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set of factors affecting frame resonance is the articulation of beliefs derived from Hinduism,
“salience” of the framing to the targets of mobi- Buddhism, and Christianity, and Martin Luther
lization, as determined by the centrality of the King’s potent civil rights frame derived, in
beliefs and claims to the lives of the targets of part, from his articulation and elaboration of
mobilization, the extent to which the framing strands of Christianity, democratic theory, and
is experientially commensurable with the past Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence.
or present lives of the targets, and the extent to The processes of frame articulation and
which the framings have narrative fidelity, such elaboration occur during the course of con-
that they are resonant with cultural narrations versations, meetings, and written communica-
and myths (Snow & Benford 1988; Benford & tions among movement leaders and members
Snow 2000: 619–622). within broader enveloping cultural and struc-
Affecting both sets of factors are various tural contexts variously called discursive fields
framing hazards or vulnerabilities that under- (Steinberg 1999) or discursive opportunity struc-
mine the prospect of resonance and/or frame tures, which have been found to facilitate and
alignment. There are at least three sets of constrain framing efforts (Ferree et al. 2002;
such framing hazards: ambiguous events or Ferree 2003; McCammon et al. 2007). Discur-
ailments, as when there is uncertainty about the sive fields evolve during the course of debate
correct application of two alternative framings about contested issues and events, and encom-
(Goffman 1974); framing errors or misfram- pass cultural materials (e.g., beliefs, values,
ings, as when a diagnostic frame is inappropri- ideologies, myths) of potential relevance and
ately applied or just wrong, or a frame is overex- various sets of actors (e.g., targeted authori-
tended (Snow & Corrigall-Brown 2005); and ties, social control agents, countermovements,
frame disputes, as when movement actors dis- media) whose interests are aligned, albeit dif-
agree and debate about appropriate diagnostic, ferently, with the contested issues or events,
prognostic, and motivational framings (Ben- and who thus have a stake in what is done or
ford 1993a). Inasmuch as concerted problem- not done about those events and issues. The
solving is contingent, in part, on interpretive discursive processes of frame articulation and
alignment regarding the diagnosis and prog- elaboration draw selectively upon these cultural
nosis of some problem, then framing hazards materials and are conducted in relation to the
constitute impediments to concerted collective various sets of actors that constitute the discur-
action. sive field. This suggests that the development
The generation and modification of collec- of collective action frames is facilitated and/or
tive action frames occur primarily through constrained by the cultural and structural ele-
the discursive processes of frame articulation ments of the discursive field and discursive
and elaboration. Frame articulation involves opportunity structure in which the evolving
the discursive connection and coordination frame is embedded. This further suggests that
of events, experiences, and strands of one or collective action frames constitute innovative
more ideologies so that they hang together in articulations and elaborations of existing ide-
a relatively integrated and meaningful fashion. ologies or sets of beliefs and ideas, and thus
Frame elaboration involves accenting and high- function as extensions or antidotes of them.
lighting some events, issues, and beliefs or ideas From this vantage point, social movements are
more than others, such that they become more viewed not as carriers of pre-configured, tightly
salient in an array of movement-relevant issues coupled beliefs and meanings, traditionally
(Snow 2004). Historically renowned move- conceptualized as ideologies, but as signify-
ment leaders, such as Gandhi and Martin ing agents actively engaged in the production
Luther King, were masters at frame articulation and maintenance of meanings that are intended
and elaboration. Gandhi’s principles of “satya- to mobilize adherents and constituents, garner
graha” and “ahimsa” were based, in part, on his bystander support, and demobilize antagonists.
fr aming and so cial movements 5
Kriesi, H. (eds), The Blackwell Companion to Social Activism and Social Movement Scholarship. Uni-
Movements. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 380–412. versity of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp.
Snow, D.A., and Benford, R.D. (1988) Ideol- 222–238.
ogy, frame resonance, and participant mobiliza- Snow, D.A., Rochford, B., Jr, Worden, S.K., and
tion. International Social Movement Research 1, Benford, R.D. (1986) Frame alignment processes,
197–217. micromobilization, and movement participation.
Snow, D.A., and Benford, R.D. (1992) Master frames American Sociological Review 51, 464–481.
and cycles of protest. In: Morris, A.D., and Snow, D.A., Vliegenhart, R., and Corrigall-Brown,
Mueller, C.M. (eds), Frontiers in Social Move- C. (2007) Framing the “French riots”: A compar-
ment Theory. Yale University Press, New Haven, ative study of frame variation. Social Forces 86,
CT, pp. 133–155. 385–415.
Snow D.A., and Byrd, W. (2007) Ideology, framing Steinberg, M.W. (1999) The talk and back talk of
processes, and Islamic terrorist movements. Mobi- collective action: A dialogic analysis of repertoires
lization: An International Journal 12, 119–136. of discourse among nineteenth-century English
Snow, D.A., and Corrigall-Brown, C. (2005) Falling cotton-spinners. American Journal of Sociology
on deaf ears: Confronting the prospect of non- 105, 736–780.
resonant frames. In: Croteau, D., Ryan, C., and
Hoynes, W. (eds), Rhyming Hope and History: