SPA5304 Physical Dynamics Lecture 17-18

David Vegh
(figures by Masaki Shigemori)

13 February 2019

1 Rigid bodies

1.1 Inertia tensor

Let us focus on the rotational part of T :

X X
ω 2~ri2 − (~
ω · ~ri )2 ) = mi ωa ωb δab~ri 2 − ria rib


2Trot = mi (~
i i
Here δab is the Kronecker delta. ωa has no particle index i. Thus, this can be written as
" #
X
2


= mi δab~ri − ria rib ωa ωb ≡ Iab ωa ωb = ω~ · I~
ω
i
| {z }
Iab

I is the moment of inertia tensor.

yi2 + zi2 −xi yi −xi zi

 
X X
mi δab~ri 2 − ria rib =


Iab = mi  −xi yi x2i + zi2 −yi zi 
i i −xi zi −yi zi x2i + yi2 ab

1.1.1 Expressions for the kinetic energy

So again for the two cases in which the cross term vanished:

(A) If O0 is fixed:
1
T = ~ · IO0 ω
ω ~
2
(B) If O0 is the COM:
1 ~˙ 2 1
T = MR + ω ~ · ICOM ω
~
2 2

1.1.2 Continuous version of I

If we regard the rigid body as a continuum,

X Z
mi δab~ri 2 − ria rib d3 x ρ(~x) δab ~x2 − xa xb



Iab = →
| {z }
i
dm:mass element

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 Here ρ(~x) is the mass density function for the rigid body.

1.2 What frame do we use?

The vector ω and the tensor I are defined independently coordinate frames and we can compute their
components in any frame. This is easier in certain frames than in others:
• in SI the ~ri are time-dependent
• in SII the ~ri are time-independent, so we will pick this one.

Henceforth, x, y, z will be taken to be in the body-fixed frame SII . The inertia tensor becomes a purely
geometric quantity inherent to the rigid body. It depends on the mass distribution of the rigid body.

1.2.1 Properties of Iab

The moment of inertia tensor is

(a) symmetric: Iab = Iba

It has 6 independent components.
P
(b) additive: I{mi } = i Imi

• A consequence of (a):
Theorem: A real symmetric matrix can be diagonalised as
 
I1 0 0
RIR−1 = 0 I2 0 
0 0 I3

where I1 ,I2 ,I3 are the eigenvalues and R is an orthogonal matrix (RRT = RT R = 13×3 ) representing a
rotation.
• If I is diagonal in SII , then SII is called the principal axis system.
• Its three axes are of special importance and they are called the principal axes.
• I1 ,I2 ,I3 are called principal moments of inertia, and it can be shown that Ia ≥ 0 (a = 1, 2, 3).
• In a principal axis sytem,

1
2
2
2 
T = I1 ω1II + I2 ω2II + I3 ω3II
2

where ωaII are the components of ω

~ in SII .

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1.3 Some terminology
1.3.1 Asymmetric top

I1 6= I2 6= I3

1.3.2 Symmetric top

I1 = I2 6= I3

Although the spheroid is axisymmetric, a general symmetric top doesn’t have to be.

1.3.3 Spherical top

I1 = I2 = I3

Again note that a general spherical top doesn’t have to be spherically symmetric.

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1.4 Examples
We have seen that the kinetic energy T of a rigid body is known once we know the inertia tensor Iab . Let
us compute it for a few examples.

1.4.1 Rigid rod

Let’s take a rod with length l and total mass m. Assume that it has a constant (linear) mass density:
m
ρ=
l

(i) Let’s fix O0 to be the center of mass. In the SII system:

Z
Iab = dm(δab~r2 − ra rb )

We have x = y = 0 for all points in the rigid body. Let’s compute the components of the tensor:
l/2  l/2
m z3 ml2
Z Z Z
COM
Ixx = dm(y 2 + z 2 ) = dmz 2 = ρ dz z 2 = =
−l/2 l 3 −l/2 12

From x ↔ y symmetry, we also get

COM COM
Iyy = Ixx
On the other hand, Z
COM
Izz = dm(x2 + y 2 ) = 0

Furthermore, all off-diagonal components are zero. For instance,

Z
COM
Ixz = − dm xz = 0

since x = 0 in the integrand.

  
ml2 
12 0 0 I1 0 0
COM ml2
Iab = 0 0 ≡ 0 I2 0 
 
12
0 0 0 0 0 I3
We are already in a principal axis system.

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(ii) Let’s take O0 to be one of the endpoints of the rod.

l  l
m z3 ml2
Z
0
O
Ixx =ρ dz z 2 = =
0 l 3 0 3
From x ↔ y symmetry, we again get
0 0
O O
Iyy = Ixx

 
ml2
3 0 0
O0 ml2
Iab = 0
 
3 0 
0 0 0

Note:  2
O0 COM l
Ixx = Ixx
+m
2
 2
O 0
COM l
Ixx = Ixx +m
2
0
O COM
Izz = Izz
This is a consequence of the “parallel axis theorem” as we will see.

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1.4.2 A homogeneous sphere

Take O0 = COM .


 x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ

z = r cos θ
Z Z
Ixx = ρ d3 x(~r2 − x2 ) = ρ d3 x(y 2 + z 2 )
V V
Z Z
Iyy = ρ d3 x(~r2 − y 2 ) = ρ d3 x(x2 + z 2 )
V V
Z Z
Izz = ρ d3 x(~r2 − z 2 ) = ρ d3 x(x2 + y 2 )
V V
By symmetry, Ixx = Iyy = Izz . Trick: we can compute Ixx + Iyy + Izz , which must be equal to 3Ixx :
Z Z
3Ixx = ρ d3 x(2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 ) = 2ρ d3 x r2
V V

Using d3 x = r2 sin θ dr dθ dφ = r2 dr dΩ,

Z R Z
3Ixx = 2ρ dr r4 dΩ
0
R
dΩ = 4π: the area of the unit sphere. Thus,

R5 8πR5
3Ixx = 2ρ 4π = ρ
5 5
Now use
M M
ρ= = 4 3
V 3 πR
to write
1 8πR5 M 2
Ixx = 4 3
= M R2
3 5 3 πR 5
and Ixx = Iyy = Izz . Off-diagonal components vanish.

COM 2
Iab = M R2 · δab
5

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 We are already in a principal axis system. The principal moments are
2
I1 = I2 = I3 = M R2
5
By spherical symmetry, any 3 orthogonal axes with the origin at the center of the sphere gives a principal
axis system.

1.4.3 Cuboid

Take O0 = COM .

M
ρ=
abc

a/2 b/2 c/2 b/2 c/2 !

y3 z3
Z Z Z  
M 2 2 M 2
Ixx =ρ dx dy dz(y + z ) = a c+b = (b + c2 )
−a/2 −b/2 −c/2 abc 3 −b/2 3 −c/2 12

Similarly,
M 2
Iyy = (a + c2 )
12
M 2
Izz = (a + b2 )
12
Other components:
a/2  b/2
x2 y2
Z Z Z 
Ixy = −ρ dx dy dz xy = −ρ c=0
2 −a/2 2 −b/2

b2 + c2
 
0 0
M
Iab = 0 a + c2
2
0 
12 2 2
0 0 a +b

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1.5 Rigid body rotating about a fixed axis
To clarify the physical meaning of I, consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis n̂.

Let n̂ go through O = O0 .
1
T = ~ · I~
ω ω
2
Take n̂ to be the ẑ axis of SII .

 
0
ω
~ = 0 
ω3
1 O0 2
T = I ω3
2 33

This is to be compared with the expression of the kinetic energy of a particle:

kinetic energy of translation kinetic energy of rotation

0
T = 21 mv 2 T = 12 I33
O
ω3 2

m: mass (represents inertia) I: moment of inertia

v: velocity ω: angular velocity

We can write the above as

1 2 1
T = ω3 (ẑ · IO0 ẑ) ≡ ω3 2 Iẑ
2 2
Iẑ ≡ ẑ · IO0 ẑ The moment of inertia of the rigid body about the ẑ axis. It is a number.
We chose n̂ = ẑ now, but n̂ can be a general direction:
1 2
T = ω In̂
2
where ω is the angular velocity around n̂, and
In̂ ≡ n̂ · IO0 n̂ = n̂a (IO0 )ab n̂b
This is the moment of inertia of a rigid body about axis n̂ (again it is a number, not a tensor).

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1.5.1 A formula for In̂

0 X
X
X
O
In̂ = n̂ · IO0 n̂ = n̂a Iab n̂b = n̂a n̂b mi ~ri2 δab − ria rib = mi ~ri2 − (~ri · n̂)2 = mi d2i
i i i
2
(here we used n̂ = 1)
Thus,
X Z
In̂ = mi d2i = d3 x ρ(x) d(x)2
i

• Note that the moment of inertia w.r.t. axis n̂ depends only on axis n̂ and not on where O0 lies along
the axis.

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1.6 Physical pendulum
A physical pendulum is a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis n̂ (where n̂ is horizontal).

The kinetic energy is:

1 1
T = In̂ ω 2 = In̂ φ̇2
2 2
Potential from gravity:
!
X X X X
V (φ) = − mi gyi = − mi g(yCOM + yi0 ) =− mi gyCOM − g mi yi0 = −M gyCOM
i i i i
| {z }
0

“Gravity acts on the COM” (this is correct if there is uniform gravity)

In the present case, yCOM = L cos φ, and thus

V = −M gL cos φ

The Lagrangian is
1
L= In̂ φ̇2 + M gL cos φ
2
The Euler-Lagrange equation:
∂L
pφ = = In̂ φ̇
∂ φ̇
∂L
= −M gL sin φ
∂φ
So
ṗφ = In̂ φ̈ = −M gL sin φ
or
M gL
φ̈ = − sin φ
In̂
This equation of motion is identical to that of the planar (mathematical) pendulum with the replacement

g M gL
→
l In̂

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• Small oscillation approximation (near φ ≈ 0)

φ̈ = −ω 2 φ

where r
M gL
ω=
In̂
Harmonic oscillator with angular frequency ω.

1.6.1 Example: Rigid rod pendulum

Moment of inertia about n̂:

l
ρl3
Z
X 1
In̂ = mi d2i = dz ρ z 2 = = M l2
i 0 3 3

Plugging this into the general expression:

1 M l2 2 1
L= In̂ φ̇2 + M gL cos φ = φ̇ + M gl cos φ
2 6 2
The angular frequency for small oscillations around φ ≈ 0 is
r r
M gL 3g
ω= =
In̂ 2l
Compare this with the simple pendulum which has
r
g
ω=
l

(the rod oscillates faster)

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1.7 Parallel axis theorem
(a.k.a. the Huygens-Steiner theorem)
It related the moment of inertia about two parallel axes, n̂1 and n̂2 .
The distance between the two axes is a.

n̂2 goes through the center of mass:

X X
In̂2 = mi d0i 2 = mi (x2i + yi2 )
i i

For the other axis,

X X X X
mi di 2 = mi (xi + a)2 + yi2 = In̂2 + mi a2 + 2a
 
In̂1 = mi yi
i i i i
| {z }
0

Thus,

In̂1 = In̂2 + M a2

where M is the total mass of the rigid body.

• This is a very powerful theorem: once you know In̂ with respect to an axis passing through the COM,
you can calculate it for any axis parallel to it.
• Note that In̂1 ≥ In̂2 always since M a2 ≥ 0. This means that it is easiest to rotate a rigid body around
its COM.

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