Computer (Hardware & Software Fundamentals):

Computer is a machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or electronic communication, under
the control of a set of instructions called a program.

Programs usually reside within the computer and are retrieved and processed by the computer’s
electronics.

The program results are stored or routed to output devices, such as video display monitors or
printers.

Computers perform a wide variety of activities reliably, accurately, and quickly.

I/O Processing

Input Devices:

Input devices permit the computer user to communicate with the computer, such as a keyboard or
mouse. OR

An input device converts incoming data and instructions into a pattern of electrical signals in binary
code that are comprehensible to a digital computer.

Other input devices include:

A joystick, a rod-like device often used by people who play computer games;

A scanner, which converts images such as photographs into digital images that the computer
can manipulate;

A touch panel, which senses the placement of a user’s finger and can be used to execute
commands or access files;

A microphone, used to input sounds such as the human voice which can activate computer
commands in conjunction with voice recognition software.

Output Devices:

An output device reverses the process, translating the digitized signals into a form intelligible to the
user.

Output device, such as a video display monitor or a flat liquid crystal display, printers, overhead
projectors, videocassette recorders (VCRs), and speakers.

Data storage:

Computer Memory:

Computer Memory is a mechanism that stores data for use by a computer.

In a computer all data consist of numbers.

A computer stores a number into a specific location in memory and later fetches the value.

Most memories represent data with the binary number system.

In the binary number system, numbers are represented by sequences of the two binary digits 0 and
1, which are called bits.
 In a computer, the two possible values of a bit correspond to the on and off states of the
computer's electronic circuitry.

A group of eight bits is called a byte and can represent decimal numbers ranging from 0 to 255.

Most computers operate by manipulating groups of 2, 4, or 8 bytes called words.

Memory capacity is usually quantified in terms of kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes.

 1 Kilobyte can store to 1,024 bytes and can store about 1000 characters.
 1 Megabyte can store to 1,024 Kilobytes and can store about 1 Million characters.
 1 Gigabyte can store to 1,024 megabytes and can store about 1 billion characters.
 1 Terabyte can store to 1024 gigabyte and can store about 1 trillion characters.

How computer memory Works:

Computer memory may be divided into two broad categories known as internal memory and
external memory.

 Internal memory
 It operates at the highest speed and can be accessed directly by the central processing
unit (CPU)—the main electronic circuitry within a computer that processes information.
 Internal memory is contained on computer chips and uses electronic circuits to store
information.
 External memory
 It consists of storage on peripheral devices that are slower than internal memories but
offer lower cost and the ability to hold data after the computer’s power has been turned
off.
 External memory uses inexpensive mass-storage devices such as magnetic hard drives.

Internal memory or Primary Memory

Read only Memory (ROM):

ROM is memory containing hardwired instructions that the computer uses when it boots up.

Before the system software loads in the computer, the instructions are read from a small program in
the ROM, called the BIOS.

Storage of programme and data in the ROM is permanent.

The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed.

ROM is non-volatile memory.

Flash Memory

This is a solid-state, non-volatile, rewritable memory that functions like RAM and a hard disk
combined. If power is lost, all data remains in memory. Because of its high speed, durability, and low
voltage requirements, it is ideal for digital cameras, cell phones, printers, handheld computers,
pagers and audio recorders.

Random Access Memory:

Dynamic random-access memory

A form of volatile memory which also requires the stored information to be periodically re-read and
re-written, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish.

Static random-access memory

A form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed as
long as power is applied. (It loses its content if power is removed.

Cache memory

Cache memory is a random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular RAM. OR

A cache stores recently-used information in a place where it can be accessed extremely fast.

For example, a Web browser like Internet Explorer uses a cache to store the pages, images, and URLs
of recently visited Web sites on your hard drive.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility to the microprocessor.

An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor.

L2 is usually a separate static RAM (SRAM) chip.

The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.

RAM can also contain a special area called a disk cache that contains the data most recently read in
from the hard disk.

Registers:

A register is a small set of data holding that are part of a computer processor.

A register may hold a computer instruction, a storage address or any kind of data (such as a bit
sequence or individual characters)

External Memory or secondary or Auxiliary Memory:

External memory can generally be classified as either magnetic or optical, or a combination called
magneto-optical.

Magnetic storage:

Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store
information.

Magnetic storage is non-volatile.

The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more
recording transducers.

A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be
moved relative to another in order to access data.

In modern computers, magnetic storage will take these forms:

1. Magnetic disk (fixed hard drive)

Floppy Disk
 Hard disk drive, used for secondary storage
2. Magnetic tape data storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage

Hard Drives:

It is referred to as a secondary storage devices. In simple terms, it is the place where all of our
documents, spreadsheets, pictures, music files, videos, etc. are stored. Hard drive can be fixed as
well as portable. In internal or fixed hard drives are housed within the computer cabinet whereas
portable ones are detachable and are connected through a USB port using an external power source.
Today hard drives are available in capacities of up to 12TB (Terabytes)

Optical Storage Media:

Optical storage stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this
information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection.

Optical disc storage is non-volatile.

The deformities may be permanent (read only media), formed once (write once media) or reversible
(recordable or read/write media).

The following forms are currently in common use:

 CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital
information (music, video, computer programs)
 CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, BD-R: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
 CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, BD-RE: Slow write, fast read storage, used for
tertiary and off-line storage

Information Storage and Retrieval,

In computer science, term used to describe the organization, storage, location, and retrieval of
encoded information in computer systems.

Important factors in storing and retrieving information are:

 The type of media / Storage device, used to store information;

 The media’s storage capacity; the speed of access and information transfer to and from the
storage media;
 The number of times new information can be written to the media;
 How the media interacts with the computer.

Information storage can be classified as being either:

 Permanent,
 Semi-permanent,
 Temporary.

Information can also be classified as having been stored to or retrieved from:

 Primary memory
 Secondary memory.

Primary memory, also known as main memory, is the computer’s main random access memory
(RAM).
 All information that is processed by the computer must first pass through main memory.

Secondary memory is any form of memory other than the main computer memory, including the
hard disk, floppy disks, CD-ROMs, and magnetic tape.

Permanent Storage:

Information is stored permanently on storage media that is written to only once, such as ROM (read-
only memory) chips and CD-ROMs (compact disc read-only memory). Permanent storage media is
used for archiving information or, in the case of ROM chips, for storing basic information that the
computer needs to function that cannot be overwritten.

Semi-permanent information storage:

Semi-permanent information storage is also often used for archival purposes, but the media used
can be overwritten.

A common example of a semi-permanent storage material is a floppy disk.

Temporary Storage

Temporary information storage is used as intermediate storage between permanent or semi-

permanent storage and a computer’s central processing unit (CPU).

Temporary storage is in the form of memory chips called RAM.

Information is stored in RAM while it is being used by the CPU; it is then returned to a more
permanent form of memory.

RAM chips are known as volatile memory because they must have power supplied to them
continuously or they lose the contents of their memory.

Networking:

Definition; Networking is a system used to link two or more computers.

Network users are able to share files, printers, and other resources; send electronic messages; and
run programs on other computers.

A network has three layers of components:

1. Application software,
2. Network software,
3. Network hardware.

1. Application software consists of computer programs that interface with network users and
permit the sharing of information1.

One type of application software is called Client-Server.

Client computers send requests for information or requests to use resources to

server computers that control data and applications.

Another type of application software is called Peer-to-Peer.

1
Such as files, graphics, and video, and resources, such as printers and disks.
 In a peer-to-peer network, computers send messages and requests directly to one
another without a server intermediary.

2. Network Software consists of computer programs that establish Protocols or Rules, for
computers to talk to one another.

These protocols are carried out by sending and receiving formatted instructions of data
called Packets.

Protocols:

i. Make logical connections between network applications;

ii. Direct the movement of packets through the physical network;
iii. Minimize the possibility of collisions between packets sent at the same time.

3. Network hardware is made up of the physical components that connect computers.

Two important components are:

The transmission media that carry the computer's signals, typically on wires or fiber-optic
cables.

The network adapter, which accesses the physical media that link computers, receives
packets from network software, and transmits instructions and requests to other computers.

Transmitted information is in the form of binary digits, or bits (1s and 0s), which the
computer's electronic circuitry can process.

Network Connections:

A network has two types of connections:

i. Physical connections that let computers directly transmit and receive signals.

It is defined as the medium used to carry the signal, the geometric arrangement of the
computers (topology), and the method used to share information.

ii. Logical / virtual connection

It allows computer applications2 to exchange information.

Logical connections are created by network protocols and allow data sharing between
applications on different types of computers, such as a personal computer (PC) running the
Microsoft Corporation Windows operating system, in a network

Topology:

Common Topologies used to arrange computers in a network are:

i. Point-to-point topology
It is the simplest, consisting of two connected computers.

ii. Bus topology

It is composed of a single link connected to many computers.

2
Such as e-mail programs and the browsers used to explore the World Wide Web.
 All computers on this common connection receive all signals transmitted by any attached
computer.

iii. Star topology

It connects many computers to a common hub computer.
This hub can be;
Passive: repeating any input to all computers similar to the bus topology
Active: selectively switching inputs to specific destination computers.

iv. Ring topology

It uses multiple links to form a circle of computers.
Each link carries information in one direction.
Information moves around the ring in sequence from its source to its destination.

v. Mesh topology
On a mesh network, topology can actually change on the fly.
No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data back and
forth between computers.
Instead, each computer includes everything it needs to serve as a relay point for sending
information to any other computer on the network.

LANs commonly use bus, star, or ring topologies.

WANs often use special leased telephone lines as point-to-point links.

Types of Area Networks

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale.

Common types of area networks are:

 LAN - Local Area Network

 WAN - Wide Area Network
 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network / System Area Network / Server Area Network / Small Area
Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network / Controller Area Network / Cluster Area Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network

LAN and WAN are the two primary and best-known categories of area networks, while the others
have emerged with technology advances

LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance.

A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN.

Wireless Local Area Network

A LAN based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology.

WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance.

The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs.

A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN.

WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer
distances.

MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city.

A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or large
corporation.

CAN - Campus Area Network

A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business
campus.

SAN - Storage Area Network

It connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.

SAN - System Area Network:

It links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration.

Personal Area Network

It is a computer network organized around an individual person within a single building.

This could be inside a small office or residence.

A typical PAN would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game
consoles and other personal entertainment devices.

Internet Standards

Introduction:

Information technology exchange is a very important facet of life to many people in the world today.

The biggest contributor to information exchange today is the Internet.

The Internet has grown by leaps and bounds during recent years.

People around the globe are using the Internet for entertainment, information exchange, and
commercial transactions.

The importance of the Internet is growing on a daily basis and therefore, some guidelines should be
developed with respect to Internet standards development.
 Standards provide the commonality across international lines that are required for effective
information exchange.

Standards Bodies Currently in Existence

There are government agencies, non-profit organizations, consortia bodies, standards

development bodies, and multinational bodies that are contributing to Internet standards
development.

One of the major players in the Internet standardization world is the Internet Society (ISOC).
They are a multinational, non-profit organization that was founded in 1992.

Their major goal is to ensure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for
the benefit of people throughout the world.

Another organization that is involved with Internet standards is the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C).

Further, one of the major standards bodies that deals with Internet standards in Europe is the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
Current Internet Standards in Place

The major standards bodies throughout the world have implemented various standards that have
helped determine the structure of the Internet.

1. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)

One of the most important standards to the functionality of the Internet is the Hypertext Mark-up
Language (HTML).

HTML is the computing language that allows text documents to have a structure that can be read by
various Internet browsers.

The first version of HTML was written by Tim Berners-Lee during the early 1990’s.

2. Extensible Mark-up Language (XML).

Another major standard used on the Internet is the Extensible Markup Language (XML).

This standard, developed by W3C and later approved as an ISO standard, is one that is used for data
exchange through various different software applications.

It is an important standard for companies that use databases because it allows them to exchange
data easily.

The Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) is a new standard for developing web pages
that is currently in development.

XHTML is a standard that is designed to be fully compatibility with all current web browsers and
backwards compatible to previous versions of the major web browsers.

3. Cascading Style Sheet (CSS)

The Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) standard is another standard developed by W3C.
This standard is used to add style, such as colors, fonts and spacing, to a web page.

By using the CSS standard, a web page developer will make a more attractive page that is more likely
to be viewed by somebody that is surfing the Internet.

Additionally when developers program use the CSS standard, their work has a better chance of being
viewed by someone that is using a small, handheld Internet device such as a PDA, Blackberry, or
smart phone.

CSS 2.1 is the current standard and CSS 3.0 is under development.

Benefits of Standardizing the Internet

There are many different reasons to standardize the Internet.

1. Standardization can ensure that the maximum number of users can view and use webpage.
2. Standardization will help accessibility and compatibility issues.
3. Security is an important area of the Internet in which standardization is vital.
4. As the Internet grows, the number of hackers grows in similar proportions.
 If the major software companies – Microsoft - in the world work with the major
standards organizations, then the Internet has a better chance of becoming more
secure.
5. Another reason and benefit to standardization is to minimize stability issues.
 As technology improves, the software that uses the technology improves as well.
 Standards for the Internet “offer a set of rules that every Web developer can follow,
understand, and become familiar with.
o When one developer designs a site to the standards, another will be able to pick
up where the former left off.
6. Standardization is a benefit to both the producers and the consumers.
Application and business Software:

Application Software / Productivity programs / End-user programs:

Application softwares enable the user to complete tasks such as creating documents, spreadsheets,
databases, and publications, doing online research, sending email, designing graphics, running
businesses, and even playing games.

Application software can be divided into two general classes: systems software and applications
software.

Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be as simple as a calculator
application or as complex as a word processing application.

Microsoft Word is a popular word-processing application that is included in the software suite of
applications called Microsoft Office.

Graphics suites such as Adobe Creative Suite include applications for creating and editing images,
while Sony Audio Master Suite is used for audio production.

A Web browser, or simply browser, is an application specifically designed to locate, retrieve, and
display content found on the Internet, such as, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome,
and Safari.
Business software / Business application:

Business software is any software or set of computer programs that are used by business users to
perform various business functions.

These business applications are used to increase productivity, to measure productivity and to
perform business functions accurately.

Some business applications are built in-house and some are bought from vendors (off the shelf
software products). These business applications either are installed on desktops or on big servers.

The term covers a large variation of users within the business environment, and can be categorized
by using a small, medium and large matrix:

 The small business market generally consists of home accounting software, and office suites
such as OpenOffice.org or Microsoft Office.
 The medium size, or small and medium-sized enterprise (SME), has a broader range of
software applications, ranging from accounting, groupware, customer relationship
management, human resource management systems, outsourcing relationship
management, loan origination software, shopping cart software, field service software, and
other productivity enhancing applications.
 The last segment covers enterprise level software applications, such as those in the fields of
enterprise resource planning, enterprise content management (ECM), business process
management (BPM) and product lifecycle management.

Social Media Websites.

Definition

We define social network sites as web-based services that allow individuals to:

 Construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system,

 Articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection,
 View and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system.

Examples of Social Media

 Multimedia
o Photo-sharing: Flickr
o Video-sharing: YouTube
o Audio-sharing: imeem
 Entertainment
o Virtual Worlds: Second Life
o Online Gaming: World of Warcraft
 News/Opinion
o Social news: Digg, Reddit
o Reviews: Yelp, epinions
 Communication
o Microblogs: Twitter, Pownce
o Events: Evite
o Social Networking Services:
 o Facebook, LinkedIn, MySpace

Social media technologies take on many different forms including blogs, business networks,
enterprise social networks, forums, microblogs, photo sharing, products/services review, social
bookmarking, social gaming, social networks, video sharing and virtual worlds.

As of January 2014, 74% of online adults use social networking sites.

As of September 2014:

 71% of online adults use Facebook

 23% of online adults use Twitter
 26% use Instagram
 28% use Pinterest
 28% use LinkedIn

There are many benefits of using social media. These include:

Connections: Social media is a great way to stay connected to friends and family across the world.
Facebook is an especially great tool for this as users can post pictures and updates for everyone.

Quick and easy access to updates: With social media, you can communicate with lots of people at
one time. You can send or post notices about news or activities to groups of friends or members of
your organization. If something changes, you can update everyone. You can remind friends or
members to RSVP to events, send out alerts and ask for responses ASAP, and spread the word about
you, your group or your issues quickly and easily.
Communities on virtually every topic: This presentation will focus on connecting with Louisiana's
disability communities via social networking. However, whether you are interested in kittens or kick
boxing, you can find a community of enthusiasts on the internet.

Access to news: The internet is a great place to keep up with news about your interests. Twitter is an
especially good medium to access breaking news.

Information Systems.

Information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data and
for delivering information, knowledge, and digital products. Business firms and other organizations
rely on information systems to carry out and manage their operations, interact with their customers
and suppliers, and compete in the marketplace.

For instance;

Corporations use information systems to reach their potential customers with targeted
messages over the Web, to process financial accounts, and to manage their human
resources.

Governments deploy information systems to provide services cost-effectively to citizens.

Digital goods, such as electronic books and software, and online services, such as auctions
and social networking, are delivered with information systems.

Individuals rely on information systems, generally Internet-based, for conducting much of

their personal lives: for socializing, study, shopping, banking, and entertainment.

Components of information systems

The main components of information systems are;

 Computer hardware
 Computer software,
 Telecommunications,
 Databases
 Data warehouses,
 Human resources,
 Procedures.

The hardware, software, and telecommunications constitute information technology (IT), which is
now ingrained in the operations and management of organizations.

Computer hardware

Today even the smallest firms, as well as many households throughout the world, own or lease
computers. These are usually microcomputers, also called personal computers. Individuals may own
multiple computers in the form of smartphones and other portable devices. Large organizations
typically employ distributed computer systems, from powerful parallel-processing servers located in
data centres to widely dispersed personal computers and mobile devices, integrated into the
organizational information systems. Together with the peripheral equipment, such as magnetic or
solid-state storage disks, input-output devices, and telecommunications gear, these constitute the
hardware of information systems. The cost of hardware has steadily and rapidly decreased, while
processing speed and storage capacity have increased vastly. However, hardware’s use of electric
power and its environmental impact are concerns being addressed by designers.

Computer software

Computer software falls into two broad classes: system software and application software. The
principal system software is the operating system. It manages the hardware, data and program files,
and other system resources and provides means for the user to control the computer, generally via a
graphical user interface (GUI). Application software is programs designed to handle specific tasks for
users. Examples include general-purpose application suites with their spreadsheet and word-
processing programs, as well as “vertical” applications that serve a specific industry segment—for
instance, an application that schedules, routes, and tracks package deliveries for an overnight
carrier. Larger firms use licensed applications, customizing them to meet their specific needs, and
develop other applications in-house or on an outsourced basis. Companies may also use applications
delivered as software-as-a-service (SaaS) over the Web. Proprietary software, available from and
supported by its vendors, is being challenged by open-source software available on the Web for free
use and modification under a license that protects its future availability.

Telecommunications

Telecommunications are used to connect, or network, computer systems and transmit information.
Connections are established via wired or wireless media. Wired technologies include coaxial cable
and fibre optics. Wireless technologies, predominantly based on the transmission of microwaves and
radio waves, support mobile computing. Pervasive information systems have arisen with the
computing devices embedded in many different physical objects. For example, sensors such as radio
frequency identification devices (RFIDs) can be attached to products moving through the supply
chain to enable the tracking of their location and the monitoring of their condition. Wireless sensor
networks that are integrated into the Internet can produce massive amounts of data that can be
used in seeking higher productivity or in monitoring the environment.

Various computer network configurations are possible, depending on the needs of an organization.
Local area networks (LANs) join computers at a particular site, such as an office building or an
academic campus. Metropolitan area networks (MANs) cover a limited densely populated area.
Wide area networks (WANs) connect widely distributed data centres, frequently run by different
organizations. The Internet is a network of networks, connecting billions of computers located on
every continent. Through networking, users gain access to information resources, such as large
databases, and to other individuals, such as coworkers, clients, or people who share their
professional or private interests. Internet-type services can be provided within an organization and
for its exclusive use by various intranets that are accessible through a browser; for example, an
intranet may be deployed as an access portal to a shared corporate document base. To connect with
business partners over the Internet in a private and secure manner, extranets are established as so-
called virtual private networks (VPNs) by encrypting the messages.

Databases and data warehouses

Many information systems are primarily delivery vehicles for data stored in databases. A database is
a collection of interrelated data (records) organized so that individual records or groups of records
can be retrieved to satisfy various criteria. Typical examples of databases include employee records
and product catalogs. Databases support the operations and management functions of an
enterprise. Data warehouses contain the archival data, collected over time, that can be mined for
information in order to develop and market new products, serve the existing customers better, or
reach out to potential new customers. Anyone who has ever purchased something with a credit
card—in person, by mail order, or over the Web—is included within such data collections.

Human resources and procedures

Qualified people are a vital component of any information system. Technical personnel include
development and operations managers, business analysts, systems analysts and designers, database
administrators, computer programmers, computer security specialists, and computer operators. In
addition, all workers in an organization must be trained to utilize the capabilities of information
systems. Billions of people around the world are learning about information systems as they use the
Web.

Procedures for using, operating, and maintaining an information system are part of its
documentation. For example, procedures need to be established to run a payroll program, including
when to run it, who is authorized to run it, and who has access to the output.

Types of information systems

Information systems support operations, knowledge work, and management in organizations. (The
overall structure of organizational information systems is shown in the figure.) Functional
information systems that support a specific organizational function, such as marketing or
production, have been supplanted by cross-functional systems. Such systems can be more effective
in the development and delivery of the firm’s products and can be evaluated more closely with
respect to the business outcomes.

Fundamentals of artificial intelligence.

Artificial Intelligence (AI), a term that in its broadest sense would indicate the ability of an artifact to
perform the same kinds of functions that characterize human thought. OR

Artificial intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave
like humans.

The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Artificial intelligence includes the following areas of specialization:

Games playing: programming computers to play games against human opponents

Expert systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for

example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)

Natural language: programming computers to understand natural human languages

Neural networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of
physical connections that occur in animal brains

Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli.

In medicine, programs have been developed that analyze the disease symptoms, medical
history, and laboratory test results of a patient, and then suggest a diagnosis to the
physician.
 The diagnostic program is an example of so-called expert systems—programs
designed to perform tasks in specialized areas as a human would.

Can Computers Exhibit Full AI?

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human
behavior).

The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing.

The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans.

In May, 1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion
Gary Kasparov in a chess match.

In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable only
of very limited tasks.

Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move and
handle objects clumsily.