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Post harvest handling, processing and value addition of elephant foot yam — An
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International Journal of Innovative Horticulture. 4(1):1-10, 2015
Review Article

Post harvest handling, processing and value addition of elephant foot

yam — An overview

Ramesh C. Ray
ICAR-Regional Centre, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Bhubaneswar 751 019, India

ABSTRACT
Elephant foot yams (Amorphophallus spp.), a tropical tuberous root crop, is grown as vegetable crop in many Asian and
African countries due to its high production potential and nutritional values. Apart from culinary purpose, the tubers are
also used for developing many processed food products, nutraceutical foods like konjac glucomannan (from
Amorphophallus konjac) and several indigenous and traditional medicines. Like other vegetable crops, elephant foot yam
tubers are subjected to several forms of post harvest losses such as weight loss, microbial infection and insect pest attack.
In this article, the various issues related to post harvest handling, storage methods, diseases and pests, and traditional and
novel value-added products (both as food and medicines) are briefly reviewed.
Keywords: Amorphophallus spp., diseases and pests, elephant foot yam, konjac glucomannan root crop

INTRODUCTION vesting and subsequent handling during transportation and

Amorphophallus spp. (A. paenifolius, A. konjac, A. mulleri,
A. riveiri, A. onchophyllus, A. yunnanensi, A. yuloensis, A.
nanus and A. krausei, commonly known as Elephant Foot
Yam (EFY) (Fig. 1) (also called Konjac in China), a tuber-
ous root crop, is grown as a cash crop due to its high pro-
duction potential, and popularly as a vegetable in many Asian
and African countries (Nedunchezhiyan et al., 2002). China
and India are the major EFY producing countries in Asia.
Several value added food products and indigenous medi-
cines are prepared from its tubers (Nedunchezhiyan et al.,
2002; Misra et al., 2003). However, like any other vegetables
under hot (40º±2ºC temperature in summer) and humid
(85±5 Relative Humidity) conditions in tropics, EFYs are
subjected to several forms of post harvest losses during har-
in market.
In this review, the various issues related to post harvest han-
dling, storage methods, diseases and pests, and traditional
and novel value-added products (both as food and medi-
cines) are discussed.
POST HARVEST HANDLING
Harvesting and Storage
Yellowing of leaves and drying of the plants indicate that
the crop is ready for harvest. The tubers are harvested by
digging, using the crowbars or spades. While harvesting,
care is usually taken to avoid injury to the tubers. After har-
vesting, the adhering soil and roots are removed. The dam-
aged tubers and those showing symptoms of rotting or in-
fection are separated from the lot and disposed off immedi-
ately after the harvest.

Curing and Grading of the Tubers

Fig. 1: A typical Amorphophallus (var. Gajendra) plant (A) with tuber (B)
Despite the best attention given during post harvest han-
dling of EFYs, some wounding inevitably occurs as a result
of detachment of the tubers from the culm. For successful
storage and marketing, it is necessary to subject the har-
vested tubers to curing. Curing facilitates toughening of the
skin and healing of the wounds thereby reducing the risk of
post harvest infection and decay (Ray and Ravi, 2005).
Curing induces suberization of exposed parenchyma cells
2 Ramesh C. Ray
and development of a wound periderm. Curing of EFYs is
practiced in tropical countries by placing the tubers in open
in shaded places at ambient temperature (28±20C) for 7-15
days till the wet soil adhering to the tubers gets dried and
falls off (Misra et al., 2007).
Following curing, the tubers are graded according to their
size and shape. After grading, the tubers are transported to
the market packed in bamboo baskets or in gunny bags with
minimal physical injury.
Transportation of Tubers
Adequately cured and graded tubers are carefully transported
in gunny bags, palm baskets or paper cartoons (Misra et al.,
2007). Air-tight containers are not usually used for trans-
porting the tubers. Care is taken to maintain ventilation for
the packed tubers. The tubers can also be kept in layers
sandwiched with paddy straw/ dried palm / banana leaves
to avoid bruises during transportation (Misra et al., 2007).
Storage and Marketing of the Tubers
The tubers of EFY can be stored safely for 3-4 months (Misra
et al., 2005). The storage place should be well ventilated,
cool and protected from rains. Research studies conducted
at Regional Centre, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
(CTCRI), Bhubaneswar, India revealed that storing the tu-
bers of EFY by spreading them closely in single layer with
apical portion upwards and then covering with coarse dry
sand followed by periodic removal of damaged tubers was
the best method of storage (Misra et al., 2007). While plac-
ing on the racks, it is advisable to keep them separate not
touching one another (Ravindran and George, 2008). Oc-
casionally, the tubers should be examined and the damaged
portions may be removed and the cut area may be treated
with fungicide such as Mancozeb (Misra et al., 2003). The
stored tubers start sprouting after 2-3 months of storage.
Corms of A. paeoniifolius can loss as much as 25% of their
initial weight in the first month of storage, but can be suc-
cessfully stored at 10°C for several months. Alternatively,
they may be left in the ground until required, with a little
irrigation if necessary. In Japan corms of A. konjac that are
to be replanted need to be protected in store from low win-
ter temperatures because at temperatures of -5°C, the ger-
mination is severely affected (Long, 1998).
Technologies for Extending Shelf life of the Tubers
In India
Extending shelf life of EFY tubers can help the farmers to
get higher price in off season. Though curing helps in ex-
tending shelf-life, it is inadequate since the interval between
harvesting and planting is very long. In some parts of Kerala
and Andhra Pradesh, the farmers dip the tubers in the cow
dung slurry followed by drying them in shade to extend
their shelflife (Nanda, 2008). In Tripura, the tribal farmers
developed a technology for extending shelf life of EFY tu-
bers by converting them into cakes (Sankaran et al., 2008b).
In this method, the EFY corms are cleaned and cut into
pieces and boiled in bamboo shoot ash water. After decant-
ing water, the cooked tubers are made into paste and dried
in the form of cake. After drying, the cake is again cooked
in the bamboo shoot ash water and sun-dried for two days.
These cakes can be stored for 30-45 days without any qual-
ity deterioration. The bamboo shoots act as an alkali while
the repeated boiling and drying removes the calcium ox-
alate crystals (Sankaran et al., 2008b).
In China
The indigenous people of China practice several storage
methods for extending shelf life of EFY tubers. The Dai
people in the Yuvanyamg of Southern Yunnan and Bai
people of Western Yunnan and people of Sichuan store the
corms (A. nanus) in the cellars near their houses. The Jino
people pile up corms (A. yuloencis and A. krausei) near the
fireside. Several ethnic tribes in Yunnan cut the konjac corms
into pieces and dry them in the sun before storage. This
method enhances shelf life by 3-5 years. The indigenous
people in Central Hunan also sometimes store EFY as the
dry konjac cake (Long 1998). The indigenous people of
Bai, Western Yunnan and people of Sichuan, China elimi-
nate the corm skin and process the clean core corm into
purified konjac tasty cakes and dried outside during the
winter season (Long, 1998).
Marketing of Tubers
In India, the farmers sell their produce immediately after
harvest to the traders. In some pockets of Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, the produce is sold to the
whole sellers through middlemen even before the harvest
of the crop. In Andhra Pradesh, the farmers sell the har-
vested produce on weight basis, i.e. puttis (Putti: weight
equivalent to 225 kg.). Healthy, cleaned corms free from
any mechanical injury or blemishes are graded for maxi-
mum price. From Mumbai, the tubers are being exported to
Middle East countries after packing them in standard con-
tainers (Murthy et al., 2008). For exporting the tubers for
consumption purpose, the apical portions are removed and
the skins are lightly peeled. Part of the produce is also sold
as seed corms to other parts of the country (Misra et al.,
2003).
 Post harvest handling, processing and value addition of elephant foot yam — An overview
POST HARVEST DISEASES AND PESTS
The incidence of post-harvest losses in EFY is very high at
all stages from harvesting to consumption. The tubers are
prone to several post harvest diseases due to their high
moisture content and starch. The mechanical injury to the
tubers during harvesting and transportation also predisposes
them to various rotting fungi and bacteria. Besides damag-
ing seed tubers, these pathogens also inhibit sprouting (Misra
et al., 2007). On the other hand, relatively high rates of
metabolic activity in the tubers results in the conversion of
starch throughout the storage period thus lead to eventual
weight loss. As a low-unit-cost produce, the use of effec-
tive sophisticated storage methods like refrigerated or con-
trolled atmospheric storage, is hitherto precluded (Nanda,
2008).
In general, the following factors act as predisposing factors
for the post harvest losses the elephant foot yam tubers
(Misra et al., 2007):
· Pre- harvest infection in the field
· Injury to the tubers during harvest, transport and
loading/ unloading
· Soil adhering to the tubers provide ready inoculums
· Nematode damage facilitates pathogen entry
· High moisture content of the tubers in storage pro-
motes physiological and microbiological spoilage
· Poor storage methods
Major storage diseases and pests of elephant foot yam are
described below:
Storage Rot
The storage rot of the EFY tubers is the serious disease
causing severe economic losses to the farmers of India and
elsewhere (Misra et al., 2007). It is caused by the mechani-
cal injuries of the tubers occurred during harvesting and
subsequent transportation of the tubers to market or retail-
ers. Infestation of the roots and tubers by root knot nema-
tode (Meloidogyne incognita) also act as a predisposing
factor for fungal infection. Misra et al., (2003) have identi-
fied six major pathogens that caused post harvest rotting of
tubers.
· Sclerotium rot caused by the Sclerotium rolfsii is
the most common storage disease in EFY. This fun-
gus slowly infects the entire tuber causing total loss.
· Black rot or Botryodiplodia rot caused by
Botrydiplodia theobromae is another serious dis-
ease of EFY. Initially, its infection is confined to
the tuber surface, but over the period of time, the
3
pathogen penetrates deep inside the tuber leading
to rotting and blackening of tubers in patches.
· Phytopthora rot caused by Phytopthora
colocasiae is another severe disease of EFY but
the damage is comparatively less than Sclerotum
or Botryodiplodia rot.
· Fusarium rot (Fusarium spp.) and Rhizopus rot
(Rhizopu spp.) also cause some damage during tu-
ber in storage.
· Erwinia rot, caused by the bacterial pathogen,
Erwinia carotovora has been found to cause seri-
ous damage to tubers when they are stored at higher
temperature (< 400C) with poor ventilation. Tubers
infected by E. carotovera turns watery and give a
foul smell causing 80- 100% tuber loss.
To avoid storage rot, the tubers should be free from me-
chanical injury and pre-harvest infection. For this purpose,
the infected tissues need to be removed with a sharp knife
in such a way that no infected portion is left on the tubers.
While removing the infected portion, even the healthy tis-
sues adjourning the infected portions should be removed.
The cut tubers should be immediately treated with a fungi-
cide (i.e. Mancozeb @ 0.2%) and stored in single layer be-
fore planting. Storage of tubers of EFY in a cool and venti-
lated place followed by periodic removal of damaged tu-
bers has been found effective in prevention of tuber rot.
Murthy et al., (2008) reported that the pre-harvest applica-
tion of carbendazim (0.1%) + streptomycin (150 ppm) at
30 days before harvest and treatment of the corms after the
harvest with copper oxychloride (0.3%)+streptomycin (100
ppm) was found effective in checking the storage rot. Stor-
ing of the harvested tubers in the Zero Energy Cool Cham-
ber in heaps was found to be effective in reducing weight
loss and storage rots. Besides, the treatment of cut tuber
pieces before planting with cow dung slurry mixed with
Trichoderma @ 5 g. kg -1 ) or Mancozeb (0.2%) +
Monocrotophos (0.1%) was also found effective against stor-
age rot (Naskar, 2008). In Tripura and Meghalaya, the ash
is spread on the cut end of EFY tubers to prevent the tuber
rot and to increase the shelf- life of tubers. The ash acts as a
deterrent and as disinfectant for the chewing and sucking
type of the insects (Lal and Verma, 2006)
Scale Insects and Mealy Bugs
Tubers of the EFY are severely infested by yam scale insect
(Aspidiella hartii) in storage conditions if the tubers are
stored more than three months, the citrus mealy bugs
(Pseudococcus cryptus) infest the tubers. Though this in-
festation is superficial, it causes economic damage dur-
ing long term storage. The mealy bugs multiply faster dur-
4 Ramesh C. Ray
ing the high temperature and humid conditions. Severely
infested tubers are shrivelled, adversely affecting the qual-
ity and marketability. The mealy bugs can be removed physi-
cally by rubbing the tubers with soft brush or gunny bag
pieces or coir pith dipped in a suitable contact insecticide
solution. For long term storage, the tubers are required to
be treated with the fungicide (i.e. Mancozeb @ 0.2%) along
with insecticide (i.e. Monocrotophos @ 0.05%) before stor-
age (Pillai and Palaniswami, 1984; Misra et al., 2007).
The scale insects also cause minor weight loss to the tu-
bers. Though their magnitude of damage is relatively less,
the severe infection leads to shrinking of tubers. The scale
insects can be controlled by the application of the cassava
seed extract (3%) or chlorpyriphos (0.05%) on the infected
tubers (Jayaprakas et al., 2008).
Termites and wireworms also feed on the tubers causing
partial to complete damage of tubers.
Nematodes
The root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and the
root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus spp. are the two most
important nematode pests causing economic damage to the
EFY in India (Mohandas, 2008). The root knot nematodes
that survive in the soil spread through infected tubers and
enter the tubers through roots and produce typical galls on
the roots. In corms and cormels, the infestations lead to ir-
regular wart like projections, which become severe on ad-
vanced stages. Under severe infestations, the tuber tissues
get dissolved and rot. In a pathogenecity experiment con-
ducted at the CTCRI revealed that an initial inoculum den-
sity of 1000 infective second stage juveniles of the nema-
todes could cause significant reduction in the tuber yield
(Mohandas, 2008). Under severe infection, it causes the
premature multiple sprouting in the field. The root knot
nematode continues to feed and multiply inside the corm
and cormels even after harvest, during transportation, and
in store causing reduction in weight and rotting. The weight
loss is due to continuous feeding of tuber tissue by the nema-
tode and also by the moisture evaporation from the wound
caused by the nematode infestation. As the damaged tis-
sues dry up, it gives a general dry rot appearance and a
number of fungi invade the dead tuber tissue, subsequently.
Pratylenchus spp., on the other hand, produce lesion on the
root, cormels and corms initially and as the nematode mul-
tiply, the lesions spread on the entire surface. Cracking of
tuber surface is also noticed. This nematode is found se-
vere in var. Karunai Kizhangu, which is grown extensively
in the Tamil Nadu State of India. Singh et al (2008) re-
ported that another nematode species, Tylenchorynchus
indicus causes severe damage in the EFY tubers under stor-
age conditions in Bihar, India.
FOOD PRODUCTS FROM ELEPHANT
FOOT YAM
EFY as Food
In India, the corms and cormels of EFY are usually boiled
or baked and eaten as vegetable. The sprouts and petioles
which resemble asparagus sprouts are used as vegetable in
some parts of Asia (Misra et al., 2007). In Tripura, the tribal
people consume the leaf lamina, petiole (pseudostem), corm
and cormels of wild species of EFY (Sankaran et al., 2008a).
In China, the bulbils of A. yuloensis are eaten by indigenous
people in the Southern and South Western Yunnan Prov-
inces (Long, 1998).
EFY is one of the nutritious crops which contains (g/100 g
fresh tuber): moisture (79.0), protein (1.2), fat (0.1), carbo-
hydrates (18.4), minerals (0.8), calcium (0.05), phospho-
rus (0.34), iron (0.06), vitamin A (260 IU), thiamine
(0.0006), niacin (0.07) and riboflavin (0.07)
(Nedunchezhiyan et al., 2008). The corms are rich in cal-
cium oxalate, an anti-nutritional factor that causes acridity.
Acridity in EFY
The acridity associated with EFY is a major factor limiting
its food value. The tubers of wild plants are highly acrid,
and when ingested causes irritation and burning sensation
in the mouth and in the throat. This effect is related to the
presence of needle-like raphides of calcium oxalate. The
intensity of irritation has been found to differ widely among
different cultivars. Acrid cultivars show calcium oxalate
levels in the range of 660-850 mg/100g, while non-acrid
cultivars have acridity in the range of 120-140 mg/100g
(Sundaresan, 2005). However, the cultivar “Gajendra”,
which is a local selection from Kovvur area of Andhra
Pradesh (India), is non-acrid and does not cause any irrita-
tion while eating.
Acridity of the tubers can be reduced/ eliminated by suitable
processing methods, i.e. boiling, baking, frying and drying
by different modes. The traditional processing systems like
pre soaking, addition of ingredients like tamarind, curd etc.,
in the cooking medium can reduce acridity. Among the
various methods, boiling is found to be the most effective
method in reducing the calcium oxalate content by 50%
(Sundaresan and Nambisan, 2008). Studies on drum drying
of EFY have indicated reduction of about 25% in calcium
oxalate content in the dried product (Sundaresan and
Nambisan, 2008). Indigenous people in Southern Yunnan
and Hunan, Central China cook konjac tubers with plant
ash or plaster in hot water to eliminate acridity. The Jinuo
people of China use young konjac leaves (A. yunnanensis,
A. yuloensis, A. krausei) as vegetables. They cook them in
boiled water and fry in oil to eliminate bitterness and acridity
 Post harvest handling, processing and value addition of elephant foot yam — An overview
(Long, 1998).
Traditional Indian Foods
The EFY based traditional food products like deep fried
chips and roasted cubes are common in Tamil Nadu State
of India. The roasted yam cubes are prepared by cutting
EFY into cubes and cooked with fresh spices (ginger and
garlic) paste followed by slow cooking on a pan till the
crispiness is obtained. Besides, it is common ingredient of
Sambar, a savoury vegetable stew of drumsticks, okra (la-
dies finger), potatoes, eggplant, onion and tomatoes pre-
pared with ground spices seasoned with tamarind juice, very
common in South India. In Tamil Nadu and Kerala States
of India, the traditional curry dishes like Kaalan, Mezukku
Puratti, Poriyal, Aviyal are also prepared using EFYas an
ingredient. In Goa, the EFY based soup Khatkhatem is pre-
pared by cutting tubers in cube shape which are deep fried
before it is added to a simmering pot of a vegetarian stew.
Besides, the EFY chutney (mixed paste) is also prepared,
which form important place in Goan dishes. In the Car
Nicobar Islands of India, the tribals consume wild EFY tu-
bers collected from the forest. They are boiled in hot water
with salt and chilli powder and are consumed along with
the wild pork dish (Damodaran et al., 2008)
Traditional Japanese foods
In Japan, the A. kojac is used in many traditional foods.
Konnyaku, a traditional Japanese recipe, is a gel-like food
having a light taste and an elastic texture. It is made by
adding slaked lime into the colloidal solution of the flour
obtained from the dried tubers of A. konjac (Nagayama et
al., 1975). The Ito konnyaku is a type of Japanese food con-
sisting of konjac cut into noodle-like strips. It is usually
sold in plastic bags with accompanying water. The Konnyaku
made in noodle form is called shirataki and used in other
Japanese foods like sukiyaki and gyudon (Akesowan, 2002,
2008). Konjac can also be made into a popular Asian fruit
jelly snack, known as ‘konjac candy’, served in plastic cups.
The indigenous people of make noodles and sauce from
elephant foot yam tubers. The konjac snack is very popular
food item in the Western Hunan province of China (Long,
1998).
Novel EFY Foods
Home made Foods
Despite the processing constraints, several novel food prod-
ucts were developed in India from EFY tubers (Sabarmatee
et al., 2007).
EFY Pickles
Washed and peeled EFY tubers are cut into small cubes and
5
are mixed with oil, tamarind paste, chilli powder, jiggery,
asafoetida, ginger and garlic paste with garam masala and
deep fried and stored in a bottle filled with vegetable oil.
EFY Cake
Sundried rice is mixed with mashed elephant foot yam pulp
and then cooked along with jiggery, salt, finely chopped
ginger, cashew nuts, raisins, ground coconut, along with
spices in oven to form delicious cake.
EFY sweet meat (Ghulab Jamun)
Cleaned EFY tubers are mashed and mixed with wheat
starch, milk powder, baking powder and oil and made into
small balls which are fried in hot oil till they become brown.
The fried balls are soaked in sugar syrup for 30 minutes to
one hour.
EFY Poridge (Kheer)
Boiled rice is mixed with mashed EFY pulp and cooled for
20 minutes to prepare the Kheer. Milk, cashew, raisins and
sugar are added to make it delicious.
EFY Cutlet
Big pieces of the EFY are boiled and mashed and mixed
with ginger paste, finely chopped onion, green chillies and
salt fried for 10 minutes. Cooled balls are pressed flat and
dipped into maida barter, rolled and fried in oil.
EFY Pakoda
The finely chopped EFY, garlic, onion, ginger, green chil-
lies, curry leaves, cumin powder, coriander powder are
mixed thoroughly with besan (powdered dal flour) barter
to make them as small balls which are then fried in oil till
they become golden brown.
EFY Vada
Boiled and mashed EFY tubers are mixed with rice pow-
der. Small quantities of chopped onion, green chillies, gin-
ger and coriander leaves, grated coconut, cumin and salt to
make barter. The mix is made into flat structure and then is
fried in oil.
EFY Chutney
Boiled and mashed EFY pulp are mixed with fenugreek
seeds, saunf, mustard seeds, curry leaves, tamarind paste,
garlic paste, ginger paste, finely chopped green chillies and
coconut paste and cooked for 5-10 minutes to make chut-
ney.
EFY Chop
Boiled and mashed EFY pulp are mixed with ginger/garlic
6 Ramesh C. Ray

paste, chopped onion, turmeric powder, sambar powder,
chilli powder and fried. The mixture is then made into small
balls and dipped in the barter of gram flour and fried in hot
oil till they turn brown.
EFY Mix Vegetable Chop
Finely chopped carrot, sugar beet, beans, green peas, cauli-
flower, cabbage, onion, ginger, green chillies, along with
salt are fried and mixed with boiled and mashed EFY. This
mixture is made as small balls and then dipped into a barter
of gram flour and fried till it turns golden brown.
EFY Chips
Washed and peeled elephant foot yam tubers are cut into
very thin slices which are then sun dried for 3-4 days. The
dried chips are then fried in oil and served by adding black
salt, chat, spices and chilli powder.
(Huang and Lin, 2004). The KGM flour is prepared by wash-
ing, slicing, drying and milling the mature A. konjac tubers.
After that the mixed power was separated to remove the
konjac ‘dancing powder’, so the konjac flour can be ob-
tained. It contains significant amounts of KGM ranging from
51.3 to 96.9% (Xiao et al., 1999). KGM with good water
solubility was extracted and purified by a cheap and simple
method including fat-extraction, protein-extraction,
decolouring, centrifuge, precipitate and other procession
from tubers of A. riveiri. The flow diagram for extraction
of purified glucomannan is given in the Fig 2.
The KGM consists of mannose and glucose in a molar ratio
of 1.6:1 with ® 1–4 linkage (Chin et al., 2009). It has a
strong water-binding ability and when combined with other
polysaccharides (e.g., carrageenan and starch), it exhibits a
synergistic effect on protein gelation and water-binding in

Industrial Food Products

Processing is generally little more than an extension of home
recipes. The EFY tubers are bulky and awkward to handle,
and peeling and other preparation losses account as high as
10-30% which put several constraints in processing. De-
spite these constraints, many EFY based products are pre-
pared and marketed in various countries. In Indonesia, the
species A. onchophyllus is used to produce flour for indus-
trial purposes (Nanda, 2008). The EFY is also used as ani-
mal feed in South East Asian countries. The corms of EFY
are boiled and fed to pigs in Philippines and Brazil (Deo
Shankar et al., 2008; Ngachan et al., 2008) while the big
leaves are fed to pigs in China (Long 1998)

Extruded Food products

Extrusion technology at high temperature for short time
period was tried at CTCRI, Thiruvanathapuram to develop
a ready to eat snack product from EFY flour (Sheriff et al.,
2008). Elephant foot yam tubers were washed, peeled and
sliced. The sliced tubers were washed again and dried to a
moisture content of 11%. The dried pieces were powdered
using a hammer mill and the powder was sieved through
100mm mesh. The final moisture content of the powder
was adjusted to 16%. This flour was sent through single
screw laboratory extruder with a screw diameter of 19 mm
at various temperature levels. These products had good ex-
pansion ratio, bulk density and acceptable texture qualities.
The study showed that the EFY flour is suitable for the pro-
duction of food quality snack products.

Konjac Glucomannan (KGM) based Food Products

The Konjac glucomannan is a neutral polysaccharide pro-
Fig. 2: Method of extracting the purified glucomannan from A. konjac tubers
duced from the flour of Amorphophallus konjac tubers (Xiao et al., ,1999)
 Post harvest handling, processing and value addition of elephant foot yam — An overview
comminuted meat products. When konjac flour is dissolved
in alkaline coagulant (such as calcium hydroxide, sodium
or potassium carbonate), deacetylation occurs and a ther-
mally stable gel is formed (Thomas, 1997). So it is used as
a gelling agent in many meat products (Chin et al., 2000;
Kao and Lin, 2006). It has high solubility and can be used
in hot or cold liquids. The konjac flour is also used as a
thickener in sauces, gravies, puddings and pie fillings with-
out affecting the taste. These konjac based foods, are called
as Moyu or Juruo in China, and Konnyaku or Shirataki
noodles in Japan (Thomas, 1997). The KGM is also a source
of soluble dietary fibre (Fang and Wu, 2004). It has wide
applications in food (Cheng et al., 2002; Huang and Lin,
2004) and biomedical (Alvarez-Mancenido et al., 2006;
Alonso-Sande, et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2005; Yu et al.,
2006; Lu et al., 2008) domains.
Functional Foods Prepared from KGM Flour
Konjac foods are a popular health food in the Asian mar-
kets (Konjacfoods.com, 2002-2004). It is also an impor-
tant ingredient in many functional foods due to its physical
and chemical properties. Fang and Wu (2004) explained
various mechanisms of konjac in the functional foods. First
of all, it can delay stomach emptying when taken as an ed-
ible A. konjac-based food. It may lead to a more gradual
absorption of dietary sugar, which can reduce the elevation
of blood sugar levels that is typical after a meal. The KGM
is high in dietary fibre which is essential for human health.
Like other soluble fibres, it can bind to bile acids in the gut
and carry them out of the body in the faeces, which requires
the body to convert more cholesterol into bile acids (Wu
and Peng, 1997). It may help weight loss by filling the stom-
ach and making a person feel full. Walsh et al., (1984) re-
ported weight loss averaging 2.5 kg in adults when one gram
of glucomannan was taken with a cup of water one hour
before each meal for 8 weeks based on a double-blind study.
The KGM can lower the quantities of serum cholesterol
and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Arvill and Bodin,
1995), triacylglyceride (Takigami, 2000) and also involved
in the regulation of low blood sugar levels in Type 2 diabe-
tes (Chen et al., 2003), body weight control and regulating
immune functions of the human body. In China, the konjac
blends are used to improve the texture of many low fat func-
tional meat emulsion products (Chin et al., 1998). Osburn
and Keeton (1994) found low-fat (~ 10%) prerigor fresh
pork sausages containing 10 or 20% konjac gel had a higher
shear value than the high-fat control (40%) but lower than
the low-fat control (10%). Huang et al., (1998) found that
the low-fat Chinese-style sausages containing 10% or 20%
konjac gels to be of acceptable quality. Park (1996) reported
that adding konjac flour enhanced the shear stress of surimi
gel and produced heat-tolerant and stable freeze–thaw fish
7
gels. Chin et al., (1998) also reported that low-fat (<3%)
Bologna sausage containing varying amounts of konjac
blends had similar textural properties to a regular bologna
(~30% fat) control. Lin and Huang (2003) reported accept-
able quality with reasonable shelf-life (at least 6–9 weeks)
when reduced-fat frankfurters were formulated with konjac/
gellan gum mixed gels. Kao and Lin (2006) concluded that
reduced-fat frankfurters with acceptable sensory and tex-
tural traits could be produced by the incorporation of konjac–
starch mixed gels.
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
The konjac glucomanna flour, after absorbing water, can
swell by 800-1000 times with a good viscidity. Therefore, it
has industrial uses in textiles, paper matting, petrol and
chemical processes. Among natural polymers, the KGM is
a good candidate for packaging materials. It has attracted
great interest since it has excellent film-forming ability, good
biocompatibility and biodegradability. Several articles re-
ported that the blend films of KGM and other natural or
synthetic polymers, such as pullulan (Yue et al., 1995), cel-
lulose (Yang et al., 1998; Zhang et al., (1997), polyvinyl
alcohol (Li and Xie, 2004) and methylcellulose (Li et al.,
2006) are being used in food and pharmaceutical indus-
tries. Lu et al., (2008) prepared a novel antibacterial film
by blending the KGM and poly diallydimethylammonium
chloride in an aqueous system. The films exhibited an ex-
cellent antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and
Streptomyces aureus. When KGM is blended with the
chitosan and nisin, it inhibits the growth of pathogenic bac-
teria like Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes,
and Bacillus cereus (Li et al., 2006).
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF EFY AND
HEALTH BENEFITS
The EFY has many medicinal properties. In India, it is used
in the ayurvedic drugs in the treatment of inflammatory
conditions, hemorrhoids, rheumatism and gastro-intestinal
disorders (Regu et al., 1999). This herb is also used in ear-
ache, pain, intercostal neuralgia, perpueral fever and swell-
ing of throat (Joshi, 2000). The paste of tubers is applied
externally to reduce pain arthritis. In China, the A. konjac
has been used in the Traditional Chinese Medicines as an
immune-regulation and healthcare food for a long time
(Huang et al., 1990; Vuksan et al., 1999).
Studies have shown that the chloroform- acetone- ethanol
extracts of the wild EFY tubers exhibited significant anti-
bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties (Shilpi et al.,
2005). They inhibited gram positive (Staphylococcus
aureeus, Micrococcus luteus and Bacillus subtilis) and gram
negative (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia and Pro-
8 Ramesh C. Ray
teus mirabilis) organisms (Wilson et al., 2005). Ethanol
extracts of the tubers of A. campanulatus have also been
reported to possess antibacterial, antifungal and cytotoxic
activities (Khan et al., 2007)
Several indigenous technologies are also reported on the
medicinal applications of EFY. In Tripura (India), the tribal
people consume the banana flesh coated EFY balls for con-
trolling stomach disorders and piles (Sankaran et al.,
2008c).The high acrid wild EFY corms are used for the treat-
ment of mouth ulceration and tympanities in cattle in India.
The farmers provide 100 g of ground EFY as a drench in
the affected cattle. The EFY creates a stinging effect on the
lips and the tongue of the cattle causing increase in salivary
secretions, thereby helping the animals to get a temporary
relief from typany (Deo Shankae et al., 2008)
CONCLUSION
The EFY has high potential to be a cash crop owing to its
high production potential, array of diversified uses and easy
cultivation. Though the fresh tubers are highly perishable
due to many biotic (diseases and pests) and abiotic (physi-
ological disorders and mechanical injuries) stresses, sev-
eral methods are available to extend its shelf –life to 3-6
months. Converting raw tubers into processed products of
high culinary, nutritious foods and medicinal and industrial
products such as glucomanan can improve the profitability
of EFY cultivation. Functional food products developed
from EFY are gradually penetrating the markets in China
and other South East Asian countries. With this view, the
future research on EFY should focus on the following as-
pects:
1. Identifying effective storage methods to extend the
shelf life of the tubers
2. Exploring new ways of utilizing EFY especially
on the health front
3. Identifying the active principles in tubers which
have high medicinal value, and
4. Standardizing methodologies for extracting and
using the organic calcium and phosphorus from
EFY tubers.
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