Page 1 of 8

Learning and Cognition Essay:

Throughout this essay three theories will be discussed. After discussing the main concepts and key
areas of each theory, I will discuss their strengths and limitations as well as my intentions of using
these theories in the classroom and the relation that they have to education. The three theories that
will be discussed are operant conditioning from behaviourism, The Social Learning Theory and The
Psychosocial Theory. These theories were discovered by Burrhus Frederic Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Al-
bert Bandura and Erik Erikson.

Behaviourism/Operant conditioning:
“Behaviourism is the theory that explains human and animal behaviour in terms of conditioning,
without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering
behaviour patterns” (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). There are five main theorists in behaviourism these
are Ivan Pavlov who discovered classical conditioning in 1897, Watson who in 1913 had proposed
that Pavlov’s classical condition could explain all aspects of human psychology, he was best known
for his experiment using a baby who was known as little Albert, he concluded by suggesting classical
conditioning could be used as a way of creating a phobia, Thorndike who developed a “law of effect”
in 1905, B.F. Skinner who thought of Operant conditioning in 1936 and Bandura who developed his
theory of social learning in 1963 (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). For the purpose of this essay I will
only be looking at one aspect of the behaviourism theory which is operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that takes place through means of using rewards and
punishments. Skinners hypothesis was that learning is based on learning from external events, by
either learning knowingly, classic conditioning or unknowingly, operant conditioning, (Groundwater-
smith, Ewing and Le Cornu). Unlike classical conditioning, operant allows the person to respond to
the cue that is based on the law of effect. Operant conditioning is a theory thought of by a behavioural
psychologist, Burrhus Frederic Skinner (McLeod 2015). Operant conditioning is defined to be the
“learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents”
(Woolfolk and Magnets, 2013). There are three types in operant conditioning. These are punishment
which incorporates positive and negative punishment and reinforcement which incorporates positive
and negative reinforcement and neutral operants (Keenan 2012).

Skinner showed that by reinforcing good behaviour for pressing the correct button, from a pigeon
with food it was more likely to increase the rate in which the pigeon did the task as it wanted to be
rewarded (Goldstein 2011).

Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 2 of 8

Social Learning Theory:

The social learning theory was further adapted from the behaviourists notion that learning was able
to be controlled by reinforcing the behaviours deemed as desirable and punishing the behaviours that
were undesirable (Groundwater-smith, Ewing and Le Cornu). It was believed by Bandura that the
traditional behaviour views implemented by the other behaviourists were correct however he sug-
gested that they were incomplete. The functions of observing, retaining and replication behaviour that
a person has observed others doing (McLeod 2015). The theory is mainly associated with Albert
Bandura. There are four processes of learning which are attention, retention, reproduction and moti-
vation (McInerney and McInerney). Bandura believed that there were four different types of motiva-
tion. These were extrinsic - outside sources, intrinsic - internal sources, vicarious - learning from
others and self - accomplishing something well.

There were two key concepts within the social learning theory these were that of Reciprocal Deter-
mination and Self Efficiency. Reciprocal determination was what bandura deemed to believe that the
environment, person and behaviour all effect each other while his belief of how well you can perform
as behaviour made up his self-efficiency concept (Woolfolk and Magnets, 2013). The Bobo doll ex-
periment was Bandura’s most notable experiment. At the time of the bobo doll study it was widely
believed that seeing others venting aggression would drain away the viewers aggressive drive
(McLeod 2015).

Eriksons Psychosocial Theory:

In Eriksons psychosocial Theory there are a total of eight theories. The eight theories are trust vs
mistrust, Autonomy vs Shame, Initiative vs Guilt, Industry vs Inferiority, Ego Identity vs Role Con-
fusion, intimacy vs Isolation, generatively vs stagnation and ego integrity vs despair. Throughout this
section of the essay I will only be discussing the first four stages as they are relevant to schooling.
According to Eriksons theory the successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality,
however if the person fails to do this they are more likely to have an unhealthy personality and sense
of self (McLeod 2015). The psychosocial theory is based around the belief that people develop
through varies stages throughout their life (Social Cognitive Theory lecture).

The first stage is trust Vs. mistrust. This stage is based on the ages of 0 to 18 months. During the
stage it is the bases of the infant learning to either trust or mistrust someone. For example if their
parent(s) or carers have supported them throughout their earliest year and a half then they will develop
a sense of trust within the world, and the relationships that they will have throughout their life
Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 3 of 8
(McInerney & McInerney 2015). If However the infant does not get the care and attention they need
from their caregiver then they will not have confidence in the world or the people they meet/come
across. The second stage is based between the ages of 18 months to three years and is the autonomy
Vs. shame and doubt Stage. This stage is where the child is slowly becoming more mobile and more
independent. They are able to learn about what they can do like put on their shoes and clothes and
how they can play with different toys (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Growing sense of independence.
Parents need to allow children to explore, while encouraging them which in turns leads them to be-
come tolerant if they fail. For example instead of the adult putting on the child’s clothes for them,
they are given the opportunity to have a go for themselves and when needed ask for guidance
(McLeod 2015).

The third stage in Eriksons theory is called initiative Vs. guilt and it is based between the ages of
three and five where they child is still learning but they are also learning to assert themselves. These
years have been noted as the most rapid years in the child’s life especially considering it is right
before they start school. During this stage children are slowly being interacted with by other children.
it is also looking at the child’s play and providing them to be able to explore more into their interper-
sonal skills (McLeod 2015). They are slowly being allowed to plan activities, initiate games with
others. If they are able to have this stage fulfilled then they will develop the sense of initiative, security
in their ability to lead others and their decisions. The fourth stage is based on the children aged be-
tween 5 and 12 years and is the industry Vs. Inferiority stage. In this stage it is important for the child
to learn how to read and write, to do simple mathematics, and to have a go at doing a variety of things.
In this stage educators generally become the ones that take one of the most important roles in the
child’s life. If the child is encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, then they begin to feel con-
fident in their own ability to achieve the goals that they have set for themselves. If the child can’t
develop a specific skill then they may develop a sense of inferiority (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013)

Strengths and Limitations:

Operant conditioning has many strengths and weaknesses which both supports the use of it in the
classroom and also the negatives about using it in the classroom. Some of the positives of Skinners
Operant conditioning is that it is possibly one of the easiest behavioural theories to implement in the
classroom.

A limitation that can be noted in regards to Skinners theory operant conditioning may be that the
undesirable behaviour may not have actually stopped. For example if the student were to receive an
award, they would stop because they received positive reinforcement in some form however if after
Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 4 of 8
the student has been given a reward they continue with the undesirable behaviour than that means the
behaviour has not stopped and the technique used has not worked. Therefore it is not simple to say
that operant conditioning can work on everyone.

Some of the strengths of Bandura’s observational learning theory within the social learning theory is
that it factors in both internal and external influences (Social Cognitive Theory Lecture). It suggests
that the learner makes an active contribution to different changes in their behaviour and it looks at
how long can have both a positive and negative impact on the persons behaviour (Social Cognitive
Theory Lecture). Some of the limitations of Bandura’s observational learning theory are that it does
not state why some children display the same behaviours as adults, imitating them, and some don’t.

Some of the strengths from Eriksons psychosocial theory is that it is stated the person is able to revisit
and fulfil the stages that they have not completed. The theory is also able to be applied multiculturally
which means that when a child starts school they should have fulfilled the stages based on the years
before they start it also means that no matter what child is able to fulfil each stage even if it is later
on (Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson Lecture). Another strength that has
been noted is that it provides a nice framework for the development of the persons entire life (Cherry
2015).

Some of the limitations of Eriksons psychosocial theory is that in his findings he does not state clearly
how a person has completed that specific stage. This in turn can lead people to believe that a person
could potentially still be in other stages while already being in other stage (McLeod 2015). It also
does not suggest how a person can revisit and resolve something in order to complete the stage at a
later date (Cherry 2015). It has also been noted that it is difficult for the person to self report and
observe themselves for example how does someone know if they have experienced either on or the
other or a conflicted between the two stages (Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud and Erik Erik-
son Lecture).

Relation to Education and my Intentions:

In todays society and educational settings it is very common for teachers to use operant conditioning.
There are many ways in which operant conditioning can be used within the classroom. The use of
things such as star of the day, positive notes, certificates, sticker charts, reward jars and lists such as
‘A choice’ lists help provide the teacher with a way of using positive reinforcement to the students.
Through the use of these reward systems within the classroom it reinforces the behaviour to the stu-
dents that the teacher wants to see.
Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 5 of 8

For example every time a student or students do something well or behave in an appropriate way a
tick, sticker or counter, depending on the reward type used in a particular class, is given to the stu-
dent(s). When the student(s) or class depending on if it is an individual or a group reward system
have reached a certain amount of ticks, stickers or counters, as a reward to the students they are able
to choose for example an activity they want to do such as have free time, watch a movie, go outside
et cetera. If the class or student are behaving in an inappropriate manor or are using undesired behav-
iours than the teacher is able to take away ticks, stars or counters as a form of punishment and as a
way to see that for undesired behaviours they will lose they’re rewards.

Ways an educator could use observational learning in their classroom could be being a good role
model to the students obviously by doing the right things, acting the right ways and displaying the
correct behaviours they will see what they should be doing. Educators should also demonstrate new
ideas to the children and let them have some hands on learning to understand and figure things out
for themselves. Another way that operant conditioning could be used is by the teacher simply encour-
aging a child who is doing well or singling them out to give them positive feedback or on the opposite
telling a child off by either giving them a warning, taking away their recess or lunch giving them
detention or sending them out of the classroom.

Ways that an educator may use Erikson’s psychosocial stages in the classroom could be if a student
at school has had the inconsistent and unreliable care and and attention from their carer then they will
not have any trust or confidence in the school environment, with their classmates or with the teachers
as they will feel like they aren’t able to trust them. This could be hard for the teacher to create that
student-teacher bond that most teachers have with their students. As stated on by McLeod on simp-
lypsychology.com “a person is able to make up their stages if they have missed them at some point
in their life which means they are able to get back on track with the psychosocial stages” (McLeod
2015). If at some point there is a student who seems to have not adequately sufficed the first stage of
the psychosocial theory than the educator will do need to do their best to give the student the care and
attention they should have had which in turn will help with their development as a child. If the child
has not met this stage by the time they are at school then they may struggle with being self dependent
and will rely on others and educators for them to do things for them and give them the answers. In
turn if the child is unable to fulfil this stage then they may suffer when being critiqued or controlled
and develop a sense of guilt (McLeod 2015).

Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 6 of 8
In school if the child has not met the needs of this stage then it may be exceptionally difficult for the
educator to critique or even control the child. If this is the case than as an educator the needs of the
child will have to be meet in order for them to feel comfortable being critiqued as this is a major thing
that happens through their life.

While the child is at this stage in primary school it is important for the educator to allow the child to
have a go at doing things for themselves while also giving guidance if needed (McLeod 2015). As an
educator the needs of the child's will need to be met in this stage. They will need to be encouraged to
find out who they are and what they want to do in their life while learning about the different roles
they will play as adults and post school. The students will need support from the educator and should
never be judged for the decisions that they make.

All of the three theories discussed can be connected to different professional knowledge characteris-
tics through AITSL. For instance 1.1 of know students and how they learn can be linked with both
observational learning and the psycho social theory. This is because it suggests that educators need
to be able to understand the psychical, social and intellectual development of their students
(Aitsl.edu.au 2015) Another that can be connected is 1.5 which states that educators need to be able
to understand how to change their way of teaching to support all the abilities of their students, this is
able to be related back to all three theories (Aitsl.edu.au 2015).

Conclusion:
In conclusion, each theory has links between themselves for example reinforcement and learning. As
stated throughout the essay their are many links that can be made between operant conditioning, the
social learning theory and the psychosocial theory to the relation in education and behavioural man-
agement in the classroom. As noted there are many different theories thought of by other behavioural
psychologists in which teachers can also use in the classroom including those that have not been
discussed here. Although their are many strengths for each of the theories discussed some do have
weaknesses that need to be taken into account when using them.

Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 7 of 8

Reference List:

Aitsl.edu.au, 2015, Standards | Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, viewed 23
May 2015, <http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers/standards/list>.

Cherry, K 2015, Understanding Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development, in , About.com Ed-

ucation, viewed 21 May 2015, <http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychoso-
cial.htm>.

Ey, L 2015, ‘Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson’, EDUC 1077, University of
South Australia, Adelaide, 7 August.

Goldstein, E 2011, Cognitive Psychology, 4th edn, Cengage Learning, USA.

Groundwater-Smith, S, Ewing, R & Le Cornu, R 2015, Teaching Challenges & Dilemmas, 5th edn,
Cengage Learning Australia, Victoria, pp. 80, 81.

Hoffnung, M, Hoffnung, R, Seifert, K, Burton Smith, R, Hine, A, Ward, L & Pause, C 2013, Lifespan
Development, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Queensland.

Keenan, T 2012, Foundation of Psychology, 3rd edn, SAGE publications, Califronia.

Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya
Page 8 of 8
McLeod, S 2015, Erik Erikson | Psychosocial Stages | Simply Psychology, in , Simplypsychology.org,
viewed 25 May 2015, <http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html>.

McLeod, S 2015, Albert Bandura | Social Learning Theory | Simply Psychology, in , Simplypsychol-
ogy.org, viewed 25 May 2015, <http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html>.

McLeod, S 2015, B.F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning | Simply Psychology, in , Simplypsychol-

ogy.org, viewed 5 June 2015, <http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html>.

McInerney, Dennis, and Valentina McInerney 2006. Educational Psychology - Constructing Learn-
ing. 4th edn. Pearson Education Australia, NSW.

Spears, B and Ey, L 2015, ‘Social Cognitive Theory’, EDUC 1077, University of South Australia,
Adelaide, 7 August.

Woolfolk, A & Margetts, K 2013, Educational Psychology, 3rd edn, Pearson Australia Group, NSW.

Imogen Carruthers, Student I.D. 110162614, Learning and Cognition 1077, Niraj Pandya