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Offshore Geotechnical Engineering

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 OFFSHORE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Ananya Jain1, Student (B.E.), CE&AMD, SGSITS, Indore
Abstract
The relentless rise in world energy consumption has led to hydrocarbon exploration, deriving
petroleum oil from the oceans mainly, and generating power by tidal energy by building tide
mills, followed by major oceanic structural developments in the North Sea, and offshore
Australasia and the Far East, South America, India and most recently West Africa. Each new
region requires design to derive resources from ocean by building foundation for new soil
conditions for structures in oceans at various depths. Within each region, there has been an
inevitable progression from shallow to deep water and deeper fields currently being planned.
The branch deals with site investigation, offshore environmental analysis, processing this
data followed by building and designing of offshore structures.

Introduction
Offshore geotechnical engineering is a field derived from geotechnical engineering. It
is concerned with foundation design, construction, maintenance and decommissioning of
structures designed for sea. Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are
examples of such designed structures. The seabed has to be strong enough to bear the huge
weight of such structures and the applied loads. Geohazards must also be taken into account.
The needs for offshore developments came into play because of gradual depletion of
hydrocarbon reserves onshore and alternate sources of renewable energy sources. The new
fields are being developed at greater distances offshore and in deeper water, with an
adaptation of the offshore site investigations. The offshore structures are divided into fixed
and floating structures, although a given foundation type may span for both categories, e.g.
pile foundation used for a jacket structure, or as anchoring for tension-leg platforms or other
types of floating systems.
The first offshore oil rig ‘Superior’ was installed in 1947, 18 miles from the cost of
Louisiana in the United States, having 6 m depth of water. As late as the early 1970s, deep-
water developments meant water depths of 50-100 m, with the majority of platforms still in
water depths of less than 50 m. Nowadays, the terms 'deep water' and 'ultra-deep water' are
taken to refer depth around 500 m and 1,500 m, respectively. A typical field development
extends over tens of square kilometers, and may comprise several fixed structures, infield
flowlines with an export pipeline either to the shoreline or connected to a regional trunkline.
 This progression has also encompassed changing soil types, but more importantly the
types of facility have evolved from fixed steel or concrete platforms, to floating facilities. The
latter range from tension leg platforms with vertical tethers anchored to piles, to spars and
tankers held in position by catenary mooring chains or, more recently, by lightweight ‘taut-
wire’ polyester ropes. Such developments have led to a variety of innovative anchoring
systems, each gradually evolving under the different loading regimes imposed.
The rapid increase in water depths, from under 200 m in the 1980s to 2000 m and
more now, has necessitated considerable investment in research in order to validate new
foundation and anchoring systems. Today, there are more than 6,000 offshore platforms
operating at a water depth up to and exceeding 2000 m. In parallel, design guidelines have
been developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API), International Standards
Organization (ISO), and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) more recently. The industry has
strived to keep pace by continuously updating the design codes by means of standing
committees of specialists. Regulatory bodies such as Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Royal
Dutch Shell and Lloyds, have also played an important role in validating new design
approaches supported by research fundings and helping to coordinate advances across the
industry.

Site Investigation
A reliable model of the seabed stratigraphy including quantification of engineering
parameters for relevant layers is essential for engineering design of an offshore foundation.
Often, preliminary design studies will be called for prior to any site investigation at the
particular site, and estimation of the seabed characteristics must rely on regional knowledge.
In any case, it is advisable to establish a site model that extends beyond the immediate
location, as this allows for subsequent adjustments in the positions of facilities and indicates
the spatial uniformity of seabed conditions across the region. Critical features such as faults,
buried channels or other localized non-uniformities also have to be mapped.
Complete site characterization involves three stages:-
1) Desk study: The desk study assembles existing data for preliminary assessment of site
conditions and evaluating alternative conceptual designs. The data to be sought
include Bathymetry, regional geology, potential geohazards, seabed obstacles and
metocean data required in this phase. Desk study includes datacompilation. The study
may take place for several months; depending on project size, information is gathered
 from various sources, with the purpose of evaluating risks, assessing design options
and planning the subsequent phases.

2) Geophysical investigation: Geophysical investigation deals with the mapping of sea, it

comprise of data from 3D, shallow seismic and side-scan sonar surveys are done,
which gives an indication of the local seabed and soil conditions over a large seabed
area. Seabed features, its obstructions to be revealed and the main stratification
boundaries and faulting within the soil column has to be identified. Quantitative
confirmation of soil layers and properties of each layer requires a separate
geotechnical site investigation for which the geophysical model may be used to
interpolate between borehole and profiles of in-situ testing. A typical investigation
will include bathymetry for water depth and seabed gradients, seismic reflection data
for sub-bottom stratigraphy and side-scan sonar for seabed topography such as pock
marks and ice gouges. Geophysical studies form the main framework for assessing
geohazards associated with seismic activity of submarine slides.

3) Geotechnical investigation: Geotechnical investigations usually involve a

combination of offshore work, followed by onshore laboratory testing of samples
recovered from offshore and a subsequent interpretation of the test results to yield
engineering design parameters. Work carried out offshore includes recovering
samples from the seabed and in-situ testing such as penetration and vane shear testing.
Shallow penetration geotechnical surveys may include soil sampling of the seabed
surface or in situ mechanical testing. They are used to generate information of the
physical and mechanical properties of the seabed. Surveys done to these depths,
which may be conducted at the same time as the shallow geophysical survey, may
suffice if the structure to be deployed at that location is relatively light. These surveys
are also useful for planning subsea pipeline routes.

Depending on water depth and metocean conditions, geotechnical surveys may be

conducted from a geotechnical drillship, a semi-submersible, a jackup rig, a
large hovercraft or other means. Deep drill holes require a few days during which the drilling
unit has to remain exactly in the same position.
Offshore Environmental Features
Offshore structures have to resist various environmental loads which are wind
load, waves, currents and, in cold oceans, sea ice and icebergs. Some of these loads are
transmitted to the foundation (the seabed). Wind, wave and current regimes can be estimated
from meteorological and oceanographic data, which are collectively referred to as metocean
data. Earthquake-induced loading can also occur; which proceed from the foundation to the
structure. Depending on location, other geohazards may also be an issue, a given structure
may undergo 2x108 wave cycles during its design service life. All of these phenomena may
affect the integrity and serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational
lifespan which have to be taken into account in offshore design.
Marine Geology and Topographical features of ocean floor: The earth has an active
geology. The continental plates that drift at top of the soft mantle are made of rocks that vary
in thickness from 80 to 400 km. The plates move both horizontally and vertically at speed of
1 to 10 cm per year, and change in size as they are added to, crushed together or pushed back
into the Earth's mantle. The top layer of the continental plates is called the 'continental crust'
above sea level and the 'oceanic crust' beneath the oceans. The continental crust thickness
typically ranges between 35 to 40 km, while oceanic crust is thinner which is less than 10 km.
Historical features on a geological timescale such as faults, scarps, run outs from debris flows
and non-conforming strata sequences allows a picture to be assembled of the frequency and
magnitude of the events that might form a geohazard risk.
Soil Features: The soil is made up of sediments, which have to be considered
in saturated state where saline water is filled in the pore spaces. Marine sediments are
composed of detrital material as well as remains of marine organisms which make up the
calcareous soils. Total sediment thickness varies on a regional scale – it is normally higher
near the coastline than it is away from it, where it is also finer grained. In places, the seabed
can be devoid of sediment, due to strong bottom currents. The consolidation state of the soil
is either normally consolidated (due to slow sediment deposition), overconsolidated (in places
of glaciation) or underconsolidated (due to high sediment input).
Metocean aspects: Wave forces induce motion of floating structures in all six degrees
of freedom; which are a major design criterion for offshore structures. When a wave’s orbital
motion reaches the seabed, it induces sediment transport. This only occurs to a water depth of
about 200 metres, which is the commonly adopted boundary between shallow water and deep
water. In shallow water, waves may generate pore pressure build-up in the soil, which may
lead to flow slide, and repeated impact on a platform may cause liquefaction and loss of
support. Currents are a source of horizontal loading for offshore structures. Because of
the Bernoulli effect, they may also exert upward or downward forces on structural surfaces
and can induce the vibration of wire lines and pipelines. Currents are responsible for eddies
around a structure, which cause scouring and erosion of the soil.
Geohazards: Geohazards are associated with geological activity, geotechnical features
and environmental conditions. Shallow geohazards are those occurring at less than 400
metres below the seafloor. Information on the potential risks associated with these
phenomena is acquired through studies of the geomorphology, geological setting and tectonic
framework in the area of interest, as well as with geophysical and geotechnical surveys of the
seafloor.
Examples of potential threats include tsunamis, landslides, active faults, mud diapirs
and the nature of the soil layering. In cold regions, gouging ice features are a threat to subsea
installations, such as pipelines. The risks associated with a particular type of geohazard is a
function of how exposed the structure is to the event, how severe this event is and how often
it occurs (for episodic events). Any threat has to be monitored, and mitigated for or removed.

Offshore structures and geotechnical considerations

Offshore structures are mainly represented by platforms, notably jackup rigs, steel
jacket structures and gravity-based structures. The nature of the seabed has to be taken into
account when planning these developments. For instance, a gravity-based structure typically
has a very large footprint and is relatively buoyant (because it encloses a large open volume).
Under these circumstances, vertical loading of the foundation may not be as significant as the
horizontal loads exerted by wave actions and transferred to the seabed. In that scenario,
sliding could be the dominant mode of failure.
Submarine pipelines: Submarine pipelines are another common type of man-made
structure in the offshore environment. These structures either rest on the seabed, or are placed
inside a trench to protect them from fishing trawlers, dragging anchors or fatigue due current-
induced oscillations. Pipelines resting on the seabed require geotechnical data along the
proposed pipeline route to evaluate potential stability issues, such as passive failure of the
soil below it (the pipeline drops) due to insufficient bearing capacity, or sliding failure (the
pipeline shift sideways), due to low sliding resistance. The process of trenching, needs to take
into account soil properties.
Implications for geotechnical engineering
Offshore structures are tall, often extending over 100 metres above their foundation.
Ground improvement (on the seabed) and site investigation are expensive. Soil conditions are
unusual (e.g. presence of carbonates, shallow gas). Offshore structures typically have to
contend with significant lateral loads (i.e. large moment loading relative to the weight of the
structure). Cyclic loading can be a major design issue. Offshore structures are exposed to a
wider range of geohazards. The codes and technical standards are different from those used
for onshore developments. Design modifications during construction are either unfeasible or
very expensive. The design life of these structures often ranges between 25–50 years. The
environmental and financial costs in case of failure can be higher.

Offshore Developments
Bombay High: Bombay High is an offshore oilfield 176 kilometers off the coast
of Mumbai, India, in about 75 m of water. The oil operations are run by India's Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC). Bombay High has three blocks separated by east-west
trending faults, all three with different gas-oil contacts but approximately 1355 m deep. In
November 2009, output of Bombay High fields, that accounts for half of the India's domestic
oil production to 347,197 barrels per day.

Perdido Oil Platform: Perdido is the deepest floating oil platform in the world at a
water depth of about 2450 meters operated by the Shell Oil Company in the Gulf of Mexico.
The platform's peak production is 100,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day. At 267 meters,
the Perdido is nearly as tall as the Eiffel Tower.

Balder: DCV Balder is a Deepwater Construction Vessel (DCV) operated by Heerema

Marine Contractors. Lightship weight is 49,631 tones. It is powered by seven
3,500 kW azimuth thrusters and two propellers. It is capable of laying pipe in water depths to
3,000 m. Balder was also equipped with class III Dynamic Positioning system and a Mooring
Line Deployment winch. The winch is the largest in the world, with a diameter of 10.5
meters. In 2007 it moored the Independence Hub Facility in a record breaking water depth of
2438 m, with a world record for the deepest flow line installation of 2743 m.
 List of Reference
· Gerwick B.C., (2000) Construction of marine and offshore structures
· H.J. Kolk & J. Wegerif (2005), Offshore site investigations: new frontiers
· Zhang J. and Erbrich C.T. (2005) Stability design of untrenched pipelines – geotechnical
aspects.
· Peuchen, J. and Rapp, J. (2007) 'Logging sampling and testing for offshore geohazards'
· API (2008) Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platform
· E. T. R. Dean (2010), Offshore Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practice
· Mark Randolph and Susan Gourvenec (2011), Offshore Geotechnical Engineering
· Palmer A.C. and Been K. (2011) Pipeline geohazards for Arctic conditions.
· Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 4651, IS 7314, IS 9527, IS 10020) CED 47 Ports,
Harbours and Offshore Installations.
· Bombay High (1974), Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
· Perdido ( http://www.shell.com/global/aboutshell/major-projects-2/perdido.html)
· Heerema Marine Contractors (https://hmc.heerema.com/)

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