CIV3703 Transport Engineering

Module 4 - Traffic Analysis

Part 1
Objectives
Upon successful completion of this module you should be able to:
explain the scope of the driving task and how this must be allowed for
in traffic engineering design
explain the concept of reaction time
explain the characteristics of normal road users and factors which
modify normal driver behaviour
outline the characteristics of vehicles which are important to consider
in traffic engineering design
explain the speed volume relationship of traffic and the concepts of
capacity and level of service.
become familiar with the procedures developed to evaluate level of
service and capacity of two-lane highways segments.
4.1 The traffic system
System has 3 components:
Road
User
Vehicle
System Breakdown:
road crashes;
congestion;
driver frustration
Traffic Engineers’ concerns
Road & Vehicle - subject to engineering design
- characteristics can be dictated by engineer
Users - not subject to eng. Design
Vehicle design- beyond the scope of the Traffic engineer –
no or less control

Therefore:
Traffic engineer - needs knowledge of:
human performance characteristics
vehicle characteristics
Road users

Road users are in the

form of:
Drivers (major concern)
Passengers
Pedestrians
4.2 The Driving Task
Three (3) essential tasks during driving :
navigation
guidance
control
Driving tasks require:
receive inputs
process inputs
make predictions (about alternative actions)
decide on appropriate action
execute action
Problems in the Task Sequence
Inadequate or insufficient inputs
Inappropriate inputs
Slow processing time
Errors and misjudgements in predictions

Not all drivers are identical in their capabilities

or habits
Uniqueness of Drivers
Different drivers have different capabilities
and habits.
Driver behaviour varies between individuals
according to:
ability
motivation
Behaviour dependent on:
what driver is able to do, and
what driver chooses to do.
Driving Experience

Driving ability closely

linked to prior experience.

Experience allows for

development of a set of
expectancies:
continuation expectancy
event expectancy
temporal expectancy (cyclic
events)
Continuation Expectancy

events of past continue

Event Expectancy

events not observed will not happen

QR National 2012
Temporal Expectancy
cyclic events
Lessons for the Traffic Engineer
If driver receives information in expected
form, then performance error free
If info received does not match expectation,
likelihood of system failure
Traffic engineers should ensure:
Avoid unexpected design or operational situations
Predictable behaviour is encouraged through familiarity
and habit
Information provided decreases driver’s uncertainty
4.3 Reaction Time
Period between occurrence of
stimulus to driver, and driver’s
physical reaction to it.
Four parts:
perception: use of sensory
organs
identification
emotion
volition: executing action
decided upon.
How can reaction times be kept low?
By encouraging familiarity
By minimising number of alternatives
to choose
By providing positive information
(e.g., ‘Wrong Way Go Back’, rather
than ‘Do Not Enter’)
By providing prior warning
Older drivers
Reaction time increased
Poor eyesight
Decreased physical and mental capabilities
Easily affected by drugs (including some prescription
medications) and fatigue
Confused by unfamiliar signage and layouts
Strategies for improving older
drivers’ driving tasks
Improve intersection sight distances
Separate turning phases at traffic signals
More visible traffic signal lanterns
More clearly defined vehicle paths
Implementation of 2.5sec minimum reaction time at
intersections 2.0 sec absolute minimum reaction time at all
other locations.
4.4 Visual Characteristics of Drivers
Main sensory input to drivers is visual (90%).

Small amount of input by other means.

4.4.1 Visual Field
Reading: 3 to 10 degrees.

Peripheral vision: 90 degrees left and right

60 degrees above
70 degrees below

Values reduced when moving.

Visual field characteristics
Reading: 3 to 10 degrees.

Peripheral vision: 90 degrees left and

right
60 degrees above
70 degrees below

Values reduced when moving.

4.4.2 Eye and Head Movement
Main constraint on info gathering:
eye movement and focussing.

Normal driving: 1.0 to 1.5 fixations per sec.

Example: 100 kph, 1.0 to 1.5 fix.per sec.

= spacing 20 to 28 m
4.4.3 Illumination
Eye adaptable to very large range of illumination.
Adaptability to change:
- dark to glare much quicker adjustment than
glare to dark
Important in design of tunnel lighting.
4.4.4 Visual Handicaps
Several visual handicaps may effect driver
behaviour:
Colour defective vision
2.5% adult males colour defective (colour blind)
Another 2.5% males have reduced sensitivity to red
Low luminance contrast
About 5% population deficient
Visual sensitivity decreases with age
4.5 Information Needs of Road Users
Successful operation of traffic system depends
on conveying information to drivers.

Key needs:
Conspicuity (signal must be seen)
Legibility (message must be able to be read)
Comprehensibility (message must be understood)
Credibility (message must be believable)
4.6 Factors Modifying Normal Driver Behaviour

Three (3) major influences:

Fatigue
Alcohol
Drugs
Fatigue
Fatigue = decrease in
body’s work output
or psychological feelings
or emotional feelings.

Body adopts position

between full alertness and
sleep
- a state of drowsiness.
What causes fatigue?
Monotony – uniformity/
repetitiousness
Straight roads

Adverse environment
E.g. closed, warm atmosphere

Over-work

Emotional factors
E.g. worry

Physiological factors
E.g. over-eating
Results of Fatigue in Driving
Symptoms of fatigue:
Loss of attention to task
Boredom (condition of being bored)
Results for the driving task:
Decreased visual scanning
Increased response time
Falling asleep while driving
Counteracting Fatigue
Physical cause, emotional cause
- overcome by rest.

If other causes
- medical treatment may be required.
Alcohol

Acts as a depressant
on the central nervous
system.
Oral consumption:
Mouth
-> small intestine
-> absorption into blood
stream
-> spreads to all parts of the
body including brain

Limit < 0.05 g per 100 millilitres

Effects of Alcohol

Small amounts:
relaxant
sensation of improved mood
judgment slows

Large amounts:
muscle coordination slower
vision and hearing impaired
information processing diminished
Removal of Alcohol from Body

Alcohol metabolised by liver into waste

products
- relatively slow process (several hours).
Alcohol Vs. Risk

Source: www.ltsa.govt.nz
Young drivers - Australia
Drugs
Use of drugs (legal and
illegal) fairly high in our
society.

Many substances
Effects of single substances
known
Effects of mixtures much
more difficult to predict
Other Prescribed Medications
Research on effects generally inconclusive.

Antidepressants (large doses) likely to

increase crash risk.

Antidepressants + alcohol -> probably

impaired driving.
4.7 Road Vehicles - Vehicle Characteristics

Traffic behaviour require the knowledge of the characteristics of the types of

vehicles commonly found in the traffic stream. In particular properties such as
Dimensions
Visibility restrictions
Manoeuvrability
Acceleration
Braking
Grade climbing
Steering
Cornering
Driver vision
Lighting
Axle loads
Axle spacing
Types of Motor Vehicles

Motor cycles
Passenger cars
Passenger car derivatives –
eg station wagons
Utilities and light vans
Heavy vehicles – trucks and
buses
Road trains
Design for Vehicles
Need for design to accommodate legal
maximum size.
National uniformity (but state jurisdiction)
Concept of design vehicles
Design car
Design single unit truck or bus
Design semi-trailer
Mass limits
References
Austroads 2000, Drugs and driving in Australia, AP–R172, Austroads,
Sydney.
Austroads 2008, Guide to traffic management, part 2: traffic theory,
Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2013, Guide to traffic management, part 3:traffic studies and
analysis, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Evans, L 2004, Traffic safety, Science Serving Society, USA.
Fuller, R & Santos, JA 2002, Human factors for highway engineers,
Elsevier.
Garber, NJ & Hoel, LA 2009, Traffic and Highway Engineering, Cengage
Learning, Stamford, USA.
Gartner, N, Messer, CJ & Rathi, AJ (eds) 1998, Traffic flow theory,
Transportation Research Board, Virginia, U.S.A.,
<http://www.tfhrc.gov/its/tft/tft.htm>.
References
Institute of Transport Studies, 2003, Traffic engineering and
management, Institute of Transport Studies, Monash University,
Clayton, Vic.
Mannering, FL, Washburn, SS & Kilareski, WP 2013, Principles of
Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, New Jersey, US
Roess, RP, Prassas, ES and McShane, WR 2011,Traffic Engineering (4th
Edition), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA
Taylor, MAP, Young, W & Bonsall, PW 2000, Understanding traffic
systems, 2nd edn., Ashgate, Aldershot, England.
Transportation Research Board 2000, Highway Capacity Manual 2000
(Metric Units), National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Transportation Research Board 2010, Highway Capacity Manual 2010,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
End Module 4, Part A