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Cement Production
Cement Production
Dr. Samer Al‐Martini, P. Eng.
Cement and Concrete
•Portland cement is the most widely used manufactured
construction material in the world.
• Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding
medium within which are embedded particles, the binder is
formed from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water.
• C
Coarse aggregates are particles larger than 4.75 mm (No.4
i l l h 4 75 (N 4
sieve).
• fi
fine aggregates are particles smaller than 4.75 mm but
t ti l ll th 4 75 b t
larger than 75 µm (No. 200 sieve).
• Grout is a mixture of cementitious material and water
Grout is a mixture of cementitious material and water.
• Mortar is the mix of cement paste and sand.
• H d li
Hydraulic cement is its hydration products are stable in an
t i it h d ti d t t bl i
aqueous environment.
Concrete Material Advantages
• Excellent resistance to water:
Excellent resistance to water:
– Withstand the action of water without serious deterioration
– An ideal material for structures to store and transport water The
p
use of concrete in dams, canals, water pipes, and storage tanks is
now common.
• structural concrete elements can be easily formed into a
variety of shapes and sizes. This is because freshly concrete
can flow into prefabricate formwork
can flow into prefabricate formwork.
• Concrete is the cheapest and most readily available
material Cement and aggregates the principle ingredients
material. Cement and aggregates, the principle ingredients
of concrete, are relatively inexpensive and more commonly
available in the world.
Portland Cement
• Name “Portland cement was patented by
Joseph Aspdin in 1824 for real “or fancied”
similarity to a popular natural rock
quarried at Portland England
quarried at Portland, England.
• Portland cement is an instant glue (just
add water) that bonds aggregates together
add water) that bonds aggregates together
to make portland cement concrete.
Hydraulic and non hydraulic cements
• The hydraulic cement is the cement that not only
hardens when reacting with water but also forms a
water‐resistance product, while non‐hydraulic
cement that derived from calcination of gypsum
(calcium sulfate dihydrate, CaSO4∙2H2O).
• The gypsum cement hydration is not stable in
gyp y
water; therefore the gypsum cement is non‐
y
hydraulic.
Portland Cement Production
• Prodcution
Prodcution of portland cement start with the
of portland cement start with the
following raw ingredients:
• Calcium oxide, Lime (CaO): limestone,
C l i id Li (C O) li
seashells, etc.
• Silica (SiO2) : clay, sand, etc.
• Alumina (Al
Alumina (Al2O3): Clay, etc.
): Clay etc
• Iron Oxide (Fe2O3): iron ore, etc.
Impurities
• Other impurities exist in clinker (MgO, alkalis
(Na2O), K2 0 and sulfates, etc.).
• They lower the melting temperature & improve
combination of lime.
Portland Cement Production
• The raw materials in the desired proportions are
passed through a grinding mill.
• The ground material is stored until it can be sent to
e g ou d ate a s sto ed u t t ca be se t to
the kiln.
• In the kiln, the raw materials are melted at
In the kiln the raw materials are melted at
temperature of 1400‐1600 C changing the raw
materials into cement clinker
materials into cement clinker.
• The clinker is cooled and stored.
• The final process involves grinding the clinker into a
fine powder. During gridding a small amount of
gypsum is added to regulate the setting time of
dd d l h f
cement in concrete.
After cooking in a kiln at about 1500 C
40-60
15-50
4-11
5-12
Compressive strength development
of pure cement compounds
of pure cement compounds
•C3A reacts
instantaneously
• Final strength
determined by
C3S and C2S
• Increase C3S for
high early
strength
Typical Oxide Composition of Cement
[%]
Bogue’s Equations – Compound composition
• To
To calculate the amounts of C
calculate the amounts of C3S, C
S C2S, C
S C3A, and C
A and C4AF in
AF in
clinker (or the cement) from its chemical analysis
• Percentages of main components are calculated using
Percentages of main components are calculated using
Bogue’s equation. Terms between brackets represent the
p
percentage of the given oxide in the total mass of cement.
g g
usefulness and validity of Bogue’s equation
• Since the properties of Portland
cement are related to its chemical
compounds it is difficult to draw any
compounds, it is difficult to draw any
conclusion merely from the chemical
analysis.
• Thus, the compounds percentage of
h h d f
Portland cement paste can be
Portland cement paste can be
determined using Boque’s equations.
compound composition of Portland
cement paste
t t
• Alite is C3S, belite is C2S. Belite is much less reactive
than alite.
• C3S is more reactive than C2S with water at normal
temperatures.
Standard Specification for Portland
C
Cement t
• Type I –
Type I – Normal (OPC)
Normal (OPC)
• Type II – Moderate Sulfate Resistance
• Type III – High early Strength
• Type IV – Low heat of hydration
• Type V – High Sulfate Resistance
• Chemical compositions different
Chemical compositions different
Why 5 Types of Cement? What
M k th
Makes them Different?
Diff t?
• Different uses require different performance
• All types manufactured from similar raw materials:
– Vary the chemical composition (proportions)
y p (p p )
– Vary the physical characteristics
Type I General Purpose
yp p
• General uses • Ready‐mix
is biggest customer
• Most common
Most common‐more
more than
than
90% of cement used is Type
I or II
I or II
Type II Moderate Sulfate Resistant
• Similar to Type I, some cements
yp /
marketed as Type I/II
• Moderate sulfate resistance
Type III High Early Strength
yp g y g
• Early strength means faster setting
–Precast
Precast
– Cold weather
– Roadway applications
– Repair
p
Type IV Low Heat of Hydration
Type IV Low Heat of Hydration
• Delayed reaction, low heat
generated
Type IV
•Low C3S
•Low
Low Fineness
Type V
•Low
L C3A
Considerations that cement industry
employs to produce different cements
• Effect of Cement Characteristics on Strength and Heat of
Hydration:
– Changing the cement compound compositions will change the
strength development of cement.
• For example, if C
For example if C3S and C
S and C3A are high, the early strength (up to 3
A are high the early strength (up to 3
days) will be also high; if C2S is high the long term strength will
be high.
• Moreover, cement contains high C2S will not be only slow
hardening, but also low heat of hydration evolution.
– Adjusting the fineness of cement will change the strength
Adjusting the fineness of cement will change the strength
development and heat of hydration evolution.
• For example, changing the surface area of cement from 320 to
450 m2/kg, it is possible to increase the early strength (up to 3
days).
Tests
• Quality control
– Chemical aspects
p
– Physical aspects
• Factors that affect performance of
Factors that affect performance of
cement/concrete
– Fresh properties influence placing and workability
F h i i fl l i d k bili
– Hardened properties influence strength and
durability
Tests on Portland Cement
• Chemical Tests:
– Chemical analysis to determine oxides
– Use this to calculate potential compound Composition
(C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF)
• Physical Tests:
– Determine cement fineness: 370 m2/kg (Blaine ‐Today’s
/ g( y
cements
– Finer cement = faster hydration, more heat generation,
y g
higher early‐age strength less long‐term gains
Significance of fineness in cement
• The fineness of a cement affects its reactivity with
water.
• Generally, the finer the cement, the more rapidly it
will react.
• Thus, the rate of reactivity and consequently the
strength development can be enhanced by finer
strength development can be enhanced by finer
grinding of cements, however, the cost of grinding
and the heat evolved on hydration set some limits
and the heat evolved on hydration set some limits
on fineness.
stiffening
• Stiffening is the loss of consistency and is associated
with the slump loss phenomenon in concrete. It is
the free water in a cement paste that is responsible
for its plasticity. The gradual loss of free water from
the system due to early hydration reactions,
physical adsorption at the surface of poorly
crystalline hydration products such as ettringite and
the C‐S‐H, and evaporation causes the paste to
stiffen and finally to set and harden.
Hardening
• In Concrete technology, the phenomenon of
strength gain is called hardening.
• A freshly set Portland cement paste has little or no
g p y g g
strength because it represents only the beginning of
the hydration of C3S. Once the C3S hydration starts,
p y
the reaction continues rapidly for several weeks.
The process of progressive filling of the void spaces
p p
in the paste with the reaction products results in a
decrease in porosity and permeability, and an
increase in strength.
g
Heat of Hydration
• When a cement is hydrated, the process is
accompanied by the release of energy in the form
of heat. The data of heat of hydration can be used
to characterize the setting and hardening behavior
of cements and to predict the temperature rise. By
using conduction calorimeter, the heat of hydration
can be recorded.
initial set ,final set
• The initial set is the beginning of solidification.
• The final set is the complete solidification and beginning of
The final set is the complete solidification and beginning of
hardening.
• Setting implies solidification of the plastic cement paste. The
g p p p
beginning of solidification, called the initial set, marks the
point in time when the paste has become unworkable.
Accordingly, placement, compaction, and finishing of
d l l df h f
concrete beyond this stage will be very difficult. The time
taken to solidify completely marks the final set which would
taken to solidify completely marks the final set, which would
not be too long in order to resume construction activity
within reasonable time after placement of concrete.
Vicat Apparatus
(Determining the initial and final sets)
• The initial and final set times are
determined by Vicat apparatus, which
measures the resistance of cement
th it f t
paste to the penetration of a needle.
The initial set is reached when the
The initial set is reached when the
needle is no longer able to penetrate
the 25‐mm depth, the final set is
p
reached when the needle makes an Vicat, ASTM C 191, time
impression on the surface of the paste 300g needle with 1 mm
diameter
b d
but does not penetrate. Initial set: 25-mm
penetration Final set:
• Initial Set ‐ From 1 to 4 hours zero penetration
• Final Set ‐ From 3 to 6 hours
False and Final sets
• False Set ‐ Rapid setting without much heat liberation: is evidenced by a
significant loss of workability without the evolution of much heat shortly after
mixing From a placing and handling standpoint false‐set
mixing. From a placing and handling standpoint, false set tendencies in cement will
tendencies in cement will
cause no difficulty if the concrete is simply mixed for a longer period of time or
remixed without additional water before being transported or placed. False set
occurs when too much gypsum in the cement. This leads to stiffening due to the
gyp g
rapid reformation of secondary gypsum with interlocking needle‐like crystals.
Additional mixing without added water breaks up these crystals to restore
workability.
• Flash Set – Very rapid setting with significant heat liberation. It is evidenced
by a rapid and early loss of workability in paste, mortar, or concrete. It is usually
accompanied by the evolution of considerable heat resulting primarily from the
accompanied by the evolution of considerable heat resulting primarily from the
rapid reaction of aluminates. If the proper amount of gypsum (little) is not
available to control the calcium aluminate (C3A) hydration, rapid stiffening takes
place In flash set workability cannot be regained by further mixing without the
place. In flash set, workability cannot be regained by further mixing without the
addition of water.
Definitions
• strength
strength is the amount of stress required to fail a material.
is the amount of stress required to fail a material
• The 28 days is generally adopted because concrete at 28
days concrete gains 90% of its strength
days concrete gains 90% of its strength.
• Drying shrinkage occurs as a result of water evaporation,
• thermal shrinkage occurs as a result of high concrete
thermal shrinkage occ rs as a res lt of high concrete
temperature
• Creep in concrete when concrete is subjected to constant
Creep in concrete when concrete is subjected to constant
stress which will cause strain Shrinkage strains are critical
to concrete because, when restrained, they manifest
to concrete because, when restrained, they manifest
themselves into tensile stresses.
y p
• Durability is the service life of a material in a specific
environment.
Appendix
Whittier Access Project, Portage
Creek Bridge Portage, Alaska
g g ,
Dams & Water Resources
Roads and pavements
Residential
History of Cementing Materials
• Oldest cementing material: mud mixed with straw to bind
un‐burnt bricks (ancient Egypt). No resistance to water.
• Works only in very dry climates. Babylonians and
Assyrians used natural bitumen to bind
• stones and bricks.Ancient Egyptians used gypsum in the
db i k i i d i h
construction of the
• pyramid of Cheops (3000 BC). Setting will not take place in
id f Ch (3000 BC) S tti ill t t k l i
water (non‐hydraulic binder, gypsum is soluble in
• water).Lime mortars (by calcinating limestone) were used
water) Lime mortars (by calcinating limestone) were used
in Egypt in the Roman period and earlier in Crete, Cypris
and Greece. Also non‐hydraulic
and Greece. Also non hydraulic binders.
binders.
Hydraulic Limes
• Greek and Romans produced hydraulic limes by
calcinating limestone containing clayey impurities
• They also knew that some volcanic deposits when
g
ground and mixed with lime produce mortars which
p
are not only stronger, but also resistant to water.
• Best variety was found near village of Pozzuoli in
Best variety was found near village of Pozzuoli in
Italy, the origin of the name pozzolana
• Quality of cementing materials declined in middle
ages. Art of burning lime almost lost.
• Types
Types 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50
10 20 30 40 and 50
• Slightly different chemical
and physical requirements
and physical requirements
from ASTM C 150 Types I‐V
Special Cements
• White‐primarily
architectural and
decorative concretes
Safety
Special Cements
• Masonry‐‐cements specifically
formulated for use in masonry
mortars
• Mortar‐‐cements like masonry y
cements that include limits on
max air content and min
strength (for structural
pp )
applications)
Special Cements
• Oil well‐‐formulated for use in high temperature,
sulfate, and pressure Environments
• 8 classes of cement (varying T, P)
– Exposure to up to 120
Exposure to up to 120°C C (250
(250° F)
F)
– Exposure to up to 140 MPa (20,000 psi)
Special Cements
• Plastic‐‐special blend of
materials for use
primarily in stucco
(plaster) in
• U.S. Southwest and West
Coast
– Good setting,
workability water
workability, water
retention, durability
Significance of fineness in cement
• The fineness in lab can be determine through
electro scanning microscope.
• For quality control purposes in the cement industry,
y
the fineness easily determined as residue on
standard sieves such as No. 200 mesh (75µm) and
( µ )
No. 325 mesh (45 µm).
• It is generally agreed that cement particles larger
than 45 µm are difficult to hydrate and those larger
than 45 µm are difficult to hydrate and those larger
than 75µm may never hydrate completely.
Blended cement
• Cost saving was probably the original reason for the
development of blended Portland cement. Blast
furnace slag is a monmetallic product consisting
essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of
calcium, granulated slag is the glassy or non
crystalline product which is formed when molten
blast‐furnace slag is rapidly chilled.