RELATED LITERATURE

Alugbati (Basella alba)

Alugbati also known as malabar, vine spinach, arogbati, dundul and

grana, is a common vegetable that can be found practically everywhere. Basella

alba is native to the Indian Subcontinent, southeast Asia and New Guinea. It is

reportedly naturalized in the China, tropical Africa, Brazil, Belize, Colombia,

the West Indies, Fiji and French Polynesia. In the Philippines this medicinal herb

is so common that it sprouts like a weed almost practically everywhere across

the country. Furthermore, the leaves of this vegetable are one of the main

ingredients in an all vegetable dish called utan that is served over rice. (Retrieved

on September 4, 2015 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basella_alba)

While Alugbati is a medicinal herb, it has no direct healing effects to

diabetes. However, studies have shown that as an antioxidant, action of B. rubra

in Alugbati showed potential ability to reduce blood sugar levels. The positive

results however only applies to rats and has not been confirmed or validated if

the same effect happens to diabetic humans.

The importance of Alugbati for a diabetic patient however is mainly

because of its fibrous content, which essentially helps keep patients full thereby

reducing their appetite and eating. Fiber is also healthy because it has no

saturated fat. It is therefore low in calorie which helps prevent constipation and

might cut your risk of heart disease and diabetes. Alugbati, therefore, does not

help treat diabetes but it does help manage and prevent it.

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 Alugbati also contains phytochemicals called saponins, which help reduce

your risk of heart disease and cancer. It is also a treatment for headaches,

inflammation, constipation, and ulcers. The vegetable is also rich in vitamin A for

healthy eyesight and also helps keep your bones and teeth strong. It is also rich

in iron or folate that is great for pregnant women as it promotes proper DNA and

brain formation and function. (Retrieved on June 30, 2015 from

http://www.allaboutdiabetes.net/alugbati-for-diabetes/)

Chemical Composition and Good Benefits of Drinking Tea

Tea originated in China about 5000 years ago. It was discovered in 2735

B.C., where legend has it that one of the emperors of China, Sh'eng Nung, who

was considered a divine healer who always boiled his water, accidentally boiled a

few leaves from a wild tea plant, which had fallen into his pot, giving it a delightful

scent and flavor. From there tea was adopted in the UK during the 17th century

after the sea routes between China and Europe opened (Retrieved on July 14,

2015 from http://www.theorganicgrocer.com.au/blog/post/2007/05/Types-of-

Organic-Tea-and-Benefits.aspx).

Aroma, Taste and Color of Teas

A cup of infusion of made tea is completely different from the infusion of

fresh tea flushes in color, taste and aroma. These characteristics are developed

during the manufacturing process after the harvesting of tea flushes. Tea flush is

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generally a reference to young shoots of tea that consists of terminal bud and

two adjacent leaves. In fresh tea flush there exists a wide variety of non-volatile

compounds; polyphenols, flavonols and flavonol glycosides, flavones, phenolic

acids and depsides, amino acids, chlorophyll and other pigments, carbohydrates,

organic acids, caffeine and other alkaloids, minerals, vitamins and enzymes.

Aroma is one of the critical aspects of tea quality which can determine

acceptance or rejection of a tea before it is tasted. Early research on tea aroma

can be traced back over 170 years (Prakash et.al., 2011), but progress on a

more scientific basis has been achieved by the application of modern analytical

techniques since 1960’s, when gas chromatography was widely used, especially

when capillary column techniques are available. It is generally believed that the

characteristics of various kinds of tea consist of a balance of very complicated

mixtures of aroma compounds in tea.

Taste of food is mainly composed of five basic sensations; that is,

sweetness, astringency, sourness, bitterness and umami (Tamura et al., 2011). A

delicious cup of tea infusion is an ingenious balance of various taste sensations.

Astringency is a drying, puckering sensation in the mouth that affects the whole

of the tongue more or less uniformly (Lea et al., 2010). Bitterness is usually

unpleasant, but sometimes desirable in moderate amounts, and is perceived

predominantly at the back of, and sometimes along side of, the tongue

(Moncrieff, 2010). Results indicated that the astringency and bitterness of green

tea infusion was mainly determined by the contents of catechins and other

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phenolic compounds. Besides catechins and caffeine, some amino acids (such

as arginine, alanine, etc) also contribute to the bitterness of green tea infusion.

Shade of color in made from tea and the infusion color are two attributes

besides aroma and taste in the evaluation of various kinds of tea. Green tea

infusion contains no highly colored products formed by the oxidation of

polyphenolic compounds, and the desired color is greenish or yellowish green

without any trace of red or brown color. The yellow color in green tea infusion is

mainly determined by the water soluble flavonols (1.3 to 1.5% of the tea leaves

dry weight), which include kaempferol, quercetine, isoquercetin, myricetin,

myricitrin, rutin, kaempferitrin, etc and flavones (0.02% of the tea leaves in dry

weight) which include apigenin, isovitexin, vitexin, saponarin, vicenin-2, etc as

well as their glycosides; besides the water soluble anthocyanins.

The tea polyphenols have been reported in various researches to exhibit

antioxidant properties. Antioxidants have been touted as having a range of health

benefits, but the scientific evidence for these is still a little vague in parts. Studies

have shown that antioxidants can protect cells from damage as a result of free

radicals – molecules with an unpaired electron – but the results of some longer

term trials have been inconclusive as to their efficacy, particularly in cancer

treatments. Meanwhile, other studies have indicated an inverse relationship

between tea consumption and cardiovascular disease (Retrieved on July 23,

2015 from http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/02/01/polyphenols-antioxidants-

the-chemistry-of-tea/).

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 Immunity Boosting Research conducted by Harvard University (2010)

showed that people who regularly drink green tea do not fall victim to common

bacterial and viral infections as easily as those who do not add green tea to their

diet. The message is clear. Green Tea boosts the strength of the immune system.

The Catechins present in green tea prevent bacteria and viruses from attaching

themselves to cell walls in order to infect them. These Catechins also counter the

toxins released by microbes. This antimicrobial property also protects takers from

bad breath, dysentery, diarrhea, tooth decay, indigestion, flu, cough & cold, and

colitis, all of which are caused, in some way, by microbial & fungal action

(Retrieved: July 14, 2015 from http://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/green-

tea.html).

These are some beneficial uses of the green teas:

 Tea can boost exercise endurance. Scientists have found that the

catechins (antioxidants) in green tea extract increase the body’s ability to

burn fat as fuel, which accounts for improved muscle endurance.

 Drinking tea could help reduce the risk of heart attack. Tea might also help

protect against cardiovascular and degenerative diseases.

 The antioxidants in tea might help protect against a boatload of cancers,

including breast, colon, colorectal, skin, lung, esophagus, stomach, small

intestine, pancreas, liver, ovarian, prostate and oral cancers. But don’t rely

solely on tea to keep a healthy body — tea is not a miracle cure, after all.

While more studies than not suggest that tea has cancer-fighting benefits,

the current research is mixed.

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  Tea helps fight free radicals. Tea is high in oxygen radical absorbance

capacity (“ORAC” to its friends), which is a fancy way of saying that it

helps destroy free radicals (which can damage DNA) in the body. While

our bodies are designed to fight free radicals on their own, they’re not 100

percent effective — and since damage from these radical oxygen ninjas

has been linked to cancer, heart disease and neurological degeneration,

we’ll take all the help we can get.

 Drinking tea is linked with a lower risk of Parkinson’s disease. When

considered with other factors like smoking, physical activity, age and body

mass index, regular tea drinking was associated with a lowered risk of

Parkinson’s disease in both men and women.

 Regular tea drinking might also counteract some of the negative effects

of smoking and might even lessen the risk of lung cancer.

 Tea might be an effective agent in the prevention and treatment of

neurological diseases, especially degenerative diseases (think

Alzheimer’s). While many factors influence brain health, polyphenols in

green tea may help maintain the parts of the brain that regulate learning

and memory (Retrieved: July 20, 2015 from

http://healthland.time.com/2012/09/04/13-reasons-to-love-tea/).

Mechanism Action of Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are defined as bioactive non-nutrient plant compounds in

fruits, vegetables, grains, and other plant foods that have been linked to reducing

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the risk of major chronic diseases. The word ‘phyto-’ is derived from the Greek

phyto which means - plant (Liu, 2004).

The presence of these bioactive components are said to confer them with

resistance against bacterial, fungal and pesticidal pathogens. These bioactive

components are said to be responsible for the antimicrobial effects of plant

extracts in vitro (Abo et al., 1991; Nweze et al., 2004 as cited by Doughari et.al.

2009).

Furthermore, phytochemicals are a large group of plant-derived

compounds hypothesized to be responsible for much of the disease protection

conferred from diets high in fruits, vegetables, beans, cereals, and plant-based

beverages such as tea and wine. Phytochemicals in food are shown below:

Food Phytochemical
Soy beans, Soy milk, Tofu Isoflavones (Genistein and Daidzein)
Strawberries, Red wine, blueberries Anthosyanins
Red wine, Grape Juice, Grape extracts Proanthocyanidins and flavan-3-ols
cocoa
Garlic, Onions, Leeks, Olives, Sulfides, thoils
Scallions
Wheat bran, oats Dietary fiber
Carrots, Tomatoes, and tomato Carotenoids such as lycopene, beta-
products carotenes
Broccoli and other cruciferous Sulforaphane
vegetables such as kale, horseradish

(Retrieved: August 20, 2015) from

C:/Users/Administrator/Downloads/Phytochemical-facts.pdf). Phytochemicals

are broken into the following groups: (1) Phenolic Acids, (2) Stilbenes/Lignans

and (3) Flavonoids (such as Anthocyanins, Flavones, Flavanones, Isoflavones,

Flavonols, and Flavanols).

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 Different phytochemicals have been found to possess a wide range of

activities, which may help in protection against chronic diseases. For example,

glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, tannins and alkaloids have hypoglycemic and

anti-inflammatory activities. Reports show that saponins possess

hypocholesterolemic and antidiabetic properties. The terpenoids have also been

shown to decrease blood sugar level in animal studies. Steroids, triterpenoids

and saponins showed the analgesic properties and central nervous system

activities.

Due to the lack of food composition data and a true understanding of the

absorption and metabolism of phytochemical compounds, the Standing

Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and Its

Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds of the Food and Nutrition

Board at the Institute of Medicine chose not to create a Dietary Reference Intake

(DRI) for these compounds. Therefore, a recommended intake for

phytochemicals does not currently exist. Today, many health authorities such as

the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association recommend

consuming a diet high in fruits and vegetables to ensure that an individual ingests

an adequate amount of phytochemical compounds.

The long-term effects of pharmacological doses of phytochemicals on

human health are not well understood and therefore supplementation is not

recommended. Furthermore, the relationship between food and health is

complex. By replacing foods with supplements, beneficial food components or

important interactions between food components may be lost. Current evidence

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still supports that consumption of a balanced diet, high in a variety of fruits,

vegetables, and whole grain foods, is associated with optimal health.

Antioxidant Properties of Teas

Antioxidants entered the public’s nutritional vocabulary in the 1990s, when

researchers began to understand how free radical damage, caused by oxygen-

based reactions, contributed to chronic diseases from aging to vision loss. Free

radicals are generated as cells use oxygen to break down food for energy, and

they can cause cell damage by attaching to other molecules and prompting cells

to grow abnormally or by interfering with normal cell functions, including those in

the brain. Free radicals are a natural byproduct of the body’s metabolism, but in

most cases, naturally occurring antioxidants stabilize them and keep the damage

to a minimum.

Both BHA and BHT have undergone the additive application and review

process required by the US Food and Drug Administration. However, the same

chemical properties which make BHA and BHT excellent preservatives may also

be implicated in health effects. The oxidative characteristics and/or metabolites of

BHA and BHT may contribute to carcinogenicity or tumorigenicity; however the

same reactions may combat oxidative stress. There is evidence that certain

persons may have difficulty metabolizing BHA and BHT, resulting in health and

behavior changes. BHA and BHT may have antiviral and antimicrobial activities.

Research is underway concerning the use of BHT in the treatment of herpes

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simplex and AIDS. (Retrieved: August 1, 2015) from [http://chemistry.about.

com/od/foodcookingchemistry/a/bha-bht reservatives.htm]

A new report shows antioxidants do not boost fertility as previously

thought. It’s not the first study to take the shine off the popular agents, which

many people take in supplement form.

In a review published in the Cochrane Library, researchers found that

antioxidants did not increase women’s chances of conceiving or having a baby,

which wasn’t surprising, given that the quality of trials linking fertility and

antioxidant supplements, say the scientists, was low. But the findings did

contradict earlier studies that found partners of men who took antioxidant

supplements were more likely to conceive than those who took placebo. The

review is only the latest to raise doubts about the health benefits of antioxidants,

which have been touted as potent cancer-fighters and anti-aging allies.

Once present only in foods such as berries, carrots, peppers and

tomatoes, antioxidants are now added to flavor water and other products to earn

a “high in antioxidants” label.

The problem is that antioxidants come in a range of forms —

from vitamins like vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene, as well as minerals

like manganese and selenium. Then there are the other carotenoids and

flavonoids and polyphenols. Not surprisingly, each can have a different effect on

the cells of the body. In recent years, for example, scientists reported that beta-

carotene, instead of lowering cancer rates, actually increased risk of dying from

lung cancer or heart disease among a group of smokers.

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Antimicrobial Properties of Teas

About 70-80% of the world population is dependent on herbal medicine

especially in the developing countries as they have good affinity towards human

body without any harmful effects and nearly 21,000 plants are used for this

purpose as reported by World Health Organization (WHO).

The extracts revealed the presence of secondary metabolites such as

flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, reducing compounds, sterols, tri-

terpenes and absence of anthraquinones. The presence of these secondary

metabolites is known to have therapeutic activity against several diseases and

therefore could suggest its traditional use for the treatment of various illness

(Yousuf et al., 2012). Earlier studies have reported that flavonoids have

antibacterial property as they have the capability to associate with soluble

proteins and bacterial cell walls (Doss et al., 2011). These flavonoids also have

antioxidant property as they inhibit oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes, have

impact on radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancerous activity (Liu

et al., 2008; Alsabri et al., 2013).

Among the many strains of E. coli, only a few trigger diarrhea. One group

of E. coli — which includes O157:H7 — produces a powerful toxin that damages

the lining of the small intestine, which can cause bloody diarrhea. You develop an

E. coli infection when you ingest this strain of bacteria. Unlike many other

disease-causing bacteria, E. coli can cause an infection even if you ingest only

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small amounts. Because of this, you can be sickened by E. coli from eating a

slightly undercooked hamburger or from swallowing a mouthful of contaminated

pool water. Potential sources of exposure include contaminated food or water

and person-to-person contact.

Human and animal feces may pollute ground and surface water, including

streams, rivers, lakes and water used to irrigate crops. Although public water

systems use chlorine, ultraviolet light or ozone to kill E. coli, some outbreaks

have been linked to contaminated municipal water supplies.

Private wells are a greater cause for concern because they don't often

have any disinfecting system. Rural water supplies are the most likely to be

contaminated. Some people also have been infected after swimming in pools or

lakes contaminated with feces.

Related Studies

The medicinal value in plants is due to some chemical elements which are

responsible for physiological functions in the human body (Liu, 2013). These

chemical elements are called phytochemicals (alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids,

saponins, sterols, triterpenes and many other compounds) which are found in the

plants as product of plant metabolism or synthesized for defense purposes and

they are either toxic or useful to human body (Usman and Osuji, 2007).

In a recent article published in the journal Trends in Pharmacological

Sciences (2012), toxicology researchers from Maastricht University in the

Netherlands highlighted the all-or-nothing beliefs about antioxidants, noting that

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it’s likely that the agents have some health benefits, if used and dispensed in the

proper doses (Retrieved on August 3, 2015 from http://healthland.time.com/

2013/08/06/the-truth-about-antioxidants/).

Similarly saponins are reported to act adversely on bacteria and fungi so

they are reported to have antimicrobial (Rohit et. al., 2012), anti-cancerous and

many health benefits (Shi et al., 2004), while alkaloids are used for their

antiparasitic, antioxidant, anticancerous and antimicrobial activity (Alsabri et al.,

2013) and tannins are reported to have antimicrobial, antidiarrheal, anti-

inflammatory, antioxidant activities and have astringent property (Killedar and

More, 2010). Plant phenolic compounds are main contributors of antioxidant

activity and are also responsible for anti inflammatory, antiviral and anticancerous

and antimicrobial activities (Yang et al., 2013).

McKay (2012) and her colleagues studied the scientific literature related to

two popular herbal teas: chamomile and peppermint. Although the group found

no human trials on the calming effects of chamomile, they did discover studies

suggesting antimicrobial and antioxidant benefits from the tea, as well as signs of

lowering cholesterol.

The powerful antioxidant properties of the tea are generally attributed to its

flavonoid components; theaflavins, bisflavanols and theaflavic acids. These

compounds are all potent antioxidant in vitro and, when consumed, may act as

the free radical scavengers which remove endogenously generated superoxide,

peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals. The antioxidant property of tea is also associated

with several other mechanisms e.g. depolarization of electrons, formation of

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intramolecular hydrogen bonds, rearrangement of the molecular structure. These

compounds may also prevent oxidative reactions by chelating free copper and

iron, which may catalyze the formation of reactive oxygen species in vitro.

(Sharma, 2010)

According to Epidemiological studies published by Nutrition and Health

Info-Sheet Journal (2008) suggested that consumption of a diet high in fruits and

vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease. Unfortunately,

there is not yet enough evidence to support the concept that phytochemicals are

responsible for these effects. Fruits and vegetables are important sources of a

variety of beneficial agents including vitamins, minerals, fiber, and

phytochemicals. More research is needed to fully explain the actions of

phytochemical compounds in the human body.

Free radicals could play an important role in the degenerative or

pathological processes of a range of serious diseases (Chin-Yuan et.al., 2007).

Many plants are exploited for their antioxidant activity to replace the synthetic

one as they have no side effects.

Species of Loranthaceae consists of rich source of phytochemical

constituents and are said to have potential medicinal properties including anti-

hypertensive, anti-obesity, anti-inflammation, antioxidant, immunomodulatory

effects, antiproliferative, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, hypolipidemic effects,

treatment of atherosclerosis and also prevent the renal toxic effects (Alley et al.,

1993; Osadebe et al., 2004; Pattanayak and Sunita, 2008; Chiu, 1996; Huang et

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al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2011; Deng et al., 2011; Lee et al.,

2012; Liu et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2013).

Conceptual Framework

Definition of Terms

Alkaloids – are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain

mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related

compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Retrieved:

September 9, 2015 from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloid)

Antimicrobial properties – is an agent that kills microorganisms or inhibits their

growth (Retrieved on September, 2015 from

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 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial). In the study, Alugbati leaf tea is

used to inhibit the growth and eventually kill the microbe E. coli.

Ascorbic acid – is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant

properties. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It

dissolves well in water to give mildly acidic solutions (Retrieved on

September 2015 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascorbic_acid).

Basella alba – is an edible perennial vine in the family Basellaceae. It is found in

tropical Asia and Africa where it is widely used as a leaf vegetable.

(Retrieved on September 2015 from https://en.wikiped ia.org/wiki/Basella

_alba). In the study this pertains to the tagalog name Alugbati used in

many ways particularly in medicine.

BHA – the abbreviation of the chemical name Butylated hydroxyanisole, is an

antioxidant consisting of a mixture of two isomeric organic compounds

(Retrieved on August 2015 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Butylated_

hydroxyanisole).

BHT - the abbreviation of the chemical name Butylated hydroxytoluene, is

primarily used as a food additive that exploits its antioxidant properties

(Retrieved on August 2015 https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Butylated

_hydroxytoluene).

Catechins - a type of natural phenol and antioxidant (Retrieved on August, 2015

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechin).

E. coli – is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium of

the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of

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 warm-blooded organisms (Retrieved on September 2015 from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli).

Flavonoids - are a group of plant metabolites thought to provide health benefits

through cell signalling pathways and antioxidant effects (Retrieved on

August 2015 from http://www. news-medical.net/health/What-are-

Flavonoids.aspx).

Glycosides – is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional

group via a glycosidic bond (Retrieved on September, 2015 from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoside).

Microbes - are single-cell organisms so tiny that millions can fit into the eye of a

needle. Retrieved: August 4, 2015 from

(http://www.microbeworld.org/what-is-a-microbe) This study used Alugbati

leaf tea extract against E. coli.

Phenolic- are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group

bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. Retrieved: August 4,

2015 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenols)

Phytochemicals - are non-nutritive plant chemicals that have protective or

disease preventive properties. Retrieved: August 4, 2015

(http://www.phytochemicals.info/)

Polyphenols – are a structural class of mainly natural, but

also synthetic or semisynthetic, organic chemicals characterized by the

presence of large multiples of phenol structural units. Retrieved: August 4,

2015 from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphenol)

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Saponins – are a class of chemical compounds found in particular abundance in

various plant species. Retrieved: August 4, 2015 from

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saponin)

Sterols – also known as steroid alcohols, are a subgroup of the steroids and an

important class of organic molecules. They occur naturally in plants,

animals, and fungi, with the most familiar type of animal sterol being

cholesterol. Retrieved: September 9, 2015 from

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterol).

Tannins – is an astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound that binds to and

precipitates proteins and various other organic compounds including

amino acids and alkaloids. (Retrieved: September 9, 2015 from

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannin).

Triterpenes – are terpenes consisting of six isoprene units and have the

molecular formula C30H48. Retrieved: September 9, 2015 from

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triterpene)

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