1. 1. HYDROLOGY Second Term, Final Year B.E.

Civil Engineering
2. 2. Summary of Rainfall-Runoff processConditions of runoff cycle Runoff cycle Factors
affecting runoff Surface runoff Runoff process Portions of runoff Definition of runoff 
3. 3. Runoff occurs only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water may
infiltrate into the soil. Portion which is not absorbed by the deep strata.  Runoff can be
defined as the portion of the precipitation that makes it’s way towards rivers or oceans etc,
as surface or subsurface flow. Definition of Runoff
4. 4. Portions of Runoff 1. Surface runoff 2. Groundwater flow 3. Direct precipitation over the
river stream.
5. 5. This water flow overland and joins the rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, etc, and is known
as surface runoff. The water starts infiltrating/percolating to the water table and if the rate of
rainfall or the rate at which the water is reaching the ground exceeds the infiltration rate (f),
resulting the surface detention (D).  Now if the rain continues further;  Some part of rainfall
is absorbed by the soil, the amount of which depends upon the soil moisture condition at the
time of percolation.  Some part is stored in depressions on the ground surface known as
depression storage (Sd), which later infilterates or evaporates.  A part of
rainfall/precipitation is intercepted by vegetation.  When rainfall occurs: Runoff Process
6. 6. One can say runoff as surface runoff. 1) The surface runoff is important for maximum flow.
2) Where as the ground water flow is important for minimum flow. 3) Direct Precipitation over
the river or stream is negligible. So for peak flow we are generally concerned with surface
runoff and therefore we can say runoff as surface runoff.
7. 7. Factors Affecting Runoff (Mod GargSK) 1. Precipitation characteristics, 2. Shape and size
of the catchment, 3. Topography, 4. Geological characteristics, 5. Meteorological
characteristics, 6. Character of the catchment surface, 7. Storage characteristics.
8. 8. If the rainfall intensity is very less and it rains as light showers then much of the water will
be lost in infiltration More the rainfall, more will be runoff.  Runoff depends on the intensity
of rainfall.  Runoff depends on the type of the storm and it’s duration, which causes
precipitation.  It is the most important factor for runoff 1. Precipitation characteristics & If
precipitation is in case of snow then less runoff.evaporation resulting less runoff.
9. 9. Less runoff in larger catchments because due to uniform rainfall over the entire area, thus
only few tributaries of the stream feed water to a main stream during a particular storm.
Generally more rainfall on smaller area resulting in greater runoff.  Runoff depends upon
size, shape and location of the catchment. 2. Shape and size of the catchment
10. 10. Types of catchment A. Fan shaped catchment B. Fern leaf catchment
11. 11. Gives greater runoff because the peak flood from the tributaries is likely to reach the
main stream approximately at the same time. All the tributaries are approximately of the
same size. A. Fan shaped catchment
12. 12. Such a narrow catchments the peak flood intensity is reduced since discharges are likely
to be distributed over a long period of time. The tributaries are generally of different lengths
and meet the main stream at the regular intervals. B. Fern leaf catchment
13. 13. If the catchment is in mountainous area and on the windward side of the mountain, then
more rain fall resulting more runoff. If slope is steep, flow will be quick and less evaporation
and absorption, resulting greater runoff.  Runoff depends on surface smoothness and
slope. 3. Topography
14. 14. If rocks have fissures, are porous in nature, have lava funnels water will be lost resulting
less runoff. If the surface is rocky, then absorption will be nil resulting more runoff.  If soil
and subsoil is porous, seepage will be more resulting reduction of the peak flood.  It
includes the type of surface soil, subsoil, type of rock and their permeability characteristics.
4. Geological characteristics It is one of the important factor.
15. 15. If temperature is high and greater wind velocity give rise to greater evaporation loss and
resulting in less runoff. If temperature is low and ground is saturated then runoff will be
 greater.  Runoff may also be affected by temperature, wind and humidity. 5.
Meteorological characteristics
16. 16. No vegetal cover reduction in bigger storm. Vegetal cover reduces the runoff in smaller
storms.  If more area of a catchment is cultivated resulting less runoff.  If the surface has
no natural drainage then absorption loss will be more.  Runoff depends upon the surface
conditions like drained, undrained, natural or cultivated. 6. Character of the Catchment
surface
17. 17. They also give rise to greater evaporation losses. The artificial storage such as dams,
weirs, etc and natural storage such as lakes, ponds, etc tend to reduce the peak flow. 7.
Storage characteristics
18. 18. The part between the precipitation from the atmosphere over land areas and it’s
subsequent discharge through streams channels. It is a part of hydrological cycle Runoff
Cycle
19. 19. Conditions of Runoff Cycle 1. End of dry period 2. Shortly after beginning of rainfall 3.
Near the end of isolated heavy rainfall 4. After the end of rainfall
20. 20. The only source of stream flow is the ground water flow entering the river channel. At
the end of dry period and just beginning of heavy rainfall all the surface and channel storage
gets depleted (dried) expect from lakes, reservoirs and ponds resulted from the previous
rains. 1. End of dry period
21. 21. At this stage, a part of precipitation falls directly on the stream which gives an immediate
increment to stream flow. This intercepted water is eventually returned to the atmosphere
through evaporation.  The stream flow intercepted by vegetation and buildings can’t
contribute to runoff.  Shortly after beginning of rainfall and before interception, depression
storage have been satisfied. 2. Shortly after beginning of rainfall
22. 22. Sub surface flow also contributes to stream flow. Thus at this stage over land flow
mainly contribute to stream flow.  Similarly the flow into the filled depression is essentially
balanced by over land flow and infiltration.  Infiltration rate is near the minimum.  The soil
moisture deficiency is also satisfied to a considerable extent.  After many hours of heavy
rainfall virtually all depression storage and interception requirements gets filled up. 3. Near
the end of isolated heavy rainfall
23. 23. Also the gravity water still not drained up to the water table continues its downward
journey to join water table. Water from depression storages also continues to infiltrate. 
Transpiration also takes place from vegetative cover.  Evaporation takes place quite from
soil moisture.  When rain and overland flow ceases (stops), the stream flow consists of only
base flow and channel storage. 4. After the end of rainfall
24. 24. Summary of Rainfall-Runoff Process When a rain starts falling, it is first of all intercepted
by buildings, trees, and other objects, which prevent it from reaching the ground. This
quantity is known as rainfall interception. Since this quantity is generally very small, it is not
of much importance for intense rains; but many a times, large portions of lighter rains are
disposed of in this manner. The difference between the total rainfall and that which is
intercepted is called ground rainfall. when the rainfall rate exceeds the interception rate,
water starts reaching the ground and infiltration into the sub soil starts. The maximum rate at
which the soil in a given condition can absorb water is known as its infiltration capacity.
25. 25. The excess rainwater gets collected into the innumerable small and large depressions
existing in the basin, filling them to their overflow levels. This quantity is known as
depression storage. All this storage is either evaporated or used by vegetation, or later
infiltrates into the soil. None of it appears as surface runoff. If after the depression storage is
filled, the rain intensity (p) continues to exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil (f), the
difference appears as rainfall excess, which initially accumulates on the ground as surface
detention (D), and then flows as overland flow on the basin surface before entering a stream
channel. The water that reaches the stream channel of a basin in this manner is called
surface runoff (SRO) or direct runoff (DRO).
26. 26. The surface runoff can, therefore, occur only from those storms, which can contribute to
excess rainfall, and are simply not dissipated in fulfilling the interception, depression storage,
and infiltration needs of the basin. Hence, Excess Rainfall = Rainfall – Interception -
Depression storage – Infiltration The sum total of interception and depression storage for a
basin is usually called the initial loss or basin loss or initial basin recharge. Excess rainfall
can therefore be represented as: Excess rainfall = Rainfall – Initial Basin loss – Infiltration
The sum total of initial basin loss and infiltration, is called potential infiltration.
27. 27. Since for intense rains, the initial loss is very small as compared to excess rain, it is
usually ignored in hydrological analysis of such rainfalls; or is considered to be included in
the infiltration itself. The excess rainfall is, thus, represented as: Excess Rainfall = (Rainfall –
Potential Infiltration The rain that falls in the beginning of a storm before the depression
storage is completely filled is called the initial rain, and the rain that falls near the end of the
storm at a rate less than the infiltration capacity is called the residual rain. The intervening
period is the net supply interval. The infiltration occurring after the net supply interval is
called the residual infiltration.
28. 28. Runoff and surface runoff are two different terms and should not be confused. Runoff or
Discharge or the Stream flow includes all the water flowing in the stream channel at any
given section. While Surface Runoff or Direct Runoff includes only the water that reaches the
stream channel without first percolating down to the water table. Yield of a drainage basin is
same as runoff, with the only difference that it is expressed over long periods (M.m3 /year),
while Runoff is expressed for short periods (m3 /sec or m3 /hr).
29. 29. Runoff =Surface runoff + Ground water inflow (i.e. Base flow).
30. 30. 0.0000 100.0000 200.0000 300.0000 400.0000 500.0000 600.0000 700.0000 0.0000
0.5000 1.0000 1.5000 2.0000 2.5000 3.0000 3.5000 4.0000 Total Hydrograph Surface
Response Baseflow
31. 31. Continuous process represented with discrete time steps