RAIV GANDHI COLLEGE O ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES

Unit-1

PREPARED BY

G.LAXMINARAYANAN (AP/ECE)

1
 UNIT I

FILTERS

 Purely reactive for the attenuation become zero.

 A network which in its ideal form has at least one range of frequency in which the
attenuation is zero (pass band) and at least one other range of frequency in which
the attenuation is infinite( attenuation band). Frequencies which separates a pass
and an attenuation band are called cut- off frequencies.
 Attenuation has been expressed in decibels or nepers.
Neper

 Defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of input voltage or current to the
output voltage or current, provided network is properly terminated

Or

Or

For two four terminal network connected in cascade as shown..

V1 V2 V3

The attenuation in nepers through the separate network is denoted by N1 and N2

and

thus the total attenuation N is obtained by adding the attenuations of separate networks
N = N1 + N2

2
decibel (db)

 defined as the ten times common logarithms of the ratio of the input power to the
output power.

In terms of voltage or current ratio,

Or

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO UNITS OF ATTENUATION

logex = log10x * loge10

Substituting, x = P1 / P2, and loge10 = 2.3026,

2N = (D / 10)*2.3026

8.686N = D

Thus,

1 neper = 8.686 decibels

1 db = 0.115 nepers

3
LADDER NETWORK AS FILTERS

Common forms of filter network.(T, , half section) as shown in figure.

Z1
Z1/2 Z1/2

Z2 Z2
Z2

 - section
T - section

Z1

Z2

L - section

TYPES OF FILTERS

1. LOW PASS FILTER (LPF)

Allows without attenuation all frequencies up to cut- off frequency fc. This band is
termed as pas band or transmission band.
It attenuates all frequencies greater than fc. This band is termed as stop band.

Pass
 band

Attenuation
band

fc f

4
 2. HIGH PASS FILTER (HPF) 3. BAND PASS FILTER (BPF)
Attenuation
Attenuation band
 band


Pass
band Pass
band
fc f
f1 f2
f
4. BAND STOP FILTER OR BAND ELLIMMINATION FILTER

 Attenuation Pass
band band

f1 f2 f
IDEAL FILTER CHARACTERISTICS

 Transmit passband frequencies without any attenuation.

 Provides infinite attenuation & hence, completely suppresses all frequencies in
the attnuation band.
 Transition region between the stop and pass band would be very small.
 Throughout the pass band, characteristics impedance of the filter would match
circuit to which it is connected.

CHARACETERISTICS OF THE FILTER

 Propagation constants
Propagation constants P should be real in the attenuation band and imaginary in pass
band.
 Characteristics impedance
The characteristics impedance of the pass band should be real and in the attenuation
band Zo will be imaginary.

5
 Cut off frequency
Frequency where the filter passes from pass band to attenuation band and is denoted
by fc, also termed as nominal frequency because the practical filter does not have
sharp cut off frequency.

CONSTANT K-FILTERS

A constant K- filter is a T or  -network in which series or shunt impedance,Z1 &

Z2 are connected by the relationship,

Z1Z 2  Rk 2

Where, Rk – real constant and is termed as nominal impedance or design impedance of

the constant K- filter.

LOW PASS CONSTANT k-FILTER

The prototype low pass T or are shown in figue below

L
L/2 L/2

C/2
C
C/2

j
Here, Z1  jL , Z 2  ,
C
j L
Hence, Z1Z 2  j L   
C C

Since the product of Z1 & Z2 is constant i.e., independent of frequency, we get,

L
Z1Z 2  Rk 2 
C
L
thus, Rk 2 
C
now, ZOT is given by,
Z12
ZOT   Z1Z 2
4
sub., the values of Z1 & Z2,

6
 ( j L)2 j
ZOT   ( j L)( )
4 C
 2 L2 L L  2CL
   1
4 C C 4

c2 LC c2 LC
ZOT is real if >1 and since the cutoff frequency f c is
<1 and imaginary if
4 4
the frequency that ZOT changes from real to imaginary,
c2 LC
1
4
1
fc  . Thus the values of inductor and capacitor are
 LC
and
Rk 1
L C
 fc  Rk fc

PHASE SHIFT & ATTENUATION

j
Substituting th values of Z1  jL & Z 2 
C
j L  2CL
cos   1   1
j 2
2
C
since,   0 in the pass band and phase shift  is given by,
2
c 
LC
2
cos   1  2 2
c
2
  cos (1  2 2 )radians
1

c
the attenuation of the low pass filter is given by,
j
sub., the value of Z1  jL and Z 2  , we get
C
 2 LC 2 2
cosh   1   2 1
2 c
2 2
  cosh 1 (  1)nepers
c2

7
 
  cosh 1 ( 1)nepers
c

CONSTANT K- HIGH PASS FILTER

The prototype of T-section & -section is shown here,

C 2C 2C

2L
2L
L

j
Here, Z1   and Z 2  jL .hence the product of Z1 & Z2,
C
j L
Z1Z 2    j L  . Since the product is independent of frequency, the filter is
C C
L
constant –K type. Thus, Z1Z 2  Rk2 
C
L
Rk 
C
Z12
then, ZOT is given by, ZOT   Z1Z 2
4
1 L L 1
ZOT     1 2
4 C C
2 2
C 4 LC

1 1
ZOT is real if <1 and imaginary if 2 >1 and since the cutoff frequency f c
4 LC
2
4 LC
is the frequency that ZOT changes from real to imaginary,
1
1
4 2 LC
1
fc  . From the above equations, we get ,
4 LC

8
 Rk 1
L and C 
4 fc 4 Rk fc

PHASE SHIFT & ATTENUATION

Substituting the value of Z1 & Z2 in equ. We get,

1
cos   1  2
2 LC
1
since   0 & phase shift  is given by, c 
2 LC
hence,
2c2
cos   1  2

2c2
  2cos1 (1  )
2
c2
  2sin 1 radians
2
j
the attenuation of high pass filter can be obtained by sub., Z1   and Z 2  jL
C
1 2c2
cos   1   ( 1)
2 2 LC 2
c
  cos1 ( )nepers.


CONSTANT K-TYPE BAND PASS FILTER

This can be either T or  - section if the series arm contains a series resonant circuit
while the shut arms contain parallel resonant circuit as shown below:

C1 L1
2C1 2C1
L1/2 L1/2

C2/2
C2 C2/2 2L2
L2 2L2

For this condition equal resonant frequencies,

1 1
o  
L1C1 L2C 2
L1C1  L2C 2
the series & shunt arm impedances are given below:

9
 j  2 L1C1 1
Z1  ( j L1  )  j( ) and
C1 C1
1
j L2
jC 2 j L2
Z2   . If the filter is to be constant k- type,
j L2 
1 1  j 2
L 2C 2
jC 2

L2  2 L1C1 1
Z1Z 2  R   (
2
)
C1 1   2 L2C 2
k

L2 L1
we know that, L1C1  L2C 2 hence , Z1Z 2    Rk2
C1 C 2
L2 L1
also, L1C1  L2C 2 , thus ,   Rk2
C1 C 2
Z1
at cut – off frequencies,  1
4Z 2
at the lower cut-offf frequency f1 =-Z1. at upper cut-off f2. sub., the values of Z1 we get,
1 1
(  j1L1)  (  j 2L1)
j1C1 j 2C1
multiplying the above eqn., by j, we get,
1 1
(1L1  )(   2L1)
1C1  2C1
1 2
(1  12 L1C1)  ( L1C1 1)
2 2
1
now, L1C1 
o2
2  2
(1  12 )  1 ( 22  1)
0 2 0
f0  f1 f2
where, f 0 is the mid-band frequency to which the series & shunt arms are separately
tuned. The lower cut-off frequency,
Z1  2 jRk
1
(  j1L1)  2 jRk
j1C1
1  12C1L1  2 Rk 1C1
12
1  2  2 Rk 1C1
0
f
1  ( 1 )2  4 Rk f1C1
f2

10
 f 2  f1
C1  and
4 Rk f1 f 2
1
as we know L1C1 
02
Rk
L1  . Sub., the values of L1 & C1, we get the values of shunt arm,
 ( f 2  f1 )
( f  f )R L1 1
L2  C1Rk2  2 1 k and C 2  2 
4 f1 f 2 Rk  ( f 2  f1 ) Rk

CONSTANT K-TYPE BAND STOP FILTER

The configuration of T &  constant –K band stop filter is shown below:

L1/2
L1 L1/2

2C1 2C1
2L2 C1 2L2

L2
C2/2 C2/2
C2

The condition of equal resonant frequencies,

0 L1 1 1
 for the series arm. 0 2 
2 20C1 L1C1
1 1
For the shunt arm, 0 L2  , thus, 0 2 
0C 2 L2C 2
1 1
  Rk
L1C1 L2C 2
Thus,

L1C1  L2C 2

also,
L1 L2
Z1Z 2    Rk2 and f0  f1 f2
C 2 C1
at cut-off frequencies, Z1  4Z 2 . Multiplying both sides with Z2, we get,
Z1Z 2  4Z 22  Rk2
R
Z2   j k
2

11
if the load is terminated with a load resistance ,R = Rk, then at lower cut-off frequency ,
1 R
Z 2  j(  1L2)  j k
1C 2 2
1 R
(  1L2)  k
1C 2 2
R 1
1  12 C 2L2  1C 2 k From eqn., 0 2 
2 L2C 2
1 2
R
1  2  1C 2 k
0 2
f 12
1  Rk  f 1C 2
f02
1 f 12
C2  [1  ( )]
Rk f 1 f02
1 f 2  f1
C2  [ ]
Rk f1 f 2
1 R  f 1f 2
also , L2  2  2k
0 C 2 0 ( f 2  f 1)
since f0  f1 f2
 f 1f 2
L2 
4 ( f 2  f 1)
L1 L2
  Rk2
C 2 C1
R f 2 f1 L2 1
L1  Rk2C 2  k ( ) and C1  2 
 f 1f 2 Rk 4 ( f 2  f 1)

m- DERIVED FILTERS

Two disadvantages of constant K –filters are:

 The attenuation does not increase rapidly beyond cut off frequencies.
 Characteristics impedance varies widely in the transmission or pass band, from the
desired value.

Thus, high degree of attenuation just beyond the cut-off or constant impedance in the
pass band, demands a better type of filter. If the constant K section is regarded a
prototype, it is possible to design a filter to have the same impedance and hence the same
pass band and attenuation band, but with a degree of attenuation outside the pass band.

Suppose the T-network has the series am modified by some constant m. then if this
network shown in figure below will have the same characteristic impedance Zot as the
prototype, the shunt impedance Z2 must be modified Z2’.

12
 Z1/2 Z1/2 mZ1/2 mZ1/2

Z2 Z2'

For the prototypenetwork shown ,

Z12
ZOT   Z1Z 2 . For the modified network shown above, we have, Z1  mZ1 &
4
Z 2  Z 2'
m2 Z12
now, ZOT   mZ1Z 2'
4
2
Z1 m2 Z12
thus,  Z1Z 2   mZ1Z2'
4 4
Z 2 1  m2
Z2'   Z1
m 4m
1  m2
this means Z 2' must have be an impedance Z2/m in series with an impedance Z1=
4m
and these impedance can be physically realizable if 0<m<1. the complete m-derived T-
network is shown below:

mZ1/2 mZ1/2

Z2/m

1  m2
Z1
4m

The same technique is applied to - network. If the shunt arms are reduced by the factor
1/m then to make Zo of both the networks equal, the series arm has to be modified.

Z1 Z1'

2Z 2 2Z 2
2Z2 2Z2
m m

For the prototype - network shown above

13
 Z1Z 2
ZO 
Z1
1
4Z 2
Z2
for the modified network we have , Z1  Z1' & Z 2 
m
Z1' Z 2
ZO  m
mZ1'
1
4Z 2

thus,
Z1' Z 2
Z1Z 2
 m '
Z1 mZ1
1 1
4Z 2 4Z 2
cross multiplying & simplifying,
Z1Z 2
Z1' 
Z 2 Z1
 (1  m2 )
m 4m
4m2
multiplying the denominator & numerator by we have ,
1  m2
4m 2
mZ1 Z2
Z1'  1  m2
4m 2
Z 2  Z1m
1  m2
4m2
this represents a parallel combination of mZ1 and Z2as shown in figure below:
1  m2
mZ1

2Z 2 4m 2Z 2
Z2
m 1  m2 m

m-derived low pass filter

the m-derived T & - section is shown below:

1  m2
mL/2 mL/2 C
4m
1  m2
L
4m mL
mC mC/2 mC/2
14
The shunt arm in the m-derived T filter will have infinite impedance when,
1 4
2  
1 m 2
(1  m2 ) LC
L  mC
4m

and so the frequency of infinite attenuation, f  is gn., by,

1
f 
 LC 1  m2
cut-off frequency f c for the constant –K prototype L.p. filter is given by .,
1
fc 
 LC
fc
f 
1  m2
f
1  m2  ( c ) 2
f
fc 2
m  1 ( )
f

m-derived high pass filter

both T &  - network is shown below:

2C/m 2C/m 1  m2
L
4m

L/m
C/m
4m 2L/m 2L/m
C
1  m2

The frequencies is same for both sections, and is gn., by,

1 (1  m2 )
2  
L 4m 4 LC
 C
m 1 m 2

15
 1  m2
hence , f 
4 LC
1
cut-off frequency of the high pass filter is fc 
4 LC
therefore, f   1  m2 fC
f 2
thus, m  1  ( )
fC

m-derived band pass filter

Z 2 1  m2
the T – section will have the shunt impedance  Z1, where Z1 & Z2 are the
m 4m
values of the constant K- section. Infinite attenuation will occur, when

2C1/m
mL1/2 mL1/2

2C1/m
1  m2
L1
4m
4m
C1
1  m2

L2/m
mC2

Z 2 1  m2
 Z1  0 . Sub., the values of Z1 & Z2 , we have ,
m 4m
1 j L2 1  m2 2 L1C1  1
( ) j( )0
m 1   L2C 2 4m C1
2 L2C1 1  m2 2
 ( L1C1  1)
2 L2C 2  1 4
1
but , L1C1  L2C 2  2
0
1  m2 f 2
thus the above equation, ( 2  1)  4 2 f 2 L2C1
4 f0
sub., the values of C1 & L2 we get,

16
 1  m2 f 2 R ( f  f )( f  f ) 1  m2 f 2  f 02 2 f 2
( 2  1)2  4 2 f 2 k 2 1 2 2 1 ( )  ( f 2  f1 )2
4 f0 4 f1 f 2 4 Rk f1 f 2 4 f02
4 f0 2

since, f 2 f1  f 02
(1  m2 )( f 2  f1 f 2 )2  f  2 ( f 2  f1 ) (1  m2 )( f2  f1 f 2 )  f  ( f 2  f1 )

sub., (1  m2 )  x xf 2  f  ( f 2  f1 )  xf1 f 2  0
( f 2  f1 )  ( f 2  f1 )2  4 x 2 f1 f 2
f 
2x
f 2  f1 ( f 2  f1 )2
   f1 f 2
2 (1  m2 ) 4(1  m2 )
for the infinite attenuation,
( f 2  f1 )2 f 2  f1
f 1   f1 f 2 
4(1  m ) 2
2 (1  m2 )
( f 2  f1 )2 f 2  f1
f 2   f1 f 2 
4(1  m ) 2
2 (1  m2 )
from the above equations,
f f
f2  f1  2 1
(1  m2 )
f 2  f1
hence, m  1  ( )
f 2  f1

m-derived band stop filter

m-derived low pass filter & m-derived high pass filter resulting structure will be m-
derived band stop filter as shown,

mL1/2 mL1/2

2C1/m 2C1/m
1  m2
L2
4m
4m
C2
1  m2

L2/m
mC2

Infinite attenuation will occur when,

17
 Z 2 1  m2
 Z1  0
m 4m
sub., the values of Z1 & Z2, and simplifying as in band pass filter,
f 2  f1  ( f 2  f1 ) 1  m2
f f f 2  f1 2
1  m2  ( 2 1 )2 m  1 ( )
f2  f f2  f

TERMINATING HALF SECTION

It is difficult to terminate the constant – K sections properly; it would be desirable to use

fixed resistance as a termination. This can be achieved by using a half L-section as an
impedance transforming devices.

mZ1/2 mZ1/2
mZ1
Z2/m

2Z 2 4m 2Z 2
1  m2 Z2
Z1 m 1  m2 m
4m

mz1/2 1  m2
Z1
2m

2Z2/m

Z1' Z 2
Z0'   sub., Z1'  mZ1
ZOT
Z 2 1  m2
mZ1{  Z1
ZOT 
' m 4m
Z1
Z1Z 2 1 
4Z 2
Z1
Z1Z 2{1  (1  m2 ) }
 4Z 2
Z1
Z1Z 2 1 
4Z 2
Z1
design impedance Rk= Z1Z2. also sub., =-x2 for simplicity,
4Z 2

18
 Rk2{1  (1  m2 ) x 2
ZO'  
Rk 1  x2
L
RK 
C
Z12
ZOT   Z1Z 2
4
j
Z 2  j L; Z1  
C

1
1
4 2 LC
1
fc 
4 LC
R
L K
4 fC
1
C
4 RK  fC
2C2
  2cos (1  1
)radians
2
C .
  2cosh 1 ( )nepers


The terminating half sections of m-derived T &  are shown below. The impedance of a
complete m-derived T or  section is the same as the prototype

mZ2/2 2m
Z2
1  m2
2Z2/m

1  m2 mZ1/2
2Z2/m
Z1
2m

19
FORMULAS USED

Constant K-filter
L
RK 
C
low pass filter
j
Z12 Z1  j L; Z 2  
ZOT   Z1Z 2 C
4 2
  cos1 (1  2 )radians
1 C2
fc 
 LC 
  2cosh 1 ( )nepers
c LC
2
C
1
4
R
L K
 fC
1
C
RK  fC

L
L/2 L/2

C/2
C
C/2

High pass filter

1
1
Z1 2
4 2 LC
ZOT   Z1Z 2
4 1
fc 
Z 2  j L; Z1  
j 4 LC
C R
L K
4 fC
1
C
4 RK  fC
2C2
  2cos (1 
1
)radians
2
C
  2cosh 1 ( )nepers


20
 C 2C 2C

2L
2L
L

Band pass filter

j  2 L1C1 1
Z1  ( j L1  )  j( )
C1 C1
1
j L2
jC 2 j L2
Z2  
j L2 
1 1  j 2 L2C 2
jC 2
L2  2 L1C1 1
Z1Z 2  Rk2   ( )
C1 1   2 L2C 2
1 1
o  
L1C1 L2C 2
L1C1  L2C 2
f0  f1 f2
f f Rk
C1  2 1 ; L1 
4 Rk f1 f 2  ( f 2  f1 )
( f  f )R L1 1
L2  C1Rk2  2 1 k ; C 2  2 
4 f1 f 2 Rk  ( f 2  f1 ) Rk

C1 L1
2C1 2C1
L1/2 L1/2

C2/2
C2 C2/2 2L2
L2 2L2

21
band stop filter

0 L1 1

2 20C1
1
0 2 
L1C1
1 1
  Rk
L1C1 L2C 2
1 f 2  f1  f 1f 2
C2  [ ] ; L2 
Rk f1 f 2 4 ( f 2  f 1)
R f 2 f1 L2 1
L1  Rk2C 2  k ( ) ; C1  2 
 f 1f 2 Rk 4 ( f 2  f 1)
L1/2
L1 L1/2

2C1 2C1
2L2 C1 2L2

L2
C2/2 C2/2
C2

m-derived filters

m-derived low pass

2C/m 2C/m 1  m2
L
4m

L/m
C/m
4m 2L/m 2L/m
C
1  m2
fc 2
m  1 ( )
f

22
m-derived high pass
f 2
m  1 ( )
fC

2C/m 2C/m 1  m2
L
4m

L/m
C/m
4m 2L/m 2L/m
C
1  m2

m-derived band pass

2C1/m
mL1/2 mL1/2

2C1/m
1  m2
L1
4m f 2  f1
C1
4m m  1 ( )
1  m2 f 2  f1

L2/m
mC2

m-derived band stop filter

mL1/2 mL1/2

2C1/m 2C1/m
1  m2
L2
4m
4m f 2  f1 2
C2 m  1 ( )
1  m2 f2  f

L2/m
mC2

23
ATTENUATORS
An attenuator is a two-port resistive network and is used to reduce the signal level by a
given amount. Attenuators may be symmetrical or asymmetrical, and can be either fixed
or variable. A fixed attenuator with constant attenuation is called a pad. Variable
attenuators are used as volume controls in radio broadcasting sections. It is expressed
either in decibels (dB), or in nepers.
Attenuation in dB = 10 log10 (P1/P2)
Where, P1 – input power
P2 – output power.
For a properly matched network, both terminal pairs are matched to the characteristics
resistance, Ro of the attenuator.
P1 I12 Ro I12
Hence,  
P2 I 22 Ro I 22
Where, I1 – input current
I2 – output current
P1 V 12
or 
P 2 V 22
where, V1 – input voltage at port 1
V2 – voltage at port 2
V1
Attenuation in dB = 20log10( )
V2
I1
= 20log10( )
I2
V 1 I1 P1
if   N , then  N2
V2 I2 P2
dB  20log10N
dB
N  anti log( )
20
TYPES OF ATTENUATOR
Basically there are 4 types of attenuators. They are:

24
1. T type attenuator
2. - type attenuator
3. Lattice attenuator
4. Bridged type attenuator
Symmetrical T type attenuator
The values of the arms of the network can be specified in terms of characteristics
impedance, Zo & propagation constant,, of the network. The network in figure is a
symmetrical resistive circuit; hence Zo = Ro &  =. The design equations can be
obtained by applying Kirchoff’s law to the network.

R1 I1 I2 R1
c

I1- I2 I1

R0 R2 R0

R 2( I1  I 2)  I 2( R1  Ro)
I 2( R 2  R1  Ro)  I1R2
I1 R 2  R1  Ro
 N
I2 R2
The characteristics impedance of the attenuator is Ro when it is terminated in a load of
Ro
R2( R1  Ro)
Ro  R1 
R2  R1  Ro
Ro( N  1)
R1 
N 1
We have,
NR2  R2  R1  Ro
( N  1) R2  ( R1  Ro)

Substituting the value of R1, we have,

( N  1)
( N  1) R 2  Ro  Ro
( N  1)
2 NRo
( N  1) R 2  2
N 1
Symmetrical - Type attenuator

25
Figure shows symmetrical attenuator. The series and shunt arm of the attenuator can be
specified in terms of Zo & propagation constant. The network in figure is a symmetrical
resistive circuit; hence Zo = Ro &  =.

R1

c
R0 R2 R2 R0

R1 = Ro Sinh 
R2 = Ro coth /2
e   e
R1  Ro
2
By definition of propagation constant,
I1
e  N
I2

  & e  N

e / 2  e / 2
R2  Ro  / 2  / 2
e e
( N  1)
R2  Ro
( N  1)
Symmetrical Lattice network
A symmetrical resistance is given below: the series and the diagonal arm of the network
can be specified in terms of the characteristics impedance Zo & propagation constant.
( N  1)
R1  Ro
( N  1)
( N  1)
R1  Ro
( N  1)
Symmetrical Bridged-T network
The bridged –t network is shown below:
RA
R0 R0
2
1
R0 RB R0
1'
2'

26
 ( N  1)
RA  Ro
( N 1)
R 2  Ro  2 RB
Ro
RB 
N 1

Asymmetrical attenuator
If an attenuator is required to work between two impedances of unequal value an
asymmetrical attenuator may be designed to have image impedances equal to the given
impedances. The values of the arms can be calculated for the values of two image
impedances and the relation for attenuation. If Na is the aattenuation of an asymmetrical
attenuator,

P1 Is 2 Ri1 Is Ri1
Na   
P2 I R2 Ri 2 I R Ri 2
Ri1 & Ri2 are the image impedances of the asymmetrical attenuator.

Asymmetrical T-attenuator
Consider an asymmetrical attenuator is terminated in its image resistance Ri2 as shown in
fig.
R1 R2

Is R3 Ri2

IR

The image transfer constant of the attenuator is given by,

VsIs
e i 
VR I R
Since the attenuator contains only resistances V1 & V2 are in phase with Is & IR; hence

27
 i  Ainepers
Bi  0
The arms of an asymmetrical T network is given by,

Zg ZgZl
Z1  
tanh  i sinh  i
Zl ZgZl
Z2  
tanh  i sinh  i
ZgZl
Z3 
sinh  i
Asymmetrical - network
Considering an asymmetrical - attenuator terminated in its image impedances Ri1 & Ri2
as shown,

R2

R3
Ri1 R1 Ri2

The arms of an attenuator in terms of image impedance and images transfer constant are
given by,
Yg
Y1  Y3
tanh  i
Yl
Y2  Y3
tanh  i
YgYl
Y3 
sinh  i
Y1, Y2, Y3 – admittances
Yg, Yl – admittance of the generator & load.
For the attenuator shown in figure Y1=G1, Y2=G2, Y3=G3, Yg=Gi1 & =Ai IN nepers.
Hence,

28
 Gi1
G1   G3
tanh 1
Gi 2
G2   G3
tanh Ai
Gi1Gi 2
G3 
sinh Ai
G1, G2, G3 – Conductors.

Equalizers
Equalizers are networks designed to provide compensation against distortions that occur
in a signal while passing through an electrical network.
Series equalizer
The series equalizer is a two terminal network connected in series with a network to be
connected
Let,
N – input to output ratio of the load
D – attenuation in decibels
Ro – resistance of the load as well as source
P1 – input power
P1 – load power
2X1 – reactance of the equalizer
Vmax – voltage applied to the network.

2X1
Ro
Ro

V
VCC_WAVE

Attenuation D = log10 N
Pi
N
Pl
V V 2
Pi  ( max )2 Ro  max
2 Ro 4 Ro

29
When the equalizer is connected,
Vmax
l1 
(2 Ro)2  (2 X 1) 2
Vmax
Pl  [ ]Ro2
(2 Ro)  (2 X 1)
2 2

simplifying , weget
X 12
N  1
Ro2
Shunt equalizer
The shunt equalizer is a two terminal network connected in shunt with a network to be
corrected.
Let, N – input to output power ratio
D – Attenuation in decibels
Ro =- source resistance / load resistance
Is – source current
Il – load current
Pi – input power
Pl – load power
X1/2 – reactance of shunt equalizer

The shunt equalizer connected to the network is shown in figure below:

Il
Is X1/2 Ro
Ro

V
VCC_WAVE

Source current,
Vmax
Is 
Ro  ( Ro )
jX 1
2
V [2 Ro  jX 1]
Is  max
2 Ro( Ro  jX 1)

30
Load current,
jX 1/ 2
Il  Is
jX 1
Ro 
2
Vmax jX 1
sub., Is in the above eqn., we get, Il 
2Ro( Ro  jX 1)
Power delivered to load

Pl  Il Ro  Vmax 2 / 4Ro
2

Therefore, N= Pi/Pl
Ro 2
N  1 ( )
X1
Constant resistance equalizer
The disadvantage of a reactance equalizer either in a shunt equalizer or a series
equalizer, the variation of impedance with frequency causes impedance mismatch which
results in reflection losses. A four terminal equalizer which offers constant resistance at
all frequencies avoids reflection loss when terminated in its design impedance. Constant
resistance equalizer is a four terminal network which can be T, , lattice and bridged- T
network type. All these types have characteristics impedance satisfying the relation,
Z1Z2 = Ro2

NETWORK SYNTHESIS
Positive real functions
The driving point impedance or driving point admittance function is expressed as
P( s) aos n  a1s n1  ....  an1s  an
Z ( s)  Y ( s)  
Q( s) bos m  b1s m1  ....  bn1s  bn
Properties
 When s is real, Z(s) and Y(s) are real functions because the quotients of the
polynomials P(s) & Q(s), that is ak & bk are real. When Z(s) is determined from the
impedance of the individual branches, the quotients ak & bk are obtained by adding
together, multiplying or dividing the branch parameters which are real.

31

 The poles are zeros of Z(s) & Y(s) all lie in the left half of the s-plane, or on the
imaginary axis of the s-plane. In the latter case, the poles & zeros are simple.

 The real parts of the driving point functions Z(s) & Y(s) are positive, or zero, that is
ReZ(s)>0 or ReY(s)>0 provided for all Re(s)>0.

Synthesis of reactive one-ports by Foster’s network

The driving point function of a reactive one-port Z(s) is given by
H ( s 2  12 )( s 2  32 )( s 2  52 )
Z ( s) 
s( s 2  22 )( s 2  42 )( s 2  62 )
to determine the circuit parameters that implement its frequency response
Zin ( j)  jX in () .
The 2 forms of Foster networks for reactive one-ports are:
1. Series combination of parallel LC circuits with capacitance & inductance as shown
below & is known as first Foster form or impedance form.
L2 Ln
Co

C2 Cn

The expression for the LC parallel combination in the network is,

1
( )s
1
Z ( s)   C
1 1
Cs  s2 
Ls LC
as a result, we get ,
1
Cn  and
2 Pn
2 Pn
Ln 
n2
where, n refers to the term 2 Pns / s 2  n2 .

32
2. Parallel combination of series LC circuits with inductance Lo & capacitance as shown
below & is known as second Foster form or admittance form.

L2 Ln
Lo
Y(s)
C2 Cn

Similar results are obtained after the simplification of the admittance of the above
network.
1
Cn  and
2 Pn
where, 2 Pns / s 2  n2
2 Pn
Ln 
n2
Synthesis of R-L network by the Foster method
The driving point impedance of an RL network Z(s) is given by
H (s  1 )(s   3 )....
Z ( s) 
(s   2 )(s   4 )....
The first form is shown in figure below:
R1
R0

Z(s) L1

The above impedance function posses the following properties.

 The poles & zeros of the RL driving point impedance function are located on the
negative real axis of the s-plane.
 Poles & zeros alternate along the negative real axis.
 The singularity at he origin, or s=0 is a zero.
 The singularity at s= is a pole.
 The slope of the impedance curve is positive.

33
  The impedance at s= is always greater than the impedance at =0.
 The residues at the poles of Z(s) / s are real and positive.

The expression of the parallel combination in the network is

R1(s) R1 Z1(s) R1(s)
Z1(s)  where, 1  or 
s  1 L1 s s  1
We have the another form of the equation as
aos n  a1s n1  ...  an
Z ( s)  where n>m. the degree of the numerator is greater than
bos m  b1s m1  ...  bm
that of the denominator by one. At s=0.
an
Z (s)  (when an 0)
bn
= 0 (when an =0)
ao
and at s=, Z ( s)  s ( ao0)
bo
a1
 (ao=0)
b1
by separating the constant term and linear term, the RL impedance function can be
written as
Ps
Z (s)  Po  i
 ...  Hs
s i
if we divide the total impedance in to series combination of impedance Z1(s), Z2(s), ….
Zn(s)
Z (s)  Z1(s)  Z 2(s)  ...  Zn(s)
Thus we have impedance Z1(s) = Po, which is constant. The term Po represents a resistor
Ro and the impedance Zn =Hs represent the value of inductor and a resistor. Thus by
comparing, we have,
Rn
Pn  Rn And  n  where, 2 Pns / s 2  n2 .
Ln

Synthesis of R-L network by Cauer method

34
To synthesis the RL network, the basic step to know is that the impedance function at
infinity is always greater than the impedance function at zero. Similarly, the admittance
function at zero is always greater than the admittance function at infinity. In case of RL
network synthesis, we remove the minimum real part from the function Z(s), the
remainder will have a zero at s = 0. After inverting the remaining function, we can
remove the pole at s=0. by carrying on this process, we obtain a continued fraction
expansion. The first form of continued function expansion is called the first Cauer form,
which is,
1
Z ( s)  sL1 
1 1

R1 sL2  1
1
 ....
R2

L1 L2 Ln

R1 R2 Rn

The Cauer network for realizing the above function is shown in figure below:
In the network shown above, if Z(s) has a pole at s=, the first element is L1. if Z(s) is a
constant at s=,the first element is R1. if Z(s) has a zero at s =0, the last element is Ln. if
Z(s) is a constant at s=0, the last element is Rn. The second form of continued fraction
expansion is,
1
Z (s)  R1 
1
sL1 
1
R2 
1 1

sL2 R3  ....
R1 Rn
R2

L1
L2 Ln

35
Here also the presence of the first and the last element depends on the characteristics of
impedance function, Z(s). If Z(s) has a zero at s=0, the first element is L1. If Z(s) is a
constant at s=0, the first element is R1. If Z(s) ha a pole at s=, the last element is Ln. if
Z(s) is a constant at V the last element is Rn.

Synthesis of R-C network by the Foster method

The driving point impedance RC network is shown below:
H (s  1 )(s   3 )....
Z ( s) 
(s   2 )(s   4 )....
The first form of he Rc Foster network is shown:
R1
C0
Z(s) C1

Here, the RC impedance possesses the same properties as the RL admittance function.
1
1 1
Thus, Z1(s)  C1 where,  1  and P1  .
1 R1C 1 C1
s
R1C1
We have the other form of the impedance function
aos n  a1s n1  ...  an
Z ( s) 
bos m  b1s m1  ...  bm
Obviously, the degree in s of the numerator polynomial is greater than that of the
denominator polynomial by 1. The roots of the polynomials are real and negative.
ao
At s =, Z ( s)   R where ao0
bo
=0, when ao=0
The total impedance can be written as the combination of impedances Z1(s), …. Zn(s)
Z (s)  Z1(s)  Z 2(s)  ...  Zn(s)
Po Pi
Z ( s)    ...  H
s s i

36
 1 1
Thus we have P1  and  1  .
Cn RnCn
Synthesis of R-C network by Cauer method
To synthesis the RC network function, the basic step to know is that the impedance
function at zero is always greater than the impedance function at infinity. Similarly, he
admittance function at infinite is always greater than the admittance function at zero.
To synthesis an RC network, we remove the minimum real part from the function, Z(s).
if the minimum real part is Re[Z(j)] = Z(C), by removing Z() from Z(s), the remainder
will have a zero at s= .after inverting the remaining function, we an remove a pole at
s=. By carrying on this process, we obtain a continued fraction expansion. The first
form of continued fraction expansion is called the first Cauer form, and is given by,
1
Z (s)  R1 
1
sC1 
1
R2 
1
 ....
sC 2
R1 Rn
R2

Cn
C1 C2

The Cauer network for realizing the above function is shown in figure.
In the network shown, if Z(s) has a zero at s= , the first element is C1. If Z(s) is a
constant at s= , the first element is R1. If Z(s) has a pole at s=0, the last element is Cn.
If Z(s) is constant at s=0, the last element is Rn.
The second form of continued fraction expansion is,
1 1
Z ( s)  
C1s 1  1
R1 1
1
C 2s 
1
 ....
R2
The second Cauer form of network for the above function Z(s) is shown in figure.

37
 C1 C2
Cn

R1 R2 Rn

NETWORK FUNCTIONS

Give the relation between transform of the excitation to the transform of the response.
Consider the network shown in figure

I1 I1
1 ONE 1 I2 2
ONE
V1 PORT PORT
1’ NETWORK 1’
V1 V2
2’
NETWORK

FIG: ONE PORT NETWORK FIG: TWO PORT NETWORK

One port network consists of only one voltage and one current source. It constitutes of
one pair of terminals called port.
Two port networks consist of two currents and two voltages. Normally 1-1’ and 2-2’ are
called ports. If the driving source is connected across 1-1’, the load is connected across 2-
2’. If the source is connected across 2-2’ then the load is connected across
1-1’. Two ports containing no sources are called passive ports. Two ports containing
sources in their branches are called active ports.

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK

For a one port network, the driving point impedance is defined as,

Z(s) = V(s)/I(s)

The reciprocal of impedance function is the driving point admittance function, and is
denoted by Y(s).
For the two port network without internal sources, the driving point impedance function
at port 1-1’ is the ratio of the transform voltage at port 1-1’ to the transform current at the
same port.

Z11(s) = V1(s)/I1(s)

Similarly, the driving poit impedance at port 2-2’ is thr ratio of transform voltage at port
2-2’ to the transform current at the same port.

38
 Z22(s) = V2(s)/I2(s)

Also the driving point admittance is defined as the ratio of he transform current at any
port to the transform voltage at the same port.

Y11(s) = I1(s)/V1(s) and Y22(s) = I2(s)/V2(s)

The relation between

voltage or current at one port to the voltage or current at the other port as shown it is
found by forming the system of equations using node or mesh analysis, and taking the
transforms of equations by setting the initial conditions to zero and solving for the ratio
of the response to excitation.

VOLTAGE TRANSFER RATIO

Ratio of voltage transform at one port to the voltage transform at the other port. It is
denoted as G(s).

G21(s) = V2(s)/V1(s) And

G12(s) = V1(s)/V2(s)

CURRENT TRANSFER RATIO

Ratio of current transform at one port to the current transform at the other port. It is
denoted by (s).

21(s) = I2(s)/I1(s) And

12(s) = I1(s)/I2(s)

TRANSFER IMPEDANCE
Ratio of voltage transform at one port to the current transform at the other port. It is
denoted by Z(s).

39
 Z21(s) = V2(s)/I1(s) And

Z12(s) = V1(s)/I2(s)

TRANSFER ADMITTANCE
Ratio of current transform at one port to the voltage transform at the other port. It is
denoted by Y(S).

Y21(s) = I2(s)/V1(s) And

Y12(s) = I1(s)/V2(s)

POLES AND ZEROS

In pole/zero analysis, a network is described by its network transfer function which, for
any linear time-invariant network, can be written in the general form:

In the factorized form, the general function is:

The roots of the numerator N(s) (that is, z i) are called the zeros of the network function,
and the roots of the denominator D(s) (that is, p j) are called the poles of the network
function. S is a complex frequency.

Consider the network function,

N(s) = [(s+1)2(s+5)]
(s+2) (s+3+j2) (s+3-j2)

Has double zeros at s = -1 and a zero at s = -5; and three finite poles at s = -2, s = -3+j2,
and s = -3-j2 as shown.

40
The network function is said to be stable when the real parts of the poles and zeros are
negative. Otherwise the poles and zeros must lie within the left half of the s-plane.

NECESSAY CONDITIONS FOR DRIVING POINT FUNCTION

The restrictions on pole and zero locations in the driving point function with common
factors in P(s) and Q(s) cancelled are given below:
1. The co-efficient in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of network functions with N(s) =
P(s) / Q(s) must be real and positive.
2. Complex or imaginary poles and zeros must occur in conjugate pairs.
3.
a) The real parts of all poles and zeros must be zero, or negative.
b) If the real part is zero, then the pole and zero must be simple.

4. The polynomials P(s) and Q(s) may not have any missing terms between the highest
and the lowest degrees, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
5. The degree of P(s) and Q(s) may differ by zero or one only.
6. The lowest degree in P(s) and Q(s) may differ in degree by at the most one.

NECESSAY CONDITIONS FOR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

The restrictions on pole and zero location in transfer functions with common factors in
P(s) and Q(s) cancelled are given below:

1.
a) The co-efficient in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of N(s) = P(s) / Q(s) must be real.
b) The co-efficient in Q(s) must be positive, but some of the co-efficients in P(s) may be
negative.
2. Complex or imaginary poles and zeros must occur in conjugate pairs.
3. The real part of poles must be negative, or zero. If the real part is zero, then the pole
must be simple
4. The polynomial Q(s) may not have any missing terms between the highest and the
lowest degree; unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
5. The polynomial P(s) may not have any missing terms between the highest and the
lowest degree.
6. The degree of P(s) may be as small as zero, independent of the degree of Q(s).
7.
a. for the voltage transfer ratio and the current transfer ratio, the maximum
degree of P(s) must equal the degree of Q(s).
b. for the transfer impedance and transfer admittance, the maximum degee of
P(s) must equal the degree of Q(s) plus one.

TIME DOMAIN RESPONSE FROM POLE AND ZERO PLOT

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The time domain response can be obtained from the pole zero plot of a network function.
Consider the array of poles as shown:

j

s1
s3

 
s4 s2

s3*
s1*

Here, s1 and s3 are complex conjugate poles, whereas s2 and s4 are real poles. If the
poles are real, the quadratic function is,

s2+2n+n2 for >1

Where,  - damping ratio and n – undamped natural frequency. The roots of the
equation are s2,s4 = - n  n2 – 1 ; >1.
For these poles, the time domain response is given by,

i(t) = k2es2t + k4es4t

S1 and S2 constitute complex conjugate poles. If the poles are complex conjugate, then
the quadratic function is,
s2+2n+n2 for <1
The roots are s1, s1* = - n  n1 - 2 ; <1.
For these poles, the time domain response is given by,

i(t) = k1e-n+j(n1 - 2 )t + k1*e- n - j(n1 - 2 )t

= ke - nt Sin (n1 - 2)t

from the above eqn., we can conclude that the response fro the complex conjugate poles
is damped sinusoid. Similarly s3, s3* are also a complex conjugate pair.

Consider a network having transfer admittance Y(s). If the input voltage V(s) is applied
to the network, the corresponding current is given by

I(s) = V(s) Y(s) = P(s) / Q(s)

Thus, I(s) =

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Where, H is scale factor. By taking partial fractions,
I(s) = [k1/ (s-s1)] + [ k2 / (s – s2)] +….+ [km / (s- sm)].
The time domain response can be obtained by taking inverse transform

i(t) = L-1{[k1/ (s-s1)] + [ k2 / (s – s2)] +….+ [km / (s- sm)]}.

STABILITY OF THE SYSTEM

A system will be stable if its polynomial roots has negative real parts. Since it was first
investigated by Routh – Hurwitz criterion of stability of network functions. Following are
the steps for adopting a system to be stable:
1. The array is to be constructed first.
2. Two rows o co-efficients are formed, first row containing even numbered co-
efficients and the second row odd number co-efficients.
3. The ray is to be completed.

Let the polynomial be

P(s) = b0sm + b1sm-1 +b2sm-2 +….+ bm.
1st row and 2nd row co-efficients give
b0 b2 b4……
b1 b3 b5……
let m=5, the array will contain (m+1) i.e. 6 rows.

S5 b0 b2 b4
S4 b1 b3 b5
S3 c1 c2
S2 d1 d2
S1 e1
S0 f1

According to Routh Hurwitz criterion, the system is said to be stable if and only if there
are no changes in sign of the first column of the array. This gives the roots with negative
real pars and hence gives the condition of stability.

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE RESPONSE

The steady state response can be obtained from the pole and zero plot, and I is given by,

N(j) = M()ej()

Where, M() – amplitude and () – phase.

Two port networks

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The voltage and current at the input terminals are V1 and I1; whereas V2 and I2 are
specified at the output port. The number of possible combinations are generated by the
four variables, taken two at a time, is six. Thus, there are six possible sets of equations
describing a two-port network.

OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE (Z) PARAMETERS

A General linear two-port network is as shown

The Z parameters of a two-port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may
be defined by expressing the port voltages V1 and V2 in terms of the currents I1 and I2.
Here V1 and V2 are dependent variables, and I1 I2 are the independent variables. Thus,

Here, Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22 are the network functions and are called impedance Z
parameters. These parameters can be represented by matrices.
[V] = [Z][I]

Where,

Z11 – open circuit input impedance ;Z12 – open circuit forward transfer impedance

Z21 - open circuit reverse transfer impedance; Z22 – open circuit output impedance

The equivalent circuit for the z-parameters is shown below,

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SHORT CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE (Y) PARAMETERS

A general two – port network is as shown,

The YZ parameters of a two-port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may
be defined by expressing the port currents I1 and I2 in terms of the voltages V1 and V2.
Here I1 and I2 are dependent variables, and V1, V2 are the independent variables. Thus,

Here, Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 are the network functions and are called admittance (Y)
parameters. These parameters can be represented by matrices.
[I] = [Y][V]

Where; Y11- Short circuit input admittance or driving point admittance; Y12 – short
circuit forward transfer impedance or transfer admittance; Y21 – short circuit reverse
transfer impedance; Y22 – short circuit output impedance

The equivalent circuit for the Y-parameters is shown below,

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TRANSMISSION (ABCD) PARAMETERS

Transmission parameters, or ABCD parameters, are widely in transmission line theory

and cascade networks. Here, the input variables are V1 and I1, usually called sending
end, are expressed in terms of the output variables V2 and I2 called receiving end.
Transmission parameters are also called general circuit parameters, or chain parameters.

V2 = AV1 – BI1
I2 = CV1 – DI1

The negative sign is used with I2 and not with the parameter B and D.

Where,

HYBRID PARAMETER (h-PARAMETER)

It combines some of the properties of the Z & y- parameters. Here the input voltage and
output current are expressed in terms of input current and output voltage.

In the matrix form,

.

Where, h11, h12, h21, h22 – h-parameters of a four terminal network defined as,

The equivalent circuit is as shown:

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PROPERTIES

· If one set of parameters is known, other parameters can be found using simple
conversions. This can help when one set of parameters is needed, but cannot be
measured directly.

· Simple cases of networks are reciprocal and symetrical. When a network is neither of
these, then it typically has active components, dependant sources, etc.

Reciprocal Networks

· If a voltage is applied at one port, the short circuit current out the other port will be the
same, regardless of which side the voltage is applied to. Reciprocal networks are only
possible when passive elements are used. The parameters that indicate reciprocal
networks are,

Symmetrical Networks

· This is a special case of the reciprocal network where the input and output parameters
are identical.

· In addition to the reciprocal constraints, we must also consider,

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INTERCONNECTION OF TWO PORT NETWORKS

Three ways those two ports are interconnected

ya Y parameters
* parallel
 y  ya   yb 
Parallel
yb
Z parameters
za
* Series z  za   zb 
zb
ABCD parameters

T  Ta  Tb 
* cascade Ta Tb
Cascade

TWO PORT PARAMETER CONVERSIONS

48
To go from one set of parameters to another, locate the set of parameters
you are in, move along the vertical until you are in the row that contains
the parameters you want to convert to – then compare element for element

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