building is based on achieving a BREEAM

rating of ‘excellent’ as well as satisfying sustainability and energy
conservation criteria. It was clear from the start that the Laing O’Rourke
project team had to demonstrate to the client that the project could be
successfully delivered and that risks could be mitigated with innovative
construction techniques. The mechanical and electrical designs were
developed to meet court standards with the help of Graham Powell
Consultants and included the following key features:

■■ Integrated slab cooling provided by aquifer water to regulate the

temperature (Figures 2 and 3); its use on this project, combined
with a post-tensioned slab, is a UK first,
■■ Large airy areas through the use of post-tensioned slabs, glazed
atria and specialist air distribution,
■■ Segregated circulation.

Figure 2: Architectural vision.

Figure 3: Architectural views of the proposed development.

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Figure 4: Illustrative of the first floor layout.

Concrete Specification
■■ NSCS 3rd edition – part 2 addition – GGBS for both sustainability
and to assist in achieving the desired colour requirements ( light
Portland stone ),
■■ Agreed deviation to clause 6 of the standard specification to
determine strength using the concrete maturity approach to allow
programme to be achieved,
■■ Mix proposed with a maximum cement content of 400 kg/m3 with
30% replacement,
■■ Fine smooth finish – type & plywood pattern – release agent.

Figure 5: Embedded cooling pipework system being installed

Pre-contract
A mock-up of a typical post-tensioned courtroom slab and enclosure
was constructed by Expanded Structures at the Building Research
Establishment (BRE) in Watford with embedded coil slab cooling
and controls by Crown House Technologies, as well as other service
elements; for example, lighting. Testing was essential to determine
the exact temperature of the cooling water to achieve the client-
specified room temperatures.
To add to the difficulty of the project, the frame construction was
planned throughout the winter months and required a concrete mix
capable of dealing with the low ambient temperatures and required
stressing regime as well as the exposed concrete specifications.
26
within the post- tensioned slabs (first floor).
This development of the required post-tensioning mix design was on
the back of the Laing O’Rourke national concrete maturity work used
on projects across the country (Figure 7). Using established concrete
behaviour and working with extra winter environmental restrictions a
‘first’ was developed that balanced strength gain and added cement
replacements which were normally not used due to programme issues
during winter months.
A 400 kg/m3 total cementitious design with 30% replacement was
chosen which, prior to using in situ strength monitoring methods,
would have been a lot higher with little or no replacement levels. This
contributed greatly to the quality, sustainability and programme of the
Westminster Courts project.
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Figure 6: BRE client report. Figure 7: Concrete maturity signatures from various Laing O’Rourke projects.

In situ strength gain

monitoring using Expanded’s
in-house systems
Temperature and strength development were monitored and results
from these are shown in Figures 8 and 9.

Figure 8:
Monitored
strength and
temperature
development.
Expected Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Degrees for Temperature

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Figure 9: Monitored strength and temperature development.

For the construction of the post-tensioned slabs the reinforced

concrete contractor, Expanded Ltd, decided to use the SGB ‘Gass’ table
system, which was able to cope with all criteria of the slab design and
aided towards the short construction cycle.

A total number of seven reinforced concrete lift– and stair- cores,

varying in shape and height, were constructed off the slab. The Peri
‘Trio’ panel system was chosen by the site team, which allowed a high
reusability of panels for different cores and also saved time and cost.

Another key design decision in the overall construction was the

incorporation of precast concrete elements designed and manufactured
at Explore, an integrated part of the Laing O’ Rourke business. The
use of precast stairs, bespoke prison cell elements and curtain walling
offsite manufacture meant that we were delivering and assembling
products to the time, cost and quality standards demanded by our Figure 10: Project overview.
client.

Client: Her Majesty’s Courts Services

Main Contractor: Laing O’Rourke
Project Managers: Schal
Cost Consultant: Capita Symonds
Clients Advisory Team: Gifford’s/Hurd Rolland/Hoare Lea
LOR Architect: Clifford Tee & Gale
LOR Structural Engineers: Waterman
LOR M & E Engineers: Graham Powell Consultants

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ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Dan Bannister
BSc (Hons)
A J Morrisroe & Sons Ltd, UK
Dan Bannister is Head of Health, Safety,
Environment and Quality (HSEQ) for A J
Morrisroe & Sons Ltd. After graduating
from the University of East Anglia in 1997
with an Environmental Sciences honours
degree, his early career was spent working
with the Environment Agency and in the
enforcement team of the Environmental
Health Department at the London Borough
of Barnet. Since then he has spent time as
a Construction HS&E Consultant before joining A J Morrisroe & Sons
Ltd in 2004 where he now heads the HSEQ Team. Additionally for the
last two years he has been acting as Chairman for the CONSTRUCT
HS&E Committee and has been involved with the development of the
Environmental Toolkit for Construct members.
Introduction - Sustainability So where does that leave
& construction concrete and construction?
Since the original definition of the term Sustainable Development in
the Brundtland report in 1987[1], the concept of sustainability has had
an ever increasing impact on the construction Industry and the built
environment.
It goes without saying that this is a logical progression given sheer
scope and scale of influence of the construction industry – energy,
materials, water. In the last decade, there has been a clear shift towards
a more coordinated strategic approach to improving sustainability in
the construction industry.
In 2002/2003 the UK produced an estimated 330m tonnes of waste,
of which 107.5m tonnes was from construction and demolition – over
30%[2]. Aside from mineral waste, this was the single largest contributor
to our waste production.
In July 2003 the government published the first sustainable Construction
Brief [3] and soon after formed the Sustainability Forum[4]) with the
industry. Today the industry-led Strategic Forum for Construction places
sustainability at the core of its operations. This group is developing action
plans to achieve the following targets by 2012.
i. By 2012, a 50% reduction in construction, demolition and
excavated waste to landfill compared with 2005,
ii. 15% reduction in carbon emissions from construction processes
and transport compared with 2008,
iii. 20% reduction in water usage compared with 2008 usage,
iv. All construction projects over £1m to have bio-diversity surveys
carried out and necessary actions instigated.
2011-2012 Yearbook
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the new NSCS in the context of the
Concrete Industry Sustainable Construction Strategy. It also considers
how sustainability objectives and targets are incorporated into
construction methodology and materials and the tools used to capture
sustainability metrics. Finally it considers the use of NSCS from a
contractor’s perspective and how the latest edition can be best utilised
to improve environmental performance.
Keywords: Sustainability, Construction, NSCS
The construction industry launched its Sustainable Construction
Strategy in 2008[5] and presented the first Concrete Performance Report
in March 2009[6] at Lancaster House introduced by Jonathan Porrit.
The latest (3rd) Concrete Performance Report[7] was presented in
January 2011 at Portcullis House. This document clearly shows that
the concrete industry recognizes the enormous impact its activities
have on the environment and what action can be taken to improve its
sustainability.
National Structural Concrete Specification (NSCS)
in context of Concrete Industry Sustainable
Construction Strategy
Clearly the NSCS[8] is a welcome tool to help the concrete Industry
improve its performance. However, in itself, it does not improve
sustainability. The guidance section of the NSCS has been substantially
re-written and hugely improved from edition 3. The guidance section
now includes sustainable construction sub headings:
These sub-sections can be found in sections:
4. Executive Management
5. Falsework & Formwork
6. Reinforcement
8. Concrete & Concreting
Also, details in section P1, which sets out what information should be
provided to the contractor.
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The guidance in sections 4, 5 and 6 effectively opens the door to basic

methods and checks for improving sustainability – identifying the
main assurance schemes – ISO 14001[9] and BES 6001[10] for material
suppliers and even noting the UK Sustainable Construction target
of 25% responsibly sourced construction products by 2012. This
part of the guidance crucially identifies the need for specification to
achieve the targets set out by the reinforced concrete supply chain.
It also highlights the role of Building Research Establishment Energy
Assessment Method (BREEAM)[11] and BS 8902[12].
The formwork section flags the role of Central Point of Expertise
on Timber (CPET)[13] procurement recognized schemes for timber
selection and touches briefly on the importance of formwork design
when considering waste. Although the primary focus for improving
sustainability is the concrete, more work is required to accurately
account for timber wastage, in particular, on fair-faced concrete
elements.
By far the most important and informative section for specifiers
is Section 8. This section provides a very useful précis of the
key constituents of concrete – cement and aggregate and their
replacements and the various impacts that changing these
will have on the performance of the concrete. Interestingly/
anecdotally, specification of the concrete mix design is often more
greatly influenced by the strength/colour characteristics than the
replacement of Portland cement with a more sustainable alternative.
NCSC – A contractor’s view
Typically only the Standard (Part 1) of the Specification is used. Sadly,
Part 2 is frequently underused to create bespoke specifications.
Concrete specification is often limited to the strength (long term) gain.
The contractor and producer are frequently left to determine the other
characteristics. Where there is a more detailed specification this is often
to ensure the consistency of other properties such as colour rather
than environmental performance.
There are cost implications for using both replacement cement and
recycled aggregate (RC & RA) in concrete:
■■ Fly ash & ggbs are typically cheaper (£1 to £2 per m3)
■■ Secondary aggregate (stent) can be more expensive (£4 - £5 per m3)
Perceived programme implications and extended propping times
for falsework also have an impact on concrete selection – usually to
reduce the proportion of replacement cement.
The role of BREEAM in specifying concrete is often not fully understood
by either the specifier or the contractor. Often the environmental
aspirations of the client are not fully integrated into the structural
concrete specification - this is often an after-thought initiated by
another department.
CONCLUSIONS
■■ The 4th edition NSCS is a significant step forward in providing
guidance to specifiers.
■■ To obtain the full benefits of the NSCS - in particular Part 2; clients,
engineers and contractors must work more closely together
to identify areas where sustainability can be improved on their
projects.
■■ In this respect there are still lessons to be learnt from the Latham &
Egan reports from 1990s.
REFERENCES
1. Our Common Future, the report of the Brundtland Commission
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
2. Defra statistics, www.defra.gov.uk
3. Sustainable Construction Brief. London: DTI, July 2003
4. www.strategicforum.org.uk
5. Strategy for sustainable construction, HM Government,
Department for Business, Enterprise & Regulatory Reform,
Construction Sector Unit, June 2008
6. First Concrete Industry-Sustainable Performance Report March
2009 published by MPA, www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk
7. The Third Concrete Industry Sustainability Performance Report,
MPA - The Concrete Centre, 2010
8. CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specification for
building construction, 4th edition, CCIP-050. The Concrete Centre,
Camberley, 2010.
9. ISO 14001: 2011 Environmental Management System
10. BRE Environmental &. Sustainability Standard. BES 6001: Issue 2.0,
BRE, 2009
11. Building Research Establishment Energy Assessment Method
(BREEAM), www.breeam.org
12. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8092: 2009 Responsible
sourcing sector certification schemes for construction products
specification, BSI
13. Central Point of Expertise on Timber Procurement, www.cpet.org.uk

Frequently the opportunities for maximizing the amount of

replacement cement & recycled aggregate are missed due to poor
understanding & coordination at an early stage.

Formwork and falsework design and selection are typically overlooked

during specification with opportunities for improving environmental
performance missed, In particular the timber wastage on high quality
formed finishes is often unknown or overlooked.

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A PRECAST MANUFACTURER’S
VIEW
Alan Cooper
BSc (Hons)
Explore Manufacturing Ltd
Alan Cooper has been involved in the
manufacture of building materials for
his entire working life. He has worked for
Blue Circle, Lafarge, Celcon, Ryarsh Brick
and Explore Manufacturing where he has
worked as the Senior Concrete Technologist
for the last six years. He is actively involved
in research and development projects in
collaboration with major universities.
He is the Chairman of the British Precast Concrete Federation
Sustainability and Environment Committee and a member of the
Concrete Society London and South East Region committee, with
particular interest in training.
INTRODUCTION
Explore Manufacturing, formerly known as Malling Products, is the
precast concrete manufacturer owned by Laing O’Rourke. It operates
from a new manufacturing facility just outside Worksop, which is the
largest in the United Kingdom (Figure 1).
The product range covers most structural and architectural precast
requirements, including columns, twinwall elements, insulated
sandwich panels, prestressed beams and bespoke architectural precast.
The plant has achieved BS9001, BS14001 and BES 6001 accreditations.
This paper highlights the main topics from the ‘National Structural
Concrete Specification’ with special reference to precast concrete and
how we approach these to a satisfactory conclusion.
It demonstrates how a significant percentage of precast within a structure
can significantly reduce programme time and sit comfortably within a
hybrid concrete solution[1].
All precast concrete is produced to comply with BS EN 13670:2009 and
BS EN 13369:2004 - Common Rules for Precast Products[2].
DOCUMENT 1 – STANDARD
SPECIFICATION: Section 8.1 -
Concrete and Concreting
This section is very clear in 8.1.1.1 in defining that concrete shall
conform to BS EN 8500-2 and BS EN 206-1. However, it is in Section
2011-2012 Yearbook
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses how a precast concrete producer has
received the new fourth edition of the National Structural Concrete
Specification, how it is applied and what opportunities or challenges it
poses. It focuses on those areas particularly highlighted and attributed
to precast concrete manufacture.
Keywords: Sustainable materials, Hybrid construction,
CONSTRUCT Regional reference panels, Twinwall elements,
Columns, Lattice planks, British Precast Sustainability
Charter, BES 6001.
8.1.1.2, Materials, that we are seeing specifiers moving much further
towards requiring the use of sustainable materials - often expressed as
a percentage total replacement.
A precast facility can, if the equipment is available, respond very
positively in this direction. The evolvement of chemical admixtures,
particularly fast acting superplasticisers, means that the use of
secondary cement replacements can be exploited much further
without detriment to the curing times. Commonly a compressive
strength of 15 MPa is targeted to be achieved in 12 hours at 20°C to
allow the demoulding of the product to commence.
The Code for Sustainable Homes, Building Research Establishment
Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) ratings and also the
Green Guide all react positively to concretes produced using materials
from recycled or secondary sources and these are the common drivers
for specifiers.
The use of ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs), secondary
granite aggregates (Figure 2) and liquid slurry silica fume, amongst
others, can be and are used in precast concretes in quite high
percentages as additions to improve the finished product.
Materials from recycled sources, such as crushed and graded
glass cullet, are sometimes specified and can be added as partial
replacement fines, particularly in architectural finishes.
Section 8.1.1.2 also covers the testing requirements for chloride,
alkali-silica reaction and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA). Precast
producers can have special mixes tested before production, should this
be required.
Interestingly, inorganic pigment, although not mentioned in the
specification, can be a secondary product produced from waste steel
sources such as the car industry.
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Figure 1: Modern precast batching plant containing 2 mixers, 23 aggregate silos, 5 binder Figure 2: Etched C60 white concrete
silos, borehole primary water feed, automatic dosing of chemical admixtures, fibre columns containing secondary granite
addition plant and full wash down/recycling facility capable of producing 100 m³ per for the mica ‘glitter’.
hour of concrete.

As the cement industry moves towards blended product (the

particular driver being the need to reduce its carbon footprint), then
we as precasters have responded by using CEM II A/LL in our mixes
in combination with GGBS with good effect, supported by laboratory
testing of the finished product. This addition of limestone dust within
the mix also improves the surface finish of the product. Concrete mixes
with 28-day compressive strengths greater than 80 MPa (normally
in the range 90 MPa+) to peaks at over 100 MPa, coupled with
exceptional early strengths using the above, have been consistently
achieved.

DOCUMENT 1 – Section 8.6:

Surface Finishes
Section 8.6.1: Formed Finish
Surface finishes defined in Section 8.6.1 are often quoted in
specifications. In the earlier, third, edition of the Specification, which
referred to BS 8110-1 1997, there were three types of surface finish:
Type A, Type B and Type C (Figures 3 and 4) and three quality classes:
Class 2, Class 1 and Special Class.
The revised Standard (edition 4) lists four types of formed finish: Basic
finish, Ordinary finish, Plain finish and Special finish, coupled with
supportive descriptions, expanded in the guidance section 3.
CONSTRUCT have erected reference panels at six regional locations
around the country which were originally labelled Type A and Type B
finishes. Edition 4 re-defines these panels as Ordinary and Plain.
Although the concept of local examples of finish is excellent, the
standard of these panels, through time, has, unfortunately, deteriorated,
particularly those panels located in exposed positions. We trust that in
time the panels will again be returned to the quality required to reflect
the specification.
Figure 3:Type A (Ordinary) Figure 4: Type B (Plain) Regional
Regional Reference Panel. Reference Panel.
Precast specifiers will sometimes refer to one of the above classs, often
class B (Plain). We will not take clients to the regional reference panels
but always agree to approve either the first casting or a reference casting
unique to the job held as reference. The natural default therefore for us as
a precast supplier is always Special Finish.
Section 8.6.1.4: Special Finish
Special finishes are agreed with clients at a very early stage in the
contract. Samples which are easily transportable to the client and/or
architect are produced in the factory. This approach allows a variety of
colours and textures to be considered effectively and easily.
Once a sample is agreed, either a mock-up or a full-scale unit can be
produced to establish the benchmark for subsequent production. This
can be kept at the factory throughout the job for easy reference.

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The standard therefore raises consideration of the following important
issue when producing special finishes:
■■ Surface is regularly achievable – quality assurance pre-delivery
should check for this,
■■ Any colour variation tolerances can be agreed – particularly when
used in hybrid concrete construction as precast concrete can be
lighter than ready-mix equivalents,
■■ Agreed extent of ‘making good’ – this will vary considerably
between clients,
■■ Use of cover spacers,
■■ Agreed sample of finished product.
The precast suppliers can, particularly in the case of structural
architectural concrete, use various methods of finish:
■■ Fair faced,
■■ Chemically etched to various depths, (Traditionally, hydrochloric
acid was used but specialist chemicals with significantly better
environmental credentials are now available)
■■ Air blasted finishes to various depths,
■■ Honed or rubbed finish,
■■ Polished using sets of graded disks to achieve required depth.
The colour of the concrete can be varied by careful selection of
aggregates for natural colouring using the fines for the colour and also
using pigments.
The type of grey cement plays a significant role as its colour varies
throughout the United Kingdom.
A precast manufacturer operating a quality management system to
BS EN ISO 9001 will have records covering all stages of the manufacture.
These records can be compiled using input from either an internal
NAMAS testing laboratory or more probably an external third party
testing house.
Precast units must conform to Section 5: Falsework and Formwork,
Section 6: Reinforcement, Section 7: Prestressed work and Section 8:
Concrete and concreting.
DOCUMENT 2 – Project
Specification: P1.10
Section P1.10 appears in Document 2, specifically entitled Precast
Concrete, tabling the information to be provided for precast works.
This information is necessary and self-explanatory and should be in
every specification.
Importantly, the final line in the specification refers to environmental
certification.
The British Precast Concrete Federation membership will, from this year,
all have to be signatories to the British Precast Sustainability
Charter (Figure 5) and provide evidence that they are working towards
BS EN ISO 14001 and be participating in the British Precast Concrete
Targets health and safety scheme.
Information is available from the British Precast Concrete Federation
on who of the membership have BES 6001, BS EN 9001, BS EN 14001,
BS EN 18001 and who have had the Achilles audit.

White cement is mentioned in the standard as ’not a very sustainable Working with a supply chain that has BES 6001 in place is significant
choice’ but must be used for some colours, particularly in London. when BREEAM rating for the structure is being assessed.
Although all white cement comes from abroad the carbon footprint
can be offset. The use of pre-blended limestone dust at the factory
to produce a white CEM II A/LL is one way of reducing the carbon
footprint and the simple addition of GGBS, up to 40%, will play a
significant part in the carbon reduction.

The significant CO2 release comes from manufacture not transport,

which is much less than 5% of the total.

A good manufacturing batching operation with effective clean down –

ideally using recycled water - will ensure that contamination and colour
variations are minimised or even totally eliminated.

DOCUMENT 1: Section 9
– Precast Concrete
Section 9 deals with the additional considerations particular to hybrid
and totally precast structures.

Precast operations must comply with BS EN 13369:2004 + A1:2006

-‘common rules for precast concrete products. There is also reference
again to compliance with BS EN 13670:2009. Figure 5: Sustainability Charter Membership Certificate.

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conclusions
Precast concrete works well within the National Structural Concrete
Specification and in particular with the Hybrid Construction Solution
where offsite manufacture can reduce significantly the build programme
with the added advantage of compliance to all the appropriate
standards before delivery, when compared with all insitu works.

The Specification covers the required manufacturing parameters,

addresses sustainability issues and acts as a conduit to associated
standards.

The finished result is the supply of simple, buildable and economic

structures, faster and safe construction and consistent performance
with associated cost saving.

REFERENCES
1. Hybrid Concrete Construction – The Concrete Centre
– TCC/03/53, 2010

2. BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION BS EN 13369- Common Rules for

Precast Products, BSI, 2004

FURTHER READING
Crosswall Construction – The Concrete Centre – TCC/03/26, 2007

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THE CARES Sustainable reinforcing
steel certification scheme
Lee Brankley
BSc, MSc, MBA, MCQI, CQP
UK CARES
Lee Brankley Operations Manager, CARES –
the UK Certification Authority for Reinforcing
Steels.
ABSTRACT: The sustainability agenda
is constantly moving forward and
sustainability data collection, auditing
and reporting is moving to third party
certification bodies to meet the demands
of designers for more transparent and reliable data and comparable
environmental information about competing construction materials.
Introduction
The rapidly increasing demand for greener structures provides both
challenges and opportunities in relation to the materials used in
their construction. Designers, contractors and material procurers
are requiring accurate, accessible and timely information on the
environmental impact of using different materials. For example,
the 2006 Code for Sustainable Homes awards credits based on the
environmental impact of materials and the UK Highways Agency is
introducing carbon budgeting. The aim in doing so is to encourage
the use of materials with lower environmental impacts over their
lifecycle and to recognize and encourage the specification of
sustainably produced materials for basic building and finishing
components.
To achieve the objectives of lower carbon usage and efficient use
of natural resources there is a need for relevant, reliable and trusted
environmental data. This environmental data validation, auditing and
reporting is moving from trade associations to third party certification
bodies. The involvement of third party certification bodies will
meet the demands of designers for more transparent, reliable and
comparable environmental data about competing suppliers and
construction materials.
Reinforcing steel is a significant part of any major construction
project. The supply chain for reinforcing steel, that is it’s production,
distribution, processing and delivery to a construction site, is
complex. At each stage in the supply chain, steel is transferred from
one company to another. Such global purchasing and local use
requires effective management of the supply chain if construction
projects are to be delivered on time, on budget and with the required
environmental performance. This paper describes how CARES’ product
certification scheme has been extended to include indicators of
sustainable production, distribution and processing.
2011-2012 Yearbook
CARES and reinforcing steel industry stakeholders have developed
an objective and workable approach to the identification, collection,
auditing and reporting of sustainability data.
This industry sector approach gives the suppliers the opportunity to
present audited environmental information about their products with
the result that designers can have confidence in the “level playing field”
status of the environmental impacts of reinforcing steel producers’ and
suppliers’ activities.
Keywords: Sustainability, Environment, Environmental
credentials, Reinforcing steel, Carbon footprinting.
CARES and reinforcing steel industry stakeholders have developed
an objective and workable approach to the identification, collection,
auditing and reporting of sustainability data. The foundation of the
sustainability scheme is product traceability throughout the whole
supply chain.
This industry sector approach gives the suppliers the opportunity to
present audited environmental information about their products and
means that designers can have confidence in the “level playing field”
status of the environmental impacts of reinforcing steel producers and
suppliers activities.
The data presented by the approved companies will be produced in
accordance with industry and national and international standards.
The data presented will achieve as wide an acceptability as possible
to meet the needs of environmental assessment tools including
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment
Method), CEEQUAL (The assessment and awards scheme for improving
sustainability in civil engineering and the public realm) and Highways
Agency in the UK, and LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design) in the USA and other international markets.
Drivers of sustainability or
why act now?
A commonly accepted definition of sustainable development is the
one by the World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987, which states that “ Sustainable development meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”
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Drivers for sustainability vary from one part of the world to the next.
In the UK[1] the key drivers of sustainability are UK and EU legislation.
In particular the UK Climate Change Act 2008 and the UK Sustainable
Construction Strategy. There are two key aims underpinning the UK’s
Climate Change Act 2008:

■■ to improve carbon management by helping the transition towards

a low carbon economy in the UK,
■■ to demonstrate strong UK leadership internationally.

The key provisions of the Act are legally binding targets, a carbon
budgeting system and company level reporting of greenhouse gas
emissions:

■■ Legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions

through action in the UK and abroad of at least 80% by 2050, and
reductions in carbon dioxide emissions of at least 26% by 2020
[against a 1990 baseline],
■■ A carbon budgeting system which caps emissions over five year
periods, with three budgets set at a time. The first three carbon
budgets will run from 2008-12 [3018 Mt CO2e ], 2013-17 [2782 Mt
CO2e ] and 2018-22 [2544 Mt CO2e ].
An example of a carbon budgeting system is that being used by the
UK Highways Agency (HA), which is a UK leader in the construction
sector. The HA has provided its supply chain with the tools necessary
to measure greenhouse gas emissions and provide the incentives
to actively manage and reduce these wherever possible. The HA
first established and quantified its current greenhouse gas emission
levels by gathering data from across the HA and the supply chain
to populate the HA Carbon Calculation Framework. The HA has
reported its carbon footprint from six areas of business for the last two
years [2]. It has improved the data collection process itself, and in the
completeness, robustness and quality of the data sets being returned
from its supply chain.
Reinforcing bar as an
extended product
– Functional and
environmental performance
The concept of the extended product based on selected attributes can
be applied to reinforcing steel, Figure 1. At the centre of the diagram is
the rebar’s core benefit and core attribute: reinforcement of concrete.
Around the core benefit is a ring of attributes which include the
product’s characteristics, such as strength and ductility, which are stated
in a product standard, BS 4449, and hence constitute the ‘specified
product’. The next ring shows the associated management system
standards that provide the means for ensuring consistent compliance
with the product standard through a structured and systematic approach
to the control of business and manufacturing processes.
Finally there is a circle of sustainability attributes based on environmental,
social and economic issues. These have not normally been thought
of as being product attributes but as buyers move their purchases
to suppliers of products that are socially, environmentally and
economically acceptable they will become significant factors in
purchasing decisions.
Figure 1: Rebar as an extended product.
THE CARES sustainable
reinforcing steel scheme
Objectives:
a. to provide a means by which construction clients can be assured
that approved firms have produced and processed the product in
line with the sustainability principles,
b. to provide a means by which approved firms in the reinforcing
steel supply chain are able to declare product and organizational
level sustainability performance,
c. to undertake a review, at least biennially, to ensure continuous
improvement of the reinforcing steel supply chain against
the relevant issues and continuous improvement against the
sustainability principles,
d. to undertake regular and relevant public reporting in order to
encourage continuous improvement of the reinforcing steel supply
chain against the relevant issues and sustainability principles.
Sustainability principles:
a. Ensuring that approved firms operate to the highest quality and
environmental standards necessary to satisfy end users by attaining
and maintaining quality and environmental management systems
to ISOs 9001 and 14001 respectively,
b. The responsibility for compliance with legal requirements and
standards rests absolutely with the firm,
c. The means of ensuring consistent compliance with the policies are
the formal management systems which the firm must operate and
implement to the satisfaction of the Authority and which is subject
to assessment by the Authority at periodic intervals,
d. Development of products that improve the quality and
sustainability of the built environment,
e. Management of all waste streams effectively and minimisation of
waste disposed to landfill,
f. Measurement, reporting and improvement of performance on
sustainability issues,

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g. Minimisation of pollution and emissions associated with
production and transportation,
h. Protection and enhancement of the natural environment adjacent
to or affected by reinforcing steel production,
i. More efficient use of energy and reduction in ‘carbon footprint’,
j. More efficient use of primary materials and promotion of the
recyclability of reinforcing steel products,
k. More efficient water use and minimisation of demand on mains
water supplies.
At least once per year the approved firm shall assess its level of
performance against the sustainability principles using a maturity
matrix.
Compliance with BS 8902
The CARES sustainable reinforcing steel scheme has been established to
comply with BS 8902[3[, which provides a framework for the management,
development, content and operation of sector certification schemes for
responsible sourcing and supply of construction products. It will enable
the industry to demonstrate the responsible sourcing of construction
products and its commitment to sustainable development.
Compliance with environmental assessment
methods of buildings
A number of environmental assessment methods of buildings are used
throughout the world, of which the following are a selection of the most
widely used in the UK and Middle East:
■■ BREEAM (originating in the UK).
■■ LEED (originating in the USA).
■■ ESTIDAMA (originating in Abu Dhabi).
■■ Greenstar (originating in Australia).
These methods may be adopted for use in the areas in which they
originated or may be used elsewhere, as the construction client requires.
Product traceability to production source and
manufacturing process
The supply chain for reinforcing steel, which involves its production,
distribution, processing and delivery to a construction site, is complex.
It is important to recognise that steel used in construction projects in
the UK and internationally may come from manufacturers based all
over the world. It is vitally important that the suppliers of these steels
are independently verified as being proficient and trustworthy, so that
the use of material of dubious or unknown origin and hence unknown
properties and performance is avoided.
Reinforcement made by CARES approved companies is fully traceable
throughout the whole supply chain, from the molten steel to the
finished structure. It flows within an unbroken chain between the
manufacturer and the local end-user thus enabling the end user to
know the production source and the manufacturing processes used. All
reinforcing steels manufactured by CARES approved firms are uniquely
identified. When steel arrives on -site no further testing is required,
thereby avoiding undue and costly delays at the construction site.
2011-2012 Yearbook
Carbon footprint tool for reinforcing steel.
Life-cycle thinking considers the environmental impacts at all stages of
a product’s life. The environment is not concerned with one single issue.
Life-cycle analysis provides transparent, quantitative and verifiable data
and should be critically reviewed in accordance with ISO Standards. It
should then be possible to make functionally equivalent comparisons.
This results in something more than just a declaration of ‘environmental
friendliness’. Life-cycle thinking also provides an opportunity to identify
improvement areas or ‘hot spots’ in the supply chain.
The life-cycle assessment (LCA) of a product can vary significantly
depending who prepares the data, what assumptions have been
made, which method of calculation was used and where organisational
boundaries are drawn. Voluntary disclosures of’ companies may tend to
err on the side of self-interest, and critical examination and adjustment
is required before the data can be used corresponding to how most
information provided by a company should be treated. With this in
mind, CARES has worked with a global company in the provision of
LCA consulting services and environmental reporting tools to develop
a tool to assess the carbon footprint of reinforcing steel products. This
will be a mandatory aspect of the CARES sustainability certification
scheme. The CARES carbon footprint tool describes the structure of the
carbon footprint model, and the data sources and methodologies used
in its development. Emissions calculations by CARES Approved Firms
will be underpinned by a system of agreed calculation methodologies
and independent verification.
Management Systems to ISOs 9001 and 14001
The CARES Sustainable Reinforcing Steel scheme requires compliance
with the core product conformity scheme which uses ISO 9001 as a
cornerstone, plus compliance with the environmental management
systems standard ISO 14001.
A suitably documented management system enables an organization
to have robust data collection and reporting systems that are
independently audited. It ensures the firm has:
■■ identified the applicable legal requirements and understood how
they apply,
■■ quality management system that complies with the requirements
of ISO 9001,
■■ environmental management system that complies with the
requirements of ISO 14001,
■■ a management system for the purchasing process and approval of
suppliers,
■■ effective product traceability systems so that they can trace the
mill that produced the steel and the specific batch reference (cast
number) throughout the whole supply chain,
■■ cut/bent steel delivered to site are traceable to production source
and manufacturing process with the necessary supporting
documents,
■■ recorded and verified performance data for, inter alia, greenhouse
gas emissions and energy usage, transport impacts, environmental
management performance, water usage, waste management and
recyclability and recycled content.
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Reporting of performance
Performance indicators against the sustainable reinforcing steel criteria
have been developed for internal management use and external
communication to CARES. Procedures and systems are in place to
provide an audit trail and allow data collected to be verified.
Performance against the sustainable reinforcing steel criteria are
submitted to CARES once per year in the prescribed format, Annex
1 - Sustainable reinforcing steel workbook. These will be analysed at
CARES and will form part of subsequent surveillance audits and an
industry sector report. Where a carbon footprint value is reported the
basis of the calculation shall be reported.
Declarations and product labelling
Statements of conformity to the Scheme shall be made and shall
take the following form: “This reinforcing steel has been produced in
accordance with the CARES Sustainable Reinforcing Steel Scheme that
conforms to BS 8902:2009”.
Sustainability criteria
Table 1 shows how both BS 8902 and the CARES Sustainable
Reinforcing Steel Scheme satisfy the requirements of the government’s
strategy for sustainable construction.
In consultation with industry stakeholders CARES have selected headline
indicators that will meet the needs of as many of the public and private
sector initiatives as possible. For example, a selection of the sustainable
reinforcing steel indicators for steel production are shown in Table 2.

Declarations of product conformity with the Scheme, including

product labelling, shall be made only for products which fully conform
and which have been handled in compliance with the requirements of
the Scheme.

HM Government Strategy for sustainable CARES Appendix 1 - Production of carbon steel bars BS 8902 2009 Table 1 Relevant sustainability
construction – June 2008 for the reinforcement of concrete June 2010 issue identification and reporting

Climate change and energy Greenhouse gas emissions and energy usage Greenhouse gas emissions

    Energy usage

  Transport impacts Transport impacts

Sustainable consumption and production Environmental management  

Waste management Waste management

 
  ISO 14001  

  Local Community and stakeholder engagement  

  Recyclability and recycled content Recyclability and recycled content

  Quality and performance  

Natural resource protection and enhancing the Materials efficiency  
environment
  Water usage Water usage

  Biodiversity and eco toxicity Biodiversity and eco toxicity

  Incidents, complaints and prosecutions Complaints and prosecutions

Creating sustainable communities Safe and healthy working conditions and OHSAS 18001 Safe and healthy working conditions

  Skills and training Skills and training

  Local Community and stakeholder engagement Community relations

Fundamental rights at work including: Workers’
conditions, Slave labour, Child labour, Fair wages,
Working hours and holidays, Freedom to join trade
unions (freedom of association), Equality in respect of
  gender, ethnicity, religion, political persuasion
Long-term financial viability
Workers’ conditions, Slave labour, Child labour,
Fair wages, Working hours and holidays, Freedom
to join trade unions (freedom of association),
Equality in respect of gender, ethnicity, religion,
political persuasion
Long-term financial viability

Contribution to diversity and stability of the local Contribution to diversity and stability of the local
economy economy
Ethical business practice Ethical business practice

Carbon footprint lifecycle assessment tool

Table 1: Comparison of sustainability issue identification.

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Selected sustainable reinforcing steel key performance indicators

Environmental Greenhouse gas emissions and energy usage

Transport impacts
Environmental management
Water usage
Waste management
Recyclability and recycled content
Social People - including fundamental rights at work
Economic Long-term financial viability

Table 2: CARES Appendix 1 - Sustainable reinforcing steel

production, selected key performance indicators.

Conclusions References
CARES and reinforcing steel industry stakeholders have developed 1. Strategy for sustainable construction, HM Government,
an objective and workable approach to the identification, collection, Department for Business, Enterprise & Regulatory Reform,
auditing and reporting of sustainability data which readily supplements Construction Sector Unit, June 2008.
that data related to compliance with product certification requirements
including the product standard. The Scheme will use industry best 2. Highways Agency Annual Report 2009-10.
practice and International Standards throughout the whole 3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8902. Responsible
supply chain. sourcing sector certification schemes for construction products
Specification. BSI, 2009.
Products made by approved companies are fully traceable throughout
the whole supply chain, from the molten steel to the finished structure.
It is an unbroken chain between the global producer and the local
end-user, which enables the user to know the material properties,
environmental credentials, production source and manufacturing
processes used.

It is apparent that the clear definition of boundaries and methodologies

are crucially important. It is also important to be aware of mis-information
from individual Companies and to seek an authoritative source for the
collection and dissemination of the data.

The CARES scheme takes into account specific environmental,

economic and social impacts and provides recognition for reinforcing
steel producers and processors embracing genuine sustainability.
CARES adapted its traditional product certification model to address
the sustainability agenda and meet the designer’s need for robust,
reliable and trusted sources of environmental performance data to
facilitate comparability between different materials and then between
different suppliers.

Finally, before using an ecolabel to inform a purchasing decision, it

is important that purchasers check that they know what criteria the
ecolabel requires and who awarded the ecolabel to that product, to
check that it is truly impartial. Purchasers also ought to check that the
product meets their other sustainability requirements.

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Formwork Technology for

Architectural Concrete
Nigel Fletcher
BSc
Peri Ltd

Nigel Fletcher Business Development and
Special Projects Manager for PERI Formwork
in the UK.Responsible for the development
and introduction of Rail Climbing Formwork
into the UK, Head of Strategic Marketing
for PERI UK, Working in the Construction
Industry as an Engineer and Project Manager
for over 20yrs, joining PERI as a Sales Manager
for Northern England in 1997.
ABSTRACT: This paper outlines the roles of modern formwork systems
to produce architectural concrete to a high quality finish. It applies the
specification and guidelines given in the National Structural Concrete
Specification 4th Edition. Details are given outlining the requirements
of the specification, discussion on the factors that affect creation
of a high quality in situ concrete finish and details given on how to
manufacture formwork to the required standard.
Keywords: Formwork, NSCS, Architectural concrete,
Surface Finishes.

Introduction
Architectural concrete has developed into one of the most important
means of design in modern architecture. No other building material
can be used in such a versatile way as both structural and architectural,
almost any shape and quality can be economically formed with the use
of the appropriate formwork systems and form lining.
The creation of architectural concrete as a design element is
influenced by:
Plain Finish: visual quality important, panel finish not recommended,
plywood sheeting used as form lining to reduce panel joint
impressions.
Special finishes: to be determined by the architect. There are no
binding regulations for this finish, this is understandable as the vision
of the architect cannot be standardised.
Trial panels and a full architectural specification are essential to
determine what concrete finish is required.

■■ the formwork systems and form lining,

■■ the concrete mix design, including type of cement, sand and
aggregates,
■■ admixtures,
■■ the use of suitable release agents,
■■ subsequent surface treatments such as polishing, sand blasting,
washing etc.
Use of high strength concrete, self-compacting and fibre reinforced
concrete gives further scope for architectural concrete.
The NSCS Guidance gives 4 classifications for the finish of concrete
surfaces:
The Architectural Concrete
Team
For the planning and construction of structures with special concrete
finishes, the co-operation of all parties in the construction cycle
is essential. The expectations of the architects and client must
correspond to those which can be realised on site. To achieve this
the setting up of an Architectural Concrete Team (Figure 1) with an
allocated architectural concrete coordinator helps bring all parties
involved in the construction from the planning phase to the placing
of the concrete.

Basic Finish: where no particular requirement is needed other than

to ensure compliance with all other clauses of the specification, e.g.
compaction and cover to reinforcement.

Ordinary finish: visual quality not important, panel formwork systems

are suitable, where joint lines are pronounced. Steps of up to 5 mm
in face.

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Architectural Concrete Team.

Coordinator, architect, consulting engineer.
↕ ↕ ↕

Client Main Contractor. Formwork Supplier.

Architect Sub – Contractor

↔ ↔ Prefabricated Element
Formwork- Plant
Structural engineer. Reinforcement Ready-mixed concrete
Concrete. Reinforcement work.

Figure 1: Architectural Concrete Team.

The structure of the architectural concrete team makes it very clear

how difficult the challenge is to produce high quality concrete work.
The coordinator is generally the architect or consulting engineer but in
some cases could be the main contractor. The main criteria are that the
various elements work together on the project with a defined goal.
Concrete Surface Structure
Formation of joints, edges, ties and tie holes as well as formwork joints,
number and selection of test panels required.

These basic principles should not only feature in the tender process
and awarding of contracts, but also complied with in practice. The
Requirements at Tender Stage contractor can only offer the required service if he actually knows
what the client expects, if this is the situation the clients are then in a
To ensure the success of a project, the accuracy of the specification position to make demands.
for various concrete finishes required by the architect should be
clearly defined. Furthermore the architect’s office has to commit to
the required level of detailing on a pour by pour basis throughout the
project. Formwork Planning
For large projects such as the Angel Building in Central London the
In General for visible concrete surfaces clear classification is required.
thorough planning of the formwork was essential for the projects
This specification should include the following:
success, from formwork design drawings, fabrication schedules and
pour sequences with identification of formwork re-use.
■■ Struck finish or a re worked concrete finish,
■■ Standard of finish required,e.g., trueness of surface, steps between As well as planning from the contractor and formwork supplier, highly
form joints, visible form lining fixings or not, detailed drafting work was required by the architect (AHMM), detailed
■■ Type of joint detail between form panels, drawings showing tie positions, formwork panel and plywood layouts.
Construction joint positions and panel heights. Figure 2 shows an
■■ Porosity of the concrete surface. This will affect the type of form
example of detailed architectural drawing for the Angel Building
lining material, project, central London.
■■ Tie centres, tie features. Regular/patterned, detailed drawings will
be required,
■■ Location of construction joints, are shadow gaps required?,
■■ Size of form lining panel joints, this decides the type of formwork
system, e.g. panel formwork system such as PERI Trio/Maximo or
Girder/ Bespoke timber formwork system,
■■ Surface texture of the concrete,
■■ Finished colour of concrete surface,
■■ Concrete mix design, aggregate size, sand, fines and flow,
■■ Finished colour of concrete surface.

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Figure 2: Elevation showing formwork panel layout and tie and
joint positions.
Formwork Systems for
Architectural Concrete
PERI’s range of formwork systems is the most comprehensive of all
suppliers from panel systems such as PERI Trio with standard solutions
for forming wall corners and T-junctions to wall heights of 8 m and wall
thickness of 500 mm. The new PERI Maximo panel system that ensures
a regular tie pattern and faster and more efficient installation. To Girder
formwork systems for bespoke formwork solutions with designed tie
and panel layouts.
Panel formwork has its limitations for producing a high quality finish,
the panel and formwork anchor arrangement varies, the panel sizes
are arranged in a defined form-lining pattern. The form lining (usually
non-absorbent/plastic coated sheets) is protected around the edges
and is installed in the frame. As a result, the panel joints leave a typical
impression on the concrete surface (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Typical surface feature of concrete from panel formwork.
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2011-2012 Yearbook
Girder Formwork
PERI s main Girder formwork system for walls uses the Vario GT24 (See
Figure 4); other Girder formwork systems are similar in their respective
concrete finishes. The Grid system of the formwork girders, walers and
tie system can vary according to design criteria.
PERI Vario Formwork system, is a traditionally made formwork panel
(see Figure 5 and 6), with plywood as the face material, vertical GT24
girders as the secondary support member and SRU 120 walersw w
as the primary support member running horizontally. Vario Panel are
joined with a compression/tension joint.
VKS Coupling also used as a standard panel connection ensuring a
clean accurate panel joint through the ability to offset joints by up
to 5 mm. The Vario Formwork system is designed specifically for the
project, dependent on pour heights required, concrete pressures and
pours rates. It can be fabricated to give a very high quality concrete
finish. The design of the formwork system, with horizontal walers and
panel lengths of 3 m enables the ability to fabricate the system off site
in PERI’s fabrication workshop based in Rugby and easily transported
to site. This workshop environment with skilled carpenters ensures the
quality and accuracy of the formwork manufacture and removes this
workload from the site environment and resource.
As the formwork is designed specifically for the project, tie holes
centres can be arranged to give regular tie patterns, although the
flexibility of this is limited. Surface features on the formwork, such
as nail and screw fixings can be overcome by the rear fixing of the
formlining.
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Figure 4: Vario Formwork

system.

Far left: Figure 5: Vario formwork

Panel Joints.

Left: Figure 6: Vario formwork

Panel Joints detail.

Formlining material Absorption properties of the

The choice of formlining material has an effect on the finished
concrete surface. The person writing the tender documents must
have detailed knowledge of the formlining together with the material
properties, the coatings and processes as well as the interaction with
the release agent and the fresh concrete. The specifications of the
concrete surface should be well defined as discussed earlier.
Note; the compatibility of the concrete mix with the formlining
surface and release agents should be checked.
There are four properties of the formlining that influence the concrete
surface. Table 1 lists these and shows their effects on the concrete
surface.
Property. Effect on concrete surface.
1, Absorbency of the formlining Concrete surface light/dark
2, Surface texture (structure) Concrete surface texture
3, Formlining Joints. Grid arrangement of the concrete.
4, Fixing of the Formlining. Imprints on the concrete surface.
Table 1: Effect of formlining on the concrete surface.
formlining material
Dependent on the absorbency of the formlining material different
quantities of water are extracted from the fresh concrete in the surface
area. When concrete is placed and compacted by means of vibrators,
fine particles, water and air bubbles travel to the formwork surface. This
results in the water/cement ratio increasing at the concrete surface.
With a highly absorbent form liner this ratio is reduced.
The more water that is absorbed by the formlining the darker will be
the concrete colour. The degree of porosity of the surface concrete is
reduced.
The smoother and non-absorbent the surface of the formlining is, the
greater the tendency for surface irregularities. For example, colour
fluctuations, marbling or bleeding.
It is important to note also that the surface texture of the formlining
is formed on the concrete surface as a negative imprint. In the
process, the accuracy of the impression depends on the concrete.
Self-compacting concrete with a high proportion of fine aggregate is
considerably more exact and detailed than vibrated concrete with a
low proportion of fine aggregate.

43
Institute of Concrete
Technology
Formwork Ties
Vario Formwork system works with a trough tie system (Figure 7)
utilising 15 mm and 20 mm diameter Dywidag bars passing through
a stiff plastic sleeve with cover cones butting against the form face.
This system allows the tie to be extracted easily and the tubing
acts as a spacer between the form faces. The arrangement of the
formwork ties is dependent on the design of the system and can
vary only slightly, it is beneficial that the tie pattern is regular to give
a uniform pattern, dummy tie points can be added to the form face
to create this.
Figure 7: Formwork ties.
Different features for the cone can give a contrasting effect to the tie
pattern on the concrete surface (see figure 8).
Due to the tie expansion, which occurs during concreting, the
architectural concrete cones should be equipped with a lip seal or an
additional cellular rubber; this gives sharp edge tie holes without any
discharge of fine particles.
Figure 8: Cone impression, unplugged, plugged with silhouette
cone, plugged with flush-fitted concrete cone.
44
2011-2012 Yearbook
Formlining Material.
The most common material used as a formliner is plywood, typical
sheet sizes are 2440x1220x18 mm although other sizes are available in
phenolic finished plys. There are two general finishes used ; Paper faced
plywood (MDO or pourform) and Phenolic faced plwood,
PERI supply both these products.
PERI Beto-S MDO paper faced birch or hardwood plywood.
Finely structured face plywood, which is absorbant.
Panel sizes 2440 x 1220 x 18mm. other sizes on special request.
Figure 9a: Concrete surface finish, Light, low porosity, matt and
lightly structured.
PERI Fin-ply, birch wood with 240g/m2 phenolic resin. Panel sizes
2440x1220 x18 mm or metric sizes available up to 7.5 m x 2.5 m x 21 mm.
Figure 9b: Surface; Smooth, non absorbant.
Concrete Surface, Light, high porosity, very smooth, structured.
Institute of Concrete
Technology
Figure 10: Various stages of the formwork fabrication including fixing of face form on
raised beds (far right).
As has been discussed, the surface of the form lining is represented as a
negative imprint on the concrete surface.
Normally the plywood is fixed to the formwork structure from the
concrete side by screws, nails and rivets, these are left proud of the ply
surface to give the impressions as shown in figures 9a and 9b.
For architectural concrete finishes these fixings need to be arranged
in a regular grid pattern. When higher quality concrete finishes are
required the plywood is fixed from the panel side by using a sub ply
layer, this method has been used widely now by PERI fabrication shop
(Figure 10 ) on projects such as the Angel Building (Figure 11) and
Aquatics centre in London.
Figure 11: Showing internal boxouts for the Angel
Building under construction.
PERI have developed their formwork fabrication workshop at the Rugby
site with service to the construction Industry as its main priority. The
pre-fabrication of formwork elements has great benefits for modern
day construction:
2011-2012 Yearbook
1. ensures a very high and consistant standard of formwork
construction,
2. helps programme and plan formwork delivery and use on site,
3. increases productivity on site, ie there is no down time due to
formwork fabrication,
4. enables the building of complicated forms for one off uses,
5. identifies and controls costs associated with formwork
construction,
6. formwork design and fabrication can be controlled by the supplier,
7. reduces the need for formwork storage areas on site.
PERI fabrication based at Rugby Head Office has a covered floor area of
approx 1500 square metres, split into four production bays each with its
own overhead crane. The workforce of 8-10 carpenters is highly skilled
each with at least 10 years experience in the formwork industry.
The workshop is fully equipped with cutting and planning equipment
to enable formwork to be manufactured to a very high standard, with
mitred joints for internal corner panels and variable angle joints. PERI s
supply chain for plywood ensures competitive rates for both standard
plywood sheets and special sizes and quality products.
For Architectural concrete, panel carcases are assembled using jigs
and templates to ensure all panels are identical. For rear fixed form
lining the backing plywood is screwed to the carcass whilst still in
the jig to ensure there is no movement in the panel. Joints in the
backing plywood are located at dissimilar positions to the face ply. The
incomplete panel is finally lifted to a raised bed for rear fixing of the
face plywood.
PERI Pre fabricated formwork has been used on several high profile
projects such as the Angel building in central London. Architects
AHMM.
Project Details:
Completion 2010
Cost £72m
Developer Derwent London plc.
Main contractor: BAM Nuttal
Subcontractor: Getjar
Formwork: PERI
45
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

Figure 12: The completed Angel

Building.

46
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

Figure 13: Construction process and plans for the Angel Building.

A new steel frame and complete new cladding wraps an existing

concrete frame, a new concrete structure, inserted into a derelict
Further reading
courtyard, forms a new atrium which becomes the buildings public
room. A very high quality concrete finish was required in this area.
1. Formwork Technology for Architectural Concrete. PERI
The success of this project depended on all parties involved working
2. Formwork a Guide to Good Practice. The Concrete Society,
together and the standards of the concrete surface finishes made clear
Camberley
at tender stage, AHMM produced a clear and accurate specification
with the help of PERI formwork and they produce clear and accurate
3. Construct. National structural concrete specification for
elevations for all pours on the structure showing panel layouts and
building construction, 4th Edtion. CCIP-050. The Concrete
tie positions etc. The main contractor(BAM) and sub contractor Getjar
Centre, Camberley, 2010
took on board the extra requirements to produce high quality finishes
with extra attention to detail and workmanship, All vertical formwork
was produce off site by PERI to the highest possible requirements. the
above slides show the elevation fro AHMM and the finished concrete
structure on site .note; view on picture is handed.

These parties are represented in the architectural concrete team, in

the case of the Angel Building the team coordinator was AHMM. It
can be seen that when all parties work together in this way that the
end product can be a concrete structure of high quality design, build
and finish.

Conclusions
High quality concrete is achievable at an economic price, however
from the start a realisation from all parties involved in the project that
a much more intensive level of work and attention detail is required. At
tender and planning stage through to formwork planning, fabrication
and erection on site to placing of the concrete, striking the formwork
and on site protection of the concrete surfaces during future site
operations. However the finished article can be a credit to the UK
construction industry when all parties work together.

Architectural concrete is a final finish structure with no further

cladding or surface finishes required such as stone or marble cladding
making the use of concrete as a finished and structural material
economically viable.

47
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Institute of Concrete
Technology
ICT Diploma in Advanced Concrete Technology
Individual assignments
– an alternative to the individual project
Tony Binns, Peter Domone and John Newman, Talent
Background
As all ICT members will know, the Diploma in Advanced Concrete
Technology not only leads to corporate membership of the Institute,
but also is the highest award in concrete technology, at the same level
as a Masters Degree.
Until very recently, the award of the diploma required success in the
examinations set by the ICT examinations committee together with a
report on an individual project on a subject chosen by the candidate
and carried out to a sufficiently advanced level. In the days of the
residential ACT course, which first ran at the Cement & Concrete
Association’s training centre, Fulmer Grange, and then moved to
Imperial College and thence to the University of Nottingham, the
project was carried out in the period between the two residential
sessions, with the report normally submitted soon after the time of
examinations.
Two problems which resulted from the increasing demands of
employers occurred simultaneously:
■■ attendance at the two residential sessions of three weeks each was
becoming harder to justify;
■■ finding sufficient time and facilities to carry out the project was
increasingly difficult.
In response to the first of these, the tutors in TALENT (Teaching
and Learning Enterprises Ltd.) took on the task of transforming the
residential ACT course into a distance-learning course; this had the
added advantage of making it available to all eligible candidates
worldwide. Each course runs for nearly two years and so far three
courses have been completed, starting in 2004, 2006 and 2009.
Addressing the second problem was not so straightforward, and
increasing numbers of candidates who successfully passed the
examinations did not or could not complete their projects and
therefore failed to obtain the diploma. However, following extensive
discussions, principally within the ICT Examinations Committee, it was
decided to modify the 2009 course such that candidates either within
the current cohort or who had previously passed the examinations
had the option of carrying out a series of individual assignments which
were deemed to be equivalent to the individual project.
The web-based ACT course
Instead of the traditional lecture-based residential course, the web-
based distance-learning system provides participants with project-
based learning opportunities which require fact gathering and
problem solving. This encourages the development of the thinking
54
2011-2012 Yearbook
skills required for an understanding of advanced concrete technology.
Access is provided to information additional to that in the four volumes
of the ACT book which was published in time for the first course1. The
course is organised by TALENT, and is accredited by The Institute of
Concrete Technology/ The Concrete Society. The tutors are Dr John
Newman, Dr Peter Domone and Mr Tony Binns.
The course is organised around a set of assignments based on the ICT
syllabus and learning objectives. These are set by the course tutors,
and enable participants to share information and to interact online
with acknowledged specialist/experts in the topics covered. The
teaching and learning is therefore based on problem-solving.
Group assignments
For each assignment, one participant within each group of typically
five or six is appointed by the tutors as the group leader. After every
two assignments the groups change. Each assignment is based on
a single broad subject that covers a range of the learning objectives;
the group then collaborates to produce an advanced-level report
within a fixed period of time, normally four weeks. By the end of the
course when approximately fourteen group assignments have been
completed, the entire ACT syllabus has been covered.
The assignment reports are assessed by the tutors and returned to the
candidates with constructive feedback which, in combination with
revision material, prepares them for the examinations that take place in
July-August, almost two years after they embarked on the course. Through
the assignments, candidates not only absorb knowledge but also develop
the transferable skill of technical report-writing, including the need for
acknowledgement of sources by appropriate citation and referencing.
Outcomes
The problem-based distance-learning method is demanding in terms
of both the time commitments required by the candidates over an
extended period and the level of knowledge and understanding that
must be achieved. Its efficacy for the ACT course is demonstrated
by the pass rate in the written examinations. Also, the candidates
frequently comment that they learn a great deal throughout the
course which is of significant benefit in their working lives.
Individual assignments
As outlined above, in the 2009 course four individual assignments were
offered, taking the place of four of the group assignments for those
wishing to follow this route rather than carry out an individual project.
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

The subject areas chosen were:
■■ Special concretes and processes
■■ Testing & repairs
■■ Concrete production and use
■■ Finishes & formwork.
These were sufficiently broad for a number of questions to be set in
each. Each participant was then allocated one of these questions, and
expected to produce an individual report in similar timescales to group
assignments i.e. four weeks. The four assignments were spaced at
approximately equal intervals during the course.
opinions, etc. of the writer and the information that has been taken
from external sources.
Each individual assignment is independently double-marked by two of
the course-tutors acting on behalf of the ICT Examinations Committee.
Passing grades are A, B and C, and failing grades D and E. Any
borderline cases go to an independent moderator for third marking.
Assignments with a D or E (failing) grade can be resubmitted within
two months of the assessment being posted. If satisfactory, a grade C
will then be awarded. Each candidate is informed of the grade for each
assignment soon after marks have been agreed.

The questions do not lead to a closed solution, and require the

candidates to gather information and formulate an answer in the form
of the report with a maximum specified length, normally 4500 words.
Two examples are:
Special concretes and processes:
Diploma requirements
To qualify for the Diploma, candidates must complete all four
assignments within the required timescales and passed three of these.
Participants who have previously passed the examinations are required
to carry out the individual assignments at the same time as the full
participants in the course.

a. Compare and contrast the properties of concrete incorporating
(i) micro-synthetic fibres
(ii) macro- synthetic fibres and
(iii) steel fibres.
b. Discuss all the issues associated with an application for each of the
above.
Concrete production and use:
A concrete of strength class C50/60 has been specified for the central
structural core of a 300m high building, to be constructed in the UK.
1) As a concrete technologist working for a contractor who is
bidding for the work, give advice to your company on the issues
that need to be considered relating to the supply and placing
of the concrete. Jump-form construction will be preferred, with
speed of construction important, and the contract is sufficiently
large for site batching to be considered.
2) Produce a method statement for transporting, compacting and
finishing the concrete.
3) Specify a quality control and inspection programme for the concrete.
To qualify for a Distinction in the Diploma, candidates must complete
all four assignments within the required timescales, and passed all of
these with an average of grade B or above.
Final remarks
The individual assignment option has been introduced to ensure that
those diploma candidates who, for whatever reason, are unable to
complete an individual project but are successful in the examinations
have the chance to fully demonstrate that they are worthy of corporate
membership of the Institute. This will not only benefit them in their
career paths, but will help to ensure a regular stream of new corporate
members.
Any past participants who have passed the examinations but have not
completed an individual project and who wish to pursue this route
should contact the ICT Executive Officer.

References
Assessment 1. Newman J B and Choo B S (eds) Advanced Concrete Technology
1: Constituent Materials,
As with the group assignments, one aim of each of the individual 2: Concrete Properties,
assignments is to cover some of the learning objectives of the course. 3: Processes,
However as the four together must also act as the equivalent of the 4. Testing and Quality, Elsevier, Oxford, 2003.
individual project, they are rigorously assessed with respect to:

■■ evidence of wide and up-to-date literature search and reading;

■■ clear formulation of relevant responses;
■■ clear understanding of the relevant concrete technology at the
level appropriate to the ACT Diploma;
■■ insight and critical ability in the use of the evidence;
■■ clearly expressed ideas;
■■ appropriately formatted report, with a high standard of
presentation;
■■ correct use of citation and referencing conventions to ensure
that the examiners can distinguish between analysis, comments,

55
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

ICT Diploma in Advanced Concrete Technology:

SUMMARIES OF PROJECT
REPORTS 2010
A candidate for the ACT diploma can either complete a set of assignments or produce a report of a project that they
have undertaken. Their purpose is to demonstrate that the candidate can think about a topic or a problem in a logical
and disciplined way. The project normally spans some six months. Significant advances can be made and it is not
uncommon for a project to evolve into a research programme in its own right.

Summaries of successful project reports submitted during 2010 are given in the following pages.

PROJECT TITLE: AUTHORS:

Appraisal of test methods for self compacting concrete Adrian Ashby
containing ground granulated blastfurnace slag cement and
viscosity modifying admixtures.

Evaluate the effects and contribution of waterproofing Patrick Flannigan

admixture in concrete towards improving the durability of
concrete in the South African market.

The effect of South African fly ash on the workability of self- J P Jooste
compacting concrete.

Waste management: an approach towards more predictable M A K Langry

setting times for reactivation of stabilised return concrete.

Abrasion resistant floor – polished surfaces vs. floor hardened Craig Mills
surfaces.

Effect of standard cement types on durability indices of Sheena Murugan

concretes tested using South African developed durability
methods.

A list of ACT project reports dating from 1971 to 1999 was published in the 2000 – 2001 edition of the ICT Yearbook A further list of the 2000 to
2009 project reports was published in the 2010 – 22011 Yearbook.

Copies of the reports are held in the Concrete Society Library and these (except those that are confidential) can be made available on loan. Requests should
be made from the Executive Officer, ICT, 4 Meadows Business Park, Blackwater, Camberley, GU17 9AB, UK. There may be a small charge for this service, for
non-members of ICT.

56
Institute of Concrete
Technology
APPRAISAL OF TEST METHODS FOR SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLASTFURNACE SLAG CEMENT
AND VISCOSITY MODIFYING ADMIXTURES
Adrian Ashby
The growing use of self-compacting concretes which contain cement
additions and admixtures to reduce Portland cement clinker use and
improve their environmental profiles means that they must be tested
using recently published BS EN test methods for self-compacting
concretes (SCC). Understanding the rheology of a mix in terms of
flowabillity, passability and segregation resistance is essential in
determining the suitability of the concrete mix design.
Trials were undertaken using three addition rates of ground granulated
blastfurnace slag (GGBS) and a reference mix using CEM 1 to show the
effects of the inclusions and how these reacted using the new test
methods. The bleed test proved to be unsuitable as all meaningful
measurements would be beyond its sensitivity. The inclusion of a
viscosity-modifying admixture had a dramatic effect, changing mixes
EVALUATE THE EFFECTS AND CONTRIBUTION OF WATERPROOFING
ADMIXTURE IN CONCRETE TOWARDS IMPROVING THE DURABILITY OF
CONCRETE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN MARKET
Patrick Flannigan
The purpose of this project was to investigate if the use of two different
types of waterproofing admixtures (pore blocker and crystalline
forming) would be beneficial with regard to the durability index testing
and to reduce the cement content of durability mixes as specified by
engineers. High cement contents, in the region of 400 kg/m3, can
lead to the durability of concrete being compromised by increases
in shrinkage and creep. The durability index is measured by means
of three tests: oxygen permeability, water sorptivity and chloride
conductivity. Initially, tests were carried out on mixes containing
ordinary Portland cement, fly ash at a 30% replacement level and
ground granulated blastfurnace slag at a 50% replacement level,
along with a superplasticiser to improve workability and to give water
reduction. These tests showed increases in the amount of entrained air
and subsequent tests were carried out without the superplasticiser as
these could have obscured the results.
The investigation proved that the use of each waterproofing admixture
reduced the oxygen permeability and the chloride conductivity.
2011-2012 Yearbook
which had failed a sieve segregation test into ones which passed the
test comfortably. The use of an inverted flow cone, to assess flow
speeds, showed that there is no clear benefit in its use, other than
descriptive and visual assessment.
A tabulated comparison of the new BS EN test methods gives guidance
on the most suitable tests for certain stages of development, trial work
and delivery. The slump flow test is the most useful and transfers well
from laboratory to field use.
The report suggests that the optimum ggbs addition rate for stability
and environmental profile is between 40% and 50% and a 65% saving
on CO2 is possible.
However, the admixture forming a crystalline structure in the presence
of water has the ability to fill up pores and cracks up to 0.5 mm in
width that may form later in the concrete due to shrinkage, creep
and thermal movements. The water sorptivity index tests proved to
be inconclusive and whilst the permeability was seen to decrease
with increased hydration and lower water/cement ratios, the water
sorptivity did not improve enough to conform to the durability index
parameters.
The report concludes that the use of waterproofing admixtures do
improve the durability of concrete and it is possible to make more
durable concrete with lower cement contents and that whilst it is
difficult to put a price on concrete durability, the cost of using a pore
blocker is less than the cost of the control mix and whilst the crystal-
forming admixture increases costs, the added benefit is the filling of
pores and cracks.
57
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

THE EFFECT OF SOUTH AFRICAN FLY ASH ON THE WORKABILITY OF

SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE
J P Jooste

Traditionally, only cement has been used to supplement the fine filler
requirement of self-compacting concrete (SCC) necessary to keep the
coarse aggregate in suspension, and this gives a very cohesive and
expensive mix. Using fly ash reduces the cement content that, whilst
making the mix more cost-effective and sustainable, also improves the
flow properties.
The objective of this project was to investigate if the inclusion of South
African fine (25 microns) and ultra-fine (3.9 to 5.0 microns) fly ash
improved the three key properties of self-compacting concrete; namely
filling ability, passing ability and resistance to segregation. This was
achieved by including different proportions of fly ash in the mix and
comparing the test results with a control mix containing no fly ash.
The project also investigated whether rheology is useful in describing
the workability of SCC by using the two-point test and comparing
the results to empirical test results from the slump flow, L-box and
V-funnel tests.
the mix and hence improves the workability. Furthermore, the
hydrophilic nature of fly ash promotes free water entrainment, which
reduces segregation and bleeding and cohesion is enhanced by the
high number of inter-particle contact points introduced by the small
particle size of the fly ash.
The inclusion of fly ash in the mixes resulted in a decrease in the yield
stress and a general improvement in the flowability. An increase in the
quantity of fly ash increased the plastic viscosity and ensured sufficient
stability.
The use of ultra-fine fly ash significantly improved the workability
but produced a more cohesive mix without the need for a viscosity
modifier. It could be beneficial to change its proportions or to use it
in combination with coarser grades of fly ash.

It was found that fly ash improved the workability and resistance
to segregation and bleeding because the fly ash particles attach
themselves to the surface of the cement particles, which breaks
down the Van der Waal forces between the cement particles. This
deflocculation of cement particles disperses the water through

WASTE MANAGEMENT: AN APPROACH TOWARDS MORE PREDICTABLE

SETTING TIMES FOR REACTIVATION OF STABILISED RETURN CONCRETE
M A K Langry

In working with stabilised concrete, the author of this report had concrete, using combinations of fresh concrete and additional cement
experienced that reactivated stabilised concrete supplied to to reactivate stabilised returned concrete.
construction sites from ready-mix plants had unpredictable setting
characteristics. Contractors had complained about having to keep The author concludes that for low-strength concrete, he sees merit
their formwork in place for longer. Floor finishers complained that they in adding fresh concrete with a lower slump value to the stabilised
were delayed for lengthy periods, waiting for floors to set sufficiently to concrete in order to achieve better-setting concrete. For 35 MPa
allow floating. concrete, the best performance was achieved when an equal amount
of fresh concrete of the same standard and 2.5 kg of cement were added.
This project looked at returned concrete from construction sites and
investigated producing a predictable setting regime for concrete
reactivated after 20 hours by conducting trials in a laboratory, bearing
in mind the ethos of sustainability. This investigation compared several
forms of reactivation in terms of setting times as compared to a normal

58
Institute of Concrete
Technology 2011-2012 Yearbook

ABRASION RESISTANT FLOOR – POLISHED SURFACES VS. FLOOR

HARDENED SURFACES
Craig Mills

The purpose of this research was to develop a concrete mix for
industrial floors and test different surfaces to ascertain which type of
floor finish has better resistance to abrasion. The surface abrasion of
surfaces that have two different finishes -polished and power floated
– each having three different surface applications – normal concrete,
non-metallic floor hardener and a liquid Lithium floor hardener, was
tested. Concretes of different strengths, using different types of
aggregates, were tested in the laboratory then trialed in the field.
Also assessed were the changes in abrasion properties if the floor
had a floor hardener applied and was polished. Information on the
methodology of the design process and all results obtained in the
laboratory and field trials are reported.
The surfaces of all four panels tested for abrasion resistance achieved
results that fall within the ‘excellent’ and ‘good’ categories according
to the South African Cement and Concrete Institute’s standard criteria.
The liquid Lithium floor hardener gave better overall surface abrasion
results. This penetrates and reacts with the concrete to produce
insoluble calcium silicate hydrate in the pores, so high cement content
concretes should have higher abrasion resistance. Some variations in
results were attributed to uneven application of the liquid or shake-on
finishes.
The abrasion resistance results achieved on polished concrete, in
comparison with power-floated surfaces, were random but the author
notes that polishing concrete does not assist in increasing the surface
abrasion resistance. The results also indicate that the aggregate type is
important when using a 30 MPa concrete but not that critical for high
strength concretes.

EFFECT OF STANDARD CEMENT TYPES ON DURABILITY INDICES OF

CONCRETES TESTED USING SOUTH AFRICAN DEVELOPED
DURABILITY METHODS
Sheena Murugan

For this study, four different cement types were selected, each basically
Portland cement and a strength enhancer with: minor additions,
limestone, 40% fly ash and 6 – 20% fly ash. The aggregates were 19 mm
dolomitic limestone and 6.7 mm dolomitic crusher sand. Twenty-four
mixes were produced in the laboratory, using three different water/
cement ratios, to produce panels rather than cubes. Cores were taken
from the panels and tested for oxygen permeability, sorptivity and
chloride conductivity. Test cubes were similarly tested and used to
determine strengths.
It was found that higher compressive strengths do not necessarily give
better durability indices, although blended cements give better 28-day
results than CEM I.
changes in cement type and water/cement ratios. The CEM I produced
poor sorptivity results and chloride resistance for w/c ratios of 0.65 and
0.5, while all the corresponding results for blended cements were of
good durability classification.
The researcher noted that testing for durability can be quite
challenging and suggests that the number of test specimens needs to
be maximised, their preparation is critical and visual inspection needs
to be thorough to eliminate those which can erroneously influence the
results.

Oxygen permeability test results were more consistent for all cement
types than water sorptivity results and seem to be less sensitive to

59
 ICT RELATED INSTITUTIONS & ORGANISATIONS

ASSOCIATION FOR THE CONCRETE SOCIETY MINERAL PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION

CONSULTING AND ENGINEERING 4 Meadows Business Park Gillingham House
Alliance House Station Approach, Blackwater 38-44 Gillingham Street
12 Caxton Street Camberley GU17 9AB London SW1V IHU
London SW1H 0QL Tel: 01276 607140 Tel: 020 7963 8000
Tel: 020 7222 6557 www.concrete.org.uk www.mineralproducts.org
www.acenet.co.uk
CONSTRUCT
ASSOCIATION OF INDUSTRIAL 4 Meadows Business Park
FLOORING CONTRACTORS Station Approach, Blackwater MPA - BRITISH READY MIXED
22-25 Finsbury Square Camberley GU17 9AB CONCRETE ASSOCIATION
London EC2A 1DX Tel: 01276 38444 Gillingham House
Tel: 0844 2499176 www.construct.org.uk 38-44 Gillingham Street
www.acifc.bbsnet.co.uk London SW1V IHU
CORROSION PREVENTION Tel: 020 7963 8000
ASSOCIATION OF LIGHTWEIGHT ASSOCIATION www.brmca.org.uk
AGGREGATE MANUFACTURERS Kingsley House,
Wellington St, Ripley Ganders Business Park, MPA - CEMENT
Derbyshire DE5 3DZ Kingsley, Bordon 4 Meadows Business Park
Tel: 01773 746111 Hampshire GU35 9LU Station Approach, Blackwater
Tel: 01420 471614 Camberley GU17 9AB
BRE (BUILDING RESEARCH www.corrosionprevention.org.uk Tel: 01276 608700
ESTABLISHMENT) LTD cement.mineralproducts.org
Bucknalls Lane European Federation for
Garston, specialist construction MPA - MIA
Watford WD25 9XX chemicals and concrete The Mortar Industry Association
Tel: 01923 664000 systems 38-44 Gillingham Street
www.bre.co.uk www.efnarc.org London SW1V IHU
Tel: 020 7963 8000
BRITISH BOARD OF AGRÉMENT European federation of www.mortar.org.uk
P.O.Box 195 concrete admixtures
Bucknalls Lane associations MPA - THE CONCRETE CENTRE
Garston www.efca.info 4 Meadows Business Park
Watford WD25 9BA Station Approach, Blackwater
Tel: 01923 665300 EUROPEAN READY MIXED Camberley GU17 9AB
www.bbacerts.co.uk CONCRETE ORGANISATION Tel: 01276 606800
Boulevard du Souverain, 68 www.concretecentre.com
BRITISH PRECAST 1170 Brussels
60 Charles Street Belgium QUALITY SCHEME FOR
Leicester LE1 1FB Tel: +32 (2) 6455212 READY MIXED CONCRETE
Tel: 0116 253 6161 www.ermco.eu 1 Mount Mews
www.britishprecast.org High Street, Hampton
INSTITUTE OF CORROSION Middlesex TW12 2SH
BRITPAVE 7B High St Mews, High St Tel: 020 8941 0273
British In-Situ Concrete Leighton Buzzard www.qsrmc.co.uk
Paving Association LU7 1EA
Atrium Court, The Ring Tel: 01525 851771 RIBA
Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 1BW www.icorr.org Royal Institute of British Architects
Tel: 01344 393300 66 Portland Place
www.britpave.org.uk INSTITUTE OF MATERIALS London W1B 1AD
MINERALS & MINING Tel: 020 7580 5533
BSI STANDARDS 1 Carlton House Terrace www.architecture.com
British Standards House London SW1Y 5DB
389 Chiswick High Road Tel: 020 7451 7300 SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
London W4 4AL www.iom3.org 14/15 Belgrave Square
Tel: 020 8996 9000 London SW1X 8PS
www.bsigroup.com INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS Tel: 020 7598 1500
One Great George Street www.soci.org
CEMENT ADMIXTURES ASSOCIATION London SW1P 3AA
38a Tilehouse Green Lane Tel: 020 7222 7722 SPRAYED CONCRETE ASSOCIATION
Knowle www.ice.org.uk Kingsley House,
West Midlands B93 9EY Ganders Business Park,
Tel: 01564 776362 INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS Kingsley, Bordon
www.admixtures.org.uk & TRANSPORTATION Hampshire GU35 9LU
119 Britannia Walk Tel: 01420 471622
CEMENTITIOUS SLAG London N1 7JE www.scc.org.uk
MAKERS ASSOCIATION Tel: 020 7336 1540
The Coach House www.iht.org UNITED KINGDOM
West Hill, Oxted ACCREDITATION SERVICE
Surrey RH8 9SB INSTITUTION OF 21-47 High Street
Tel: 01708 682439 ROYAL ENGINEERS Feltham
www.ukcsma.co.uk Brompton Barracks Middlesex TW13 4UN
Chatham Tel: 020 8917 8400
CIRIA Kent ME4 4UG www.ukas.org.uk
Construction Industry Research Tel: 01634 822035
& Information Association www.instre.org UNITED KINGDOM
174-180 Old Street CAST STONE ASSOCIATION
London EC1V 9BP INSTITUTION OF 15 Stone Hill Court
Tel: 020 7549 3300 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS The Arbours
www.ciria.org 11 Upper Belgrave Street Northampton
London SW1X 8BH NN3 3RA
CONCRETE BRIDGE Tel: 020 7235 4535 Tel: 01604 405666
DEVELOPMENT GROUP www.istructe.org.uk www.ukcsa.co.uk
4 Meadows Business Park
Station Approach, Blackwater INTERPAVE UNITED KINGDOM
Camberley GU17 9AB Precast Concrete Paving QUALITY ASH ASSOCIATION
Tel: 01276 33777 & Kerbs Association Maple House,
www.cbdg.org.uk 60 Charles Street Kingswood Business Park
Leicester LE1 1FB Holyhead Rd, Albrighton,
CONCRETE REPAIR ASSOCIATION Tel: 0116 253 6161 Wolverhampton WV7 3AU
Kingsley House, www.paving.org.uk Tel: 01902 373365
Ganders Business Park, www.ukqaa.org.uk
Kingsley, Bordon
Hampshire GU35 9LU
Tel: 01420 471615
www.cra.org.uk
 THE ICT
The Institute of Concrete Technology was formed in
1972 from the Association of Concrete Technologists.
Full membership is open to all those who have
obtained the Diploma in Advanced Concrete
Technology. However, there are various grades of
membership from student upwards that are aligned
with a candidate’s experience and competency. This
graded introduction to membership is to encourage
participation from concrete technologists at an early
stage in their career onwards. Details can be obtained
from the Institute’s Executive Officer. The Institute
is internationally recognised and the Diploma has
world-wide acceptance as the leading qualification
in concrete technology. The Institute sets high
educational standards and requires its members
to abide by a Code of Professional Conduct, thus
enhancing the profession of concrete technology.
The Institute is a Professional Affiliate body of the UK
Engineering Council. In 2007 the ICT joined with the
Concrete Society to become the professional wing of
the Society whilst retaining its own identity.

AIMS
The Institute aims to promote concrete technology
as a recognised engineering discipline and to
consolidate the professional status of practising
concrete technologists.

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
It is the Institute’s policy to stimulate research and
encourage the publication of findings and to promote
communication between academic and commercial
organisations. The ICT Annual Convention includes a
Technical Symposium on a subject of topical interest
and these symposia are well attended both by
members and non-members. Many other technical
meetings are held. The Institute is represented on
a number of committees formulating National and
International Standards and dealing with policy
matters at the highest level. The Institute is also
actively involved in the education and training of
personnel in the concrete industry and those entering
the profession of concrete technologist.

The
Institute of Concrete Technology
4 Meadows Business Park,
Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: 01276 607140
Website: http://ict.concrete.org.uk

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