Power Generator Module Afgan

MODULE
POWER GENERATOR
By:
Muhammad Hasyim Pribadi
MINISTRY OF ENERGI AND MINERAL RESOURCES

REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
OF ENERGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
CENTER FOR HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
CENTER OF OIL AND GAS
CEPU
2019
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MAINTENANCE TRAINING
PPSDM MIGAS Halaman : 1 from 60
Foreword
By thanking God for the presence of Allah SWT, the module

compilation team at the Center for Human Resources Development of Oil
and Gas financed by the DIPA Budget in 2019 has completed the task of
preparing Maintenance Technician Training module.
The training module with the title "Power Generator" is expected to
be beneficial for teachers, especially the PPSDM Migas as a guide in
providing lesson material and guidance for participants to learn
independently according to the training goals and objectives both during
training and outside the classroom.
The highest appreciation for our hard work and dedication in realizing
this module is conveyed to the drafting team and all parties who helped in
the preparation. This module still requires improvement, therefore
constructive criticism and suggestions are always expected. Hopefully this
module is useful to support the process of implementing training in the
Center for Human and Oil and Gas Resource Development.
Cepu, May 2019

Head
Resource Development Center
Human Oil and Gas
Wakhid Hasyim
NIP.19670401 199303 1 001
This document belongs to Center For Human Resource Development Center Of Oil And Gas"PPSDM Migas", the
contents of this document are not permitted to be copied or copied in whole or in part without written permission from
the Center for Oil and Gas Human Resources Development "PPSDM Oil and Gas"
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Table Of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................... 1
Table Of Contents ................................................................................. 2
List Of Figures ....................................................................................... 4
Chapter 1. Introduction .......................................................................... 6
1.1 Background ............................................................................... 6
1.2 Description ................................................................................ 7
1.3 Specials Learning Outcome ...................................................... 7
1.4 Core and Sub Materials ............................................................ 7
Chapter 2. Atom and It Forces .............................................................. 9
2.1 The Atom .................................................................................. 9
2.2 Electrostatic Force .................................................................... 10
2.3 Free Electrons .......................................................................... 13
Chapter 3. Magnetism ........................................................................... 15
3.1 Magnetism ................................................................................ 15
3.2 Magnetic Materials .................................................................... 17
3.3 Electromagnetism ..................................................................... 17
3.4 Magnetic Induction .................................................................... 18
Chapter 4. Part of Generator ................................................................ 21
4.1 Prime Mover ............................................................................. 21
4.2 Rating ....................................................................................... 21
4.3 Rotor ........................................................................................ 22
4.4 Stator ....................................................................................... 25
4.5 Brush Excitation System .......................................................... 27
4.6 Brushless Excitation System .................................................... 28
Chapter 5. Generator Operation ........................................................... 32
5.1 Theory ...................................................................................... 32
5.2 No Load Operation ................................................................... 34
5.3 On Load Operation ................................................................... 37
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5.3 Voltage Regulation ................................................................... 44

5.4 Frequency Regulation .............................................................. 46
5.5 Single Operation ...................................................................... 48
5.6 Parallel Operation .................................................................... 49
5.7 Load Sharing ........................................................................... 53
5.8 Load Sheeding ........................................................................ 56
Chapter 6. Summary ............................................................................ 58
References ........................................................................................... 59
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List Of Figures
Figure 1.1 Electric Generator Set............................................................... 6

Figure 2.1 The Atom .................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.2 The Carbon Atom.................................................................... 10
Figure 2.3 Electrostatic Force .................................................................. 11
Figure 2.4 Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Opposite Polarity
.............................................................................................. 12
Figure 2.5 The Example of Three Phase Secondary Winding ................. 13
Figure 2.6 Energy Shells and Electron Quota .......................................... 14
Figure 3.1 Mutual Induction ..................................................................... 15
Figure 3.4 The Magnetic Field Produced by Current in a Conductor ....... 18
Figure 3.5 Left-hand Rule for Current Carrying Conductors .................... 18
Figure 3.6 Induced IMF ............................................................................ 19
Figure 4.1 Diesel Generator Set .............................................................. 21
Figure 4.2 Name Plate Generator Example ............................................. 22
Figure 4.3 Salient Pole Rotor ................................................................... 23
Figure 4.4 Non Salient Pole ..................................................................... 24
Figure 4.5 Stator Frame ........................................................................... 25
Figure 4.6 Stator Core ............................................................................. 26
Figure 4.7 Stator Winding ........................................................................ 26
Figure 4.8 Slot.......................................................................................... 27
Figure 4.9 brush excitation system .......................................................... 28
Figure 4.10 Brushless Excitation Generator ............................................ 29
Figure 4.11 Pilot Exciter ........................................................................... 30
Figure 4.12 AVR ...................................................................................... 30
Figure 4.13 Exciter ................................................................................... 31
Figure 4.14 Rotating Diode ...................................................................... 31
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Figure 5.1 Simple AC Generator .............................................................. 32

Figure 5.2 No Load Generator Single Line .............................................. 36
Figure 5.3 On Load Generator Sinle Line ................................................ 38
Figure 5.4 Phasor Diagram the Effect of XL on VΦ ................................. 39
Figure 5.5 Armature Generator Reaction ................................................. 39
Figure 5.6 Unity Load............................................................................... 41
Figure 5.7 Unity Power Factor ................................................................. 41
Figure 5.8 Lagging Load .......................................................................... 42
Figure 5.9 Lagging Power Factor ............................................................. 43
Figure 5.10 Leading Load ........................................................................ 44
Figure 5.11 Leading Power Factor ........................................................... 44
Figure 5.12 AVR Block Diagram .............................................................. 45
Figure 5.13 Governor Block Diagram ....................................................... 47
Figure 5.14 Synchronoscope ................................................................... 50
Figure 5.15 Parallel Generator ................................................................. 51
Figure 5.16 Parallel Generator ................................................................. 51
Figure 5.17 Governor with Load Sharing - Droop function ....................... 56
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Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Electrical energy has advantages compared to other energy, these
advantages include:
1. Easily converted to other energy, for example: mechanical energy,
light energy, heat energy.
2. Easy to distribute.
3. Clean.
The more advanced the civilization and the higher income of a country,
the greater the electrical energy needed. Electric generator is a device
that functions to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator uses the principle of electromagnetic induction, which results
in a relationship between magnetism and electricity.
Figure 1.1 Electric Generator Set
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1.2 Description
This module describe discusses about atom, magnetism, generator
parts, the working principle of generator and generator operation.
1.3 Specials Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, students should be able describes about:
- What is Generator?
- Main Parts of Generator
- Generator Theory
- Generator Operation
1.4 Core and Sub Materials

Atom and It Forces
- The Atom
- Electroctatic Force
- Free Electrons
Magnetism
- Magnetism
- Magnetic Material
- Electromagnetism
- Magnetic Induction
Part of Generator
- Prime Mover
- Rating
- Rotor
- Stator
- Brush Excitation System
- Brushless Excitation System
Generator Operation
- Theory
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- No Load Operation
- On Load Operation
- Voltage Regulation
- Frequency Regulation
- Single Operation
- Parallel Operation
- Load Sharing
- Load Shedding
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Chapter 2. Atom and It Forces
What is electricity? Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through

simple materials and devices" or "that force which moves electrons."
Scientists think electricity is produced by very tiny particles called
electrons and protons. These particles are too small to be seen, but exist
as subatomic particles in the atom.To understand how they exist, you must
first understand the structure of the atom.
2.1 The Atom

Elements are the basic building blocks of all matter. The atom is the
smallest particle to which an element can be reduced while still keeping
the properties of that element. An atom consists of a positively charged
nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons, so that the atom
as a whole is electrically neutral. The nucleus is composed of two kinds
of subatomic particles, protons and neutrons, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 The Atom
The proton carries a single unit positive charge equal in magnitude to

the electron charge. The neutron is slighty heavier than the proton and
is electrically neutral, as the name implies. These two particles exist in
various combinations, depending upon the element involved. The
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electron is the fundamental negative charge (-) of electricity and

revolves around the nucleus, or center, of the atom in concentric orbits,
or shells.
The proton is the fundamental positive charge (+) of electricity and is
located in the nucleus. The number of protons in the nucleus of any
atom specifies the atomic number of that atom or of that element. For
example, the carbon atom contains six protons in its nucleus; therefore,
the atomic number for carbon is six, as shown in Figure 2.2
In its natural state, an atom of any element contains an equal number
of electrons and protons. The negative charge (-) of each electron is
equal in magnitude to the positive charge (+) of each proton; therefore,
the two opposite charges cancel, and the atom is said to be electrically
neutral, or in balance.
Figure 2.2 The Carbon Atom
2.2 Electrostatic Force

One of the mysteries of the atom is that the electron and the nucleus
attract each other. This attraction is called electrostatic force, the force
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that holds the electron in orbit. This force may be illustrated with lines
as shown in Figure 2.3
Without this electrostatic force, the electron, which is traveling at high
speed, could not stay in its orbit. Bodies that attract each other in this
way are called charged bodies. As mentioned previously, the electron
has a negative charge, and the nucleus (due to the proton) has a
positive charge.
Figure 2.3 Electrostatic Force
Some atoms can lose electrons and others can gain electrons; thus,
it is possible to transfer electrons from one object to another. When
this occurs, the equal distribution of negative and positive charges
no longer exists. One object will contain an excess of electrons and
become negatively charged, and the other will become deficient in
electrons and become positively charged. These objects, which can
contain billions of atoms, will then follow the same law of
electrostatics as the electron and proton example shown above. The
electrons that can move around within an object are said to be free
electrons and will be discussed in more detail in a later section. The
greater the number of these free electrons an object contains, the
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greater its negative electric charge. Thus, the electric charge can be
used as a measure of electrons.
A special force is acting between the charged objects discussed
above. Forces of this type are the result of an electrostatic field that
exists around each charged particle or object.
Charged objects repel or attract each other because of the way these
fields act together. This force is present with every charged object.
When two objects of opposite charge are brought near one another,
the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area between them, as
shown in Figure 2.4. The direction of the small arrows shows the
direction of the force as it would act upon an electron if it were
released into the electric field.
Figure 2.4 Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Opposite Polarity
When two objects of like charge are brought near one another, the
lines of force repel each other, as shown in Figure 2.5.
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Figure 2.5 Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Same Polarity
2.3 Free Electrons

Electrons are in rapid motion around the nucleus. While the electrostatic
force is trying to pull the nucleus and the electron together, the electron
is in motion and trying to pull away. These two effects balance, keeping
the electron in orbit. The electrons in an atom exist in different energy
levels. The energy level of an electron is proportional to its distance from
the nucleus.
Higher energy level electrons exist in orbits, or shells, that are farther
away from the nucleus. These shells nest inside one another and
surround the nucleus. The nucleus is the center of all the shells. The
shells are lettered beginning with the shell nearest the nucleus: K, L, M,
N, O, P, and Q. Each shell has a maximum number of electrons it can
hold. For example, the K shell will hold a maximum of two electrons and
the L shell will hold a maximum of eight electrons.
As shown in Figure 2.6, each shell has a specific number of electrons
that it will hold for a particular atom.
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Figure 2.6 Energy Shells and Electron Quota
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Chapter 3. Magnetism
Certain metals and metallic oxides have the ability to attract other metals.
This property is called magnetism, and the materials which have this
property are called magnets. Some magnets are found naturally while
others must be manufactured.
3.1 Magnetism
Magnetism is a result of electrons spinning on their own axis around the
nucleus (Figure 3.1)
Figure 3.1 Mutual Induction
In magnetic materials, the atoms have certain areas called domains.

These domains are aligned such that their electrons tend to spin in the
same direction (Figure 3.2).
The alignment of these domains results in the formation of magnetic
poles at each end of the magnet. These poles are called the north pole
and the south pole. The law of magnetism states that like magnetic
poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract one another (Figure 3.3).
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The group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north pole of
a magnet is called magnetic flux. The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ
(phi). The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). One weber is equal
to 1 x 108 magnetic field lines. Magnetic flux density is the amount of
magnetic flux per unit area of a section. The result is that the SI unit for
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flux density is webers per square meter . One weber per square meter
equals one tesla.
3.2 Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are those materials that can be either attracted or
repelled by a magnet and can be magnetized themselves. The most
commonly used magnetic materials are iron and steel.
A permanent magnet is made of a very hard magnetic material, such as
cobalt steel, that retains its magnetism for long periods of time when the
magnetizing field is removed. A temporary magnet is a material that will
not retain its magnetism when the field is removed.
Permeability (µ) refers to the ability of a material to concentrate
magnetic lines of flux. Those materials that can be easily magnetized
are considered to have a high permeability. Magnetic materials are
classified as either magnetic or nonmagnetic based on the highly
magnetic properties of iron. Because even weak magnetic materials
may serve a useful purpose in some applications, classification includes
the three groups described below.
- Ferromagnetic Materials: Some of the ferromagnetic materials used
are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and the commercial alloys, alnico and
peralloy.
- Paramagnetic Materials: These are materials such as aluminum,
platinum, manganese, and chromium. These materials have a
relative permeability of slightly more than one.
- Diamagnetic Materials: These are materials such as bismuth,
antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, and silver. These materials
have a relative permeability of less than one.
3.3 Electromagnetism
The relationship between magnetism and electrical current was
discovered by a Danish scientist named Oersted in 1819. He found that
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if an electric current was caused to flow through a conductor, the

conductor produced a magnetic field around that conductor (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4 The Magnetic Field Produced by Current in a Conductor
A convenient way to determine the relationship between the current flow

through a conductor and the direction of the magnetic lines of force
around the conductor is the left-hand rule for current carrying
conductors, as illustrated in Figure 3.5
Figure 3.5 Left-hand Rule for Current Carrying Conductors
3.4 Magnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.
Faraday found that if a conductor "cuts across" lines of magnetic force,
or if magnetic lines of force cut across a conductor, a voltage, or EMF,
is induced into the conductor. Consider a magnet with its lines of force
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from the North Pole to the South Pole (Figure 3.6). A conductor C, which
can be moved between the poles of the magnet, is connected to a
galvanometer G, which can detect the presence of voltage, or EMF.
When the conductor is not moving, zero EMF is indicated by the
galvanometer.
Figure 3.6 Induced IMF
If the conductor is moving outside the magnetic field at position 1, zero

EMF is still indicated by the galvanometer. When the conductor is
moved to position 2, the lines of magnetic force will be cut by the
conductor, and the galvanometer will deflect to point A. Moving the
conductor to position 3 will cause the galvanometer to return to zero. By
reversing the direction in which the conductor is moved (3 to 1), the
same results are noticed, but of opposite polarity.
If we hold the conductor stationary in the magnetic lines of force, at
position 2, the galvanometer indicates zero. This fact shows that there
must be relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic lines
of force in order to induce an EMF.
The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on two factors:
- The number of turns of a coil, and
- How fast the conductor cuts across the magnetic lines of force, or
flux.
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The Equation is the mathematical representation for Faraday’s Law of

Induced Voltage.
where
Vind = induced voltage, V
N = number of turns in a coil
∆Φ 𝑊𝑏
= rate at which the flux cuts across the conductor,
𝛥𝑇 𝑆
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Chapter 4. Part of Generator
AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how

these generators operate, the function of each component of the generator
and the basic theory of operation must first be understood.
4.1 Prime Mover

The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC
generator. The prime mover may be any type of rotating machine, such
as a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
Za
Figure 4.1 Diesel Generator Set
4.2 Rating
Name plate contains generator specification data. Before operating the
generator, first understand the generator data listed on the name
plate. The data includes :
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a. Manufacturer
b. Part or model no.:
c. Alternator type
d. Exciter type
e. Ratings Voltage
f. Rated speed
g. Rated output power
h. Power factor
i. Insulation Class
j. Voltage regulator type, no load to full load
k. Frequency regulation, no load to full Load
Figure 4.2 Name Plate Generator Example
4.3 Rotor
The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the generator.
The rotor is driven by the generator’s prime mover, which may be a
steam turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. Depending on the type of
generator, this component may be the armature or the field. The rotor
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will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor
will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.
The rotor's magnetic field poles can be salient poles and non-salient
poles.
1. Salient Pole Type
In the salient pole type, magnetic poles protrude from the surface of
the rotor. The turns of the field are connected in series. When this
field winding is supplied by the Exciter, adjacent poles will form
opposite poles. The prominent polar shape of the synchronous
generator looks like the following picture:
Figure 4.3 Salient Pole Rotor
The salient pole rotors are commonly used in synchronous

generators with low rotational speed (500 rpm), which have 12
poles at a working frequency of 50 Hz. This type of synchronous
generator is usually coupled by a diesel engine or water turbine in
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a power generation system. The salient pole rotors are good for low
speed because:
a) It will experience large wind losses and make a noisy sound if
rotated at high speed.
b) The salient pole construction is not strong enough to withstand
mechanical stress when rotated at high speed.
2. Cylindrical Pole Type (Non Salient Pole)
In the non-salient pole type, the magnetic pole construction is flattened
with the rotor surface. This type of rotor is made of fine forged steel in a
cylindrical shape with grooves made on the outside. Field windings are
attached to grooves on the outside and connected to the series
generated by the exciter. An overview of the cylindrical polar shape of
the synchronous generator looks like the following picture:
Figure 4.4 Non Salient Pole
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4.4 Stator
The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary. Like the rotor,
this component may be the armature or the field, depending on the type
of generator. The stator will be the armature if the voltage output is
generated there; the stator will be the field if the field excitation is applied
there.
Stator consists of several main components :
a. Stator Frame
The stator frame is made of cast iron and is the home of all generator
parts. This stator frame is circular in which the connections on the
ribs will guarantee the generator against vibrations. The back of the
stator frame usually has fins as aids in the cooling process.
Figure 4.5 Stator Frame
b. Stator Core
The stator core is made of ferromagnetic material or soft iron,
arranged in layers, which is bound as tightly as possible to avoid eddy
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current losses. At this core there are slots for placing conductors and
for regulating the direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 4.6 Stator Core
c. Stator winding
The stator section that consists of several conductor rods made of
copper, arranged in grooves / in slots and ends of coils. Each slot is
connected to get the induced voltage. The stator coil works where
the electromotive force (GGL) is formed.
Figure 4.7 Stator Winding
d. Slot
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The slot is a place to put the stator winding. There are 3 (three) forms
of the stator slot, open, half open, and closed (by wedges).
Figure 4.8 Slot
4.5 Brush Excitation System

Also called a generator with external excitation, using a static excitation
system, which is a rectifier system whose source is supplied from a
transformer. In brush excitation system, the source of electric power
comes from a direct current generator (DC) or alternating current
generator (AC) which is rectified first by using a rectifier.
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Figure 4.9 brush excitation system
Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to
and from the rotor of an AC generator. The slip ring consists of a circular
conducting material that is connected to the rotor windings and
insulated from the shaft. Brushes ride on the slip ring as the rotor
rotates. The electrical connection to the rotor is made by connections to
the brushes.
4.6 Brushless Excitation System

The use of brushes or slip rings to transmit excitation currents to the
rotor generator has a disadvantage because the amount of current that
is able to flow on the charcoal brush is relatively small. To overcome the
limitations of charcoal brushes, a brushless excitation system is used.
Often referred to as an inside excitation generator, using a dynamic
excitation system, which is a rectifier system whose source is from a
moving machine, can be either an auxiliary DC generator or an auxiliary
AC generator which is then rectified using a rectifier.
The benefits of the excitation system without brush (brushless
excitation) are:
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a. The energy needed for excitation is obtained from the main shaft, so
the reliability is high.
b. Maintenance costs are reduced because the brushless excitation
system does not have a brush, commutator and slip ring.
c. In the brushless excitation system, isolation damage does not occur
due to the attachment of carbon dust to Farnish.
d. During the operation no brush replacement is needed, thus
increasing the reliability of the operation can continue for a long time.
The current development of the Brushless Exitation System uses a Pilot
Exiter in the form of a permanent magnet generator (PMG). The order
of this system starts from PMG generating AC voltage on the stator,
which will be directed by the rectifier to be flowed to the stator Exciter.
Then the output current in the AC exciter generator is rectified using a
rotating rectifier. The result is used to provide excitation current to the
main generator. To achieve the desired voltage value, the AVR
(Automatic Voltage Regulator) will instruct the Exiter to increase or
decrease its current current to keep the voltage always at its nominal
value.
Figure 4.10 Brushless Excitation Generator
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Figure 4.11 Pilot Exciter
Figure 4.12 AVR
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Figure 4.13 Exciter
Figure 4.14 Rotating Diode
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Chapter 5. Generator Operation
AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how

these generators operate, the basic theory of operation must first be
understood.
5.1 Theory
A simple AC generator consists of:
(a) a strong magnetic field,
(b) conductors that rotate through that magnetic field, and
(c) a means by which a continuous connection is provided to the
conductors as they are rotating (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Simple AC Generator
The strong magnetic field is produced by a current flow through the field
coil of the rotor. The field coil in the rotor receives excitation through the
use of slip rings and brushes.
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Two brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings to provide the
continuous connection between the field coil and the external excitation
circuit. The armature is contained within the windings of the stator and
is connected to the output. Each time the rotor makes one complete
revolution, one complete cycle of AC is developed. A generator has
many turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor.
The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is
dependent on the field strength and speed of the rotor. Most generators
are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the generated voltage
depends on field excitation, or strength.
The frequency of the generated voltage is dependent on the number of
field poles and the speed at which the generator is operated, as
indicated in Equation :
NP
f= 120
where
f = frequency (Hz)
P = total number of poles
N = rotor speed (rpm)
120 = conversion from minutes to seconds and from poles to pole pairs
Losses in an AC Generator
The load current flows through the armature in all AC generators. Like
any coil, the armature has some amount of resistance and inductive
reactance. The combination of these make up what is known as the
internal resistance, which causes a loss in an AC generator. When the
load current flows, a voltage drop is developed across the internal
resistance. This voltage drop subtracts from the output voltage and,
therefore, represents generated voltage and power that is lost and not
available to the load. The voltage drop in an AC generator can be found
using Equation
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Voltage drop = IaRa + IaXLa

where
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
XLa = armature inductive reactance
Hysteresis Losses
Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject
to effects from a magnetic field. The magnetic domains of the cores are
held in alignment with the field in varying numbers, dependent upon field
strength. The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the domains not
held in alignment, one complete turn during each rotation of the rotor.
This rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat.
The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss.
To reduce hysteresis losses, most AC armatures are constructed of
heat-treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss.
After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the
laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool. This
process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low
value.
5.2 No Load Operation

Generator operation refers to the existing prime mover operating
procedures as a guide in operating a generator set. Operating
procedures in a generating system in general there are several stages.
5.2.1 Preparation
Before operating the generator set, the whole inspection procedure
needs to be done. The purpose of the inspection before operation is to
ensure the performance of the generator functioning properly. The
following things need to be considered before operating the generator
set :
a. Starting System
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Before operating a generator, it is necessary to pay attention to the

specifications of the generator engine. The generator engine data can
be known from the manual issued by the factory. The things that need
to be recognized from the data on the generator, namely: Frequency,
Voltage between phases, Maximum current, Output power, Cos Ф,
Excitation and Capability of operation.
b. Lubrication system
Lubrication system is on the prime mover. This check is intended to
ensure the operation of the prime mover as the generator drive runs
smoothly.
c. Cooling system
This cooling system is on the prime mover. This check is intended to
ensure the operation of the prime mover as the generator drive runs
smoothly.
d. Fuel system
This fuel system is on the prime mover. This check is intended to ensure
the operation of the prime mover as the generator drive runs smoothly.
e. Protection system
This protection system is in the prime mover and generator. This check
is intended to ensure the operation of the prime mover as the generator
drive runs smoothly.
If the system inspection results are in good condition, the generator is
ready to run.
5.2.2 Running the generator
This stage is the step of running the prime mover generator with a low
speed and then the speed is increased to the nominal rotation. After the
engine rotational speed reaches nominal rotation, it is necessary to
check the parameters present in the unit so that it is in a normal state.
After checking the unit in normal conditions then the machine is ready
for loading.
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Before the generator is used to supply the load, the terminal voltage
(VΦ) is adjusted until it reaches voltage rating by increasing the
excitation current. By turning the synchronous generator is rotated at
synchronous speed and the rotor is given a field current (If), then the
voltage (E0) will be induced on the stator armature winding.
Figure 5.2 No Load Generator Single Line
Where :
E0 = No Load Voltage Generator (Volt)
VΦ = Output Voltage (Volt)
Ra = Armature Resistance (Ohm)
Xl = Armature Reactance (Ohm)
No load voltage an AC generator can be calculated using Equation

E0 = VΦ + Ia (Ra + jXs)
Where :
Ia = armature current
Xs = armature synchronous reactance
In a no-load state, the armature current (Ia) does not flow to the stator,
hence there is no effect of the armature reaction.
With Ia is 0, then
E0 = VΦ
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Existing flux is only produced by field currents (If). If the field current (If)
is changed in value, by increasing it, the output voltage value (E0) will
also rise to the saturation point (saturation).
5.3 On Load Operation

When the generator is given a load, current will flow to the load through
the armature coil, so that a rotating magnetic field is formed in the
armature coil whose direction is against the main magnetic field. This
opposing magnetic field is called the armature Reactance (Xa). These
rotational magnetic fields are not all captured by the armature coil, so it
will cause a Leakage Reactance (XL).
The sum between the armature Reactance and the Leak Reactance is
called the Synchronous Reactance (XS). In the coil there are resistance
losses called armature resistance (Ra). So when the generator is given
a variable load, the amount of the terminal voltage (Vt) will change too,
due to:
a. Voltage drop due to armature resistance (Ra)
b. Voltage drop due to reactor leakage armature (XL)
c. Voltage drop due to reactance of Armature (Xa)
The voltage equation for the load generator is:
Ea = VΦ + IaRa + j IaXs
Xs = XL + Xa
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Figure 5.3 On Load Generator Sinle Line
The armature resistance per phase (Ra) flowed by the armature current
(Ia) causes a voltage drop per phase (Ia.Ra) that is in line with the
armature current (Ia). However, in practice this voltage drop is ignored
because it is so small.
When the current flows through the armature conductor, some of the
flux that occurs does not cut through the water-gap, but rather takes
another path and connects the sides of the coil. These fluxes are called
leakage fluxes. The leaky flux moves with the armature current and
provides a self-inductance (winding) which is called the armature
leakage reactor (XL). Therefore, this leakage flux will cause voltage
drop due to leakage reactance (XL) which is the same as (Ia.XL).
Where, this voltage drop can also reduce the terminal voltage (VΦ).
So, the equation will be obtained:
E = VΦ + Ia (Ra + jXL)
VΦ = E - Ia (Ra + jXL)
The following figure will show a phasor diagram of the effect of armature
leakage reactance (XL) on terminal voltage (VΦ).
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Figure 5.4 Phasor Diagram the Effect of XL on VΦ
The armature reaction is the effect of the armature flux on the main field
flux. In the case of the alternator, the power factor of the load has a
considerable influence on the armature reaction. Figure below will show
the armature reaction model on the synchronous generator.
Figure 5.5 Armature Generator Reaction
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Where :
Figure (a) Shows a rotating magnetic field producing an induced voltage
EA does not arise armature current because there is no connected load
and EA = VΦ
Figure (b) Shows when the inductive load (lagging) is connected to the
armature terminal, the armature current (IA) flows.
Figure (c) Armature current produces a magnetic field Bs which then
produces the Real voltage at the stator winding.
Figure (d) Bs stator magnetic field adds BR to Bnet. Real Voltage adding
EA produces VΦ at the output terminal.
When the generator is connected to lagging load, the peak current will
occur at an angle below the peak voltage. This influence is shown in
figure (b). The current flowing in the stator winding produces a magnetic
field Bs and its direction is determined using the right hand rule as
shown in figure (c). The stator Bs magnetic field produces a voltage in
the Real stator.
With the presence of these two types of voltage, the total voltage in one
phase is the sum of the EA induced voltage and the Real armature
reaction voltage.
In the equation:
VΦ = EA + Real
Total magnetic field (Bnet) is the sum of the rotor magnetic field and
stator magnetic field, namely:
Bnet = BR + Bs
Because the angles EA and BR are the same and the Real and Bs
angles are also the same, the sum of the magnetic fields of Bnet will be
equal to VΦ (figure (d)).
The armature reaction voltage can be obtained by the equation:
Real = - jXIA
So the terminal voltage:
VΦ = EA-jXIA
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There are 3 common cases in armature reactions including:

5.2.1 Unity power factor
Figure 5.6 Unity Load
When the synchronous generator is given a pure resistive load as

shown in the picture above, current flows through the armature coil
which has a loss of armature resistance (Ra) and will cause an opposing
field. The coil resulting in the opposing field is called the armature
reactance (Xa), in addition there is also a magnetic flux that is not cut
by the armature coil, the coil is called the leakage reactance (XL). The
amount of armature reactance and leak reactance is called
synchronous reactance (Xs).
Figure 5.7 Unity Power Factor
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The electromotive force generated or synchronous generator input

voltage (Eo) can be calculated
5.2.2 Lagging power factor

When the zero lagging load power factor which results in demagnetising
due to the main flux decreases so that the induced voltage decreases.
When the synchronous generator is given an inductive load, current
flows through the armature coil and causes a loss of armature
resistance (Ra) and causes armature reactance (Xa) and leakage
reactance (XL). The equivalent circuit of each phase of the synchronous
generator which is given an inductive load is shown in the following
figure.
Figure 5.8 Lagging Load
The electric current flowed by the lagging coil (lagging) to the terminal
voltage (Vt) and vector diagram are shown in the following figure.
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Figure 5.9 Lagging Power Factor

voltage (Eo) can be calculated :
5.2.3 Leading power factor

When the power factor is zero leading load. In this case, the main flux
is magnetized so that the induced voltage also increases. When the
synchronous generator is given a capacitive load, current flows through
the armature coil and causes a loss of armature resistance (Ra) and
causes armature reactance (Xa) and leakage reactance (XL).
The equivalent circuit of the synchronous tap phase generator which is
given a capacitive load is shown in the following figure.
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Figure 5.10 Leading Load
The electric current flowed by the lagging coil (lagging) to the terminal
voltage (Vt) and vector diagram are shown in the following figure.
Figure 5.11 Leading Power Factor

voltage (Eo) can be calculated :
5.3 Voltage Regulation

From the generator vector diagram when given a resistive load, the
inductance and the capacitance show that the amount of the armature
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current changes so that it causes a voltage drop on the generator

terminal (Vt). To maintain the generator terminal voltage (V) constant, it
is necessary to increase the voltage Eo by adjusting the Excitation
current (If) field coil. When the generator terminal voltage rises, the
excitation current is reduced and when the generator terminal voltage
drops, the excitation current is increased. This arrangement is carried
out by a unit called AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator).
Figure 5.12 AVR Block Diagram
In AVR Block diagram, the function of this equipment is to censor the

generator voltage by using a voltage transformer (PT), comparing the
voltage reading of the generator input with the diode reference voltage
(zener) and providing the required field current according to the ratio of
the two specified voltages.
The AVR unit consists of 5 basic circuits :
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1. Sensing circuit, functions to censor generator voltage, rectify and

filter the voltage and the results of the DC signal are sent to the error
detector and error amplifer.
2. Error detector. This detector provides a DC signal that is suitable
for the generator voltage. Summing voltage ttk (summing juncton)
compared to the reference voltage and produces a voltage
difference (error signal), which will then be forwarded to the amplifer
error unit.
3. Amplifer error. The error signal will control the Power Controller by
adjusting the charging time on the capacitor so as to generate a
phase angle to regulate the trigger signal on the SCR component
on the power control unit.
4. Power controller. In this control there is a series of bridges (bridges)
whose components consist of a thyristor (SCR). The magnitude of
the voltage and the average current of the output power unit
depends on the ignition angle of the SCR, because the excitation
field resistance is considered constant.
5. Network stability. This circuit is used to produce stability in all AVR
operating conditions to prevent / reduce the occurrence of
oscillations (hunting).
5.4 Frequency Regulation

Where the generator armature coil provides current to the load, it will
generate the opponent's magnetic field. The greater the current given
by the armature coil the greater the opposing field that is raised. The
effect of the opposing field is identical to the braking process, so that it
will cause a change in the frequency of the Generator.
To keep the frequency generated by the generator constant, a governor
unit is installed on the prime mover. The function of this equipment is to
regulate the supply of primary energy or fuel system whenever there is
a change in load on the generator. When the generator load increases,
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the generator rotation decreases and the rotation returns to its rating
when the fuel valve is opened, so that the supply of fuel becomes large
and the engine power increases according to the demand for the
generator load. When the generator load is lowered, the generator
rotation increases. So that the rotation decreases in the rating, the fuel
valve is reduced by opening to reduce the incoming fuel supply, so that
the engine power of the drive decreases again according to the
generator load.
Figure 5.13 Governor Block Diagram
The component functions in the Governor unit are :

1. Magnetic pickup functions as a speed sensor that is used to
regulate the engine rotation and the generator output frequency.
The working principle of magnet pickup is on the basis of magnetic
induction which arises due to the rotation of the flame through the
magnetic field caused by magnetic pickup, then it will cause a
voltage pulse and will be sent to load sharing & speed control. The
frequency of pulses generated by magnetic pickup is proportional
to the speed of the driving machine.
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2. The frequency output read from the magnetic pickup signal is

converted to voltage.
3. Speed Summer functions to distinguish the reference signal from
the voltage signal resulting from the frequency signal converter
produced by the speed sensor into a voltage, the output signal from
this difference will be given to the control amplifier.
4. Control Amplifier functions to amplify the output of several signals
the sum of the two signals. If the voltage signal is lower than the
reference voltage, then the output signal issued by the control
amplifier is used to increase the prime mover's speed. Meanwhile,
if the voltage signal is higher than the reference voltage, then the
output signal issued by the control amplifier is used to reduce the
prime mover's speed.
5. Actuator, serves to respond in accordance with the output signal
from the control amplifier by changing the amount of fuel prime
mover, changes in the speed of the prime mover is done until the
voltage signal from the speed sensor is the same as the reference
voltage signal.
5.5 Single Operation

In operating the generator, follow these steps:
1. Make sure the circuit breaker circuit is open. When the generator is
started and the circuit breaker is closed, it is feared that a voltage
surge will occur which can damage the rotating rectifier component.
2. Set the voltage switch selector to the position specified for the
generator operating conditions.
3. Run the prime mover and set the generator speed to its rating.
4. Set the frequency at 50 Hz by adjusting the engine rotation (prime
mover).
5. Set the generator voltage to its rating.
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6. When the required working voltage and frequency is reached,

connect the circuit breaker from the bus generator to the line
(feeder).
7. Raise the load by increasing the rotation as needed.
8. In a single operation, we have ensured that the load needs that we
serve can be borne by the 1 (one) generator. If the load
requirements that we serve, above the ability of generators, other
operational generators are needed to be operated in parallel.
9. The setting cos Ф adjusts to the generator output voltage, because
it is in single operation.
5.6 Parallel Operation

Most electrical power grids and distribution systems have more than
one AC generator operating at one time. Normally, two or more
generators are operated in parallel in order to increase the available
power. Three conditions must be met prior to paralleling (or
synchronizing) AC generators.
1. Their terminal voltages must be equal. If the voltages of the two AC
generators are not equal, one of the AC generators could be picked
up as a reactive load to the other AC generator. This causes high
currents to be exchanged between the two machines, possibly
causing generator or distribution system damage.
2. Their frequencies must be equal. A mismatch in frequencies of the
two AC generators will cause the generator with the lower frequency
to be picked up as a load on the other generator (a condition
referred to as "motoring"). This can cause an overload in the
generators and the distribution system.
3. Their output voltages must be in phase. A mismatch in the phases
will cause large opposing voltages to be developed. The worst case
mismatch would be 180° out of phase, resulting in an opposing
voltage between the two generators of twice the output voltage. This
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high voltage can cause damage to the generators and distribution

system due to high currents.
During paralleling operations, voltages of the two generators that are to
be paralleled are indicated through the use of voltmeters. Frequency
matching is accomplished through the use of output frequency meters.
Phase matching is accomplished through the use of a synchroscope, a
device that senses the two frequencies and gives an indication of phase
differences and a relative comparison of frequency differences.
Figure 5.14 Synchronoscope
If the direction of the needle rotates to the left, it means that the
generator rotation will be paralleled more slowly and increases the
rotation so that the direction of the needle rotates to the right and must
be relatively slow, because if it is too fast means there is a relatively
high spin difference. At 12 o'clock the generator is ready to parallel
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Figure 5.15 Parallel Generator
If 2 (two) parallel generators have an induced emf, namely El and E2,

have the same price (E2 = El and sephasa in the opposite direction)
then there will be no circulating current in the circuit. Suppose that G2
decreases its speed a little, then El ≠ E2, so that the resultant voltage
becomes Es and a circulating current will occur in the circuit (Isy).
Whereas generator resistance may be said to be negligible compared
to synchronous reactance thus Isy will lag almost 90 °
Figure 5.16 Parallel Generator
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If Z = Z1 + Z2,
The synchronizing current generator 1 produces power

PSYG1 = E1 ISY Cos ϕ1
The synchronizing current generator 2 produces power
PSYG2 = E2 ISY Cos ϕ2
When the second generator is paralleled with the first generator which
is already carrying a load, it is expected that the distribution of the load
that was initially carried on the first generator, so that there will be
cooperation that alleviates before the subsequent loads are entered.
the amount of load carried on each generator that works in parallel will
depend on the amount of fuel and air input for combustion of diesel
engines, if the prime mover is diesel or if other prime mover engines
depend on the amount fuel. The amount of input fuel is regulated by the
governor that receives signals from changes in electrical frequency that
are stable at 50Hz, which is equivalent to changes in rotation (rpm) of
the main engine driving the electric generator.
If the electrical load rises, the frequency will go down, so the governor
must increase input (fuel / air, water, steam / gas or air flow) to the main
engine to increase its frequency until the electrical frequency returns to
normal.
Conversely, if the load falls, the governor of the generating machinery
must reduce fuel / air, water, water / gas or air intake to the propulsion
engines so that the speed drops until the rotation or frequency returns
to normal 50 Hz.
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If there is no governor, the main engine driving generators will

experience overspeed when the load drops suddenly or will overload
when the electrical load rises.
The following parallel steps can be performed after the conditions for
parallel are fulfilled. In the sinckronoskop panel there are several meters
for parallel devices.
1. Equate the voltage between the generator to be paralleled with the
busbar (the generator that is already operating) by regulating the
voltage on the double voltmeter.
2. For the generator frequency to be paralleled it is set slightly higher
than the busbar frequency by adjusting the frequency at the double
frequency meter.
3. With the generator frequency to be paralleled set slightly higher, the
synchronous meter will rotate the needle clockwise (fast). All that is
needed is to adjust the frequency so that the synchronous needle
rotation of the meter is slow and smooth as a parallel sign ready to
do.
4. By adjusting the frequency of the generator to be paralleled, the
synchronous motion is set to slow and smooth as a parallel sign
ready to do. When it reaches 12 o'clock, parallel can be done.
5. After the generator is connected to the load, adjust the amount of
rotation according to the load needs that we want.
6. Be aware of the parameters on the control panel. Make sure cos Ф
parameter matches the rating. Because in a parallel generator
relationship, the cos Ф values of each generator are interrelated and
influence.
5.7 Load Sharing

Load sharing is an automatic equipment that homogenizes the
governor's operation in increasing or decreasing engine power or the
power generator of the power plant in accordance with the change in
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load, and is very necessary if it has more than two generators with
different characteristics operating in parallel. With a generator load
divider, each generator has the same and small usage factor (maximum
load divided by generator capacity) which means good. Changes in load
due to generator input or expenditure from the parallel system of
generators will be felt the same by every generator in the system,
without overload or overspeed.
Generator load sharing tools can only be applied to generator set
engines that have governors and can be developed for further control
systems such as distributed control systems (DCS).
In short Load Sharing is a system in the operation of generators that is
sharing of loads jointly by several or more generators, with the aim of
maintaining continuity of electricity and as protection for the safety of
the generator itself in the event of a decrease or increase in load. Or it
can also be said that the function of Load Sharing is so that the
generator when synchronous can supply the load in balance with other
generators. Then each generator is recommended to have load sharing,
especially for automatic systems.
The governor operates on a driving machine so that the generator
produces an output current that can be set from 0 (zero) percent to 100
percent of its ability. So the input to the driving machine is proportional
to the output current of the generator or in other words the governor
setting 0 (zero) percent to 100 percent is proportional to the generator
current 0 (zero) percent to 100 percent at constant voltage and
frequency. The governor works hydraulically / mechanically, while the
input signal from the generator current output is electric, so this input
needs to be changed to mechanically by using an electric actuator to
drive the prime mover that produces the mechanical movement required
by the governor.
In some generators that operate in parallel, after the same phase
sequence of voltage, frequency and phase difference, the change in
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electrical load will not be felt by each generator in the amount of voltage
and frequency as long as the load is still below its total parallel capacity,
so that this voltage and frequency are not used as a signal source for
the governor. For this reason, the output current from each generator is
used as a signal source for the load sharing system of the generators.
When paralleled the distribution of generator loads is not balanced /
proportional to the ability of each generator. The generator load divider
is installed in each output circuit of the generator, to add up the output
current signal of each generator.
The generator output current detected by the load divider is an
indication of what percentage the governor's position is, or what current
is passing through what percentage of the generator's ability. The
quotient of the sum of the currents detected by the load dividers by the
amount of current capability of generators operating in parallel
multiplied by 100% is the governor's position value that must be
achieved by each prime mover so as to produce a proportional current
output and in accordance with the capabilities of each generator. If the
generator size is the same, the amount of current detected by each load
divider divided by the number of generators is the load current that must
be generated by the generator after the governor is changed by an
electric actuator that receives signals from the load divider shortly after
the generator is paralleled.
There are several types of load sharing systems :
1. APS (Automatic Power Sharing), this system is used when there
are additional loads at the refinery where between one generator
and another generator share the load together so as not to overload
on one of the generators.
2. APC (Automatic Power Constant), used during ordinary operations.
3. AFC (Automatc Frequency Control), used for frequency settings
(set at a constant 50 Hz). This system is used to maintain a
frequency of 50 Hz (cycle per second) and may not exceed or be
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less than this value, this system is used for certain load supplies
that require a fixed frequency.
4. DROOP, used when Trip or interruption occurs. This system is used
in the event of a disruption in the generation system where the
protection system takes over work by stopping the supply of voltage
to the equipment that is interrupted with the aim of isolating other
systems that are not damaged or disturbed.
Figure 5.17 Governor with Load Sharing - Droop function
5.8 Load Sheeding

Load Sheeding is a form of load release that occurs automatically or
manually to secure the operation of generating units from the possibility
of a total outage (black out). Electricity generation in a power system
often gets inevitable interruptions, for example by sudden loading
because there is a load that exceeds the capacity charged to the system
or it can also trip one generator unit (Generator).
If the power state of a generator is reduced by 10% to 15%, there will
be a decrease in frequency. In this condition the governor of the
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generator will slowly increase the frequency due to having a Spinning

Reserve (reserve power) of 10% to 15%. But if the amount of power
generation is too large, the frequency will decrease faster and reach a
relatively low price, only for a short time. Governor with the existing
spinning reserve, does not help much to protect a system from failure
or damage. The solution taken is to release some of the load, so that
the load carried by the system is reduced, and it is hoped that the
frequency can return to normal as soon as possible.
In planning the release of loads can be determined in advance the
loads to be released, which are divided into two categories, namely:
1. Essential Load. They are burdens that play a role in the process of
a production where in the event of a disruption can cause cessation
of Operations or damage / reduce the quality and results of the
production.
2. Non Essental Load.They are those that do not directly affect
operational processes, such as loading cranes, offices, housing,
workshop, and so on.
Release of the load can be done in two ways, namely manually (manual
load shedding), and automatically (automatic load shedding).
Release of the load manually is only used in circumstances that are not
so important or when the Load Shedding control is not working normally.
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Chapter 6. Summary
1. Electrostatic Force - force that holds an electron in orbit around a

nucleus
2. Electrostatic Field - force acting between charged objects that causes
them to repel or attractThe turns ratio is defined as the ratio of turns of
wire in the primary winding to the number of turns of wire in the
secondary winding.
3. Magnetic flux - group of magnetic field lines that are emitted outward
from the north pole of a magnet
4. Magnetic flux density - amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a
section, perpendicular to the direction of the flux
5. The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the
generator that receive a voltage from a source (called excitation) and
produce a magnetic flux.
6. The armature is the part of an AC generator in which output voltage is
produced.
7. The frequency of the generated voltage in an AC generator can be
calculated by multiplying the number of poles by the speed of the
generator and dividing by a factor of 120.
8. Power (kW) ratings of an AC generator are based on the ability of the
prime mover to overcome generation losses and the ability of the
machine to dissipate the heat generated internally. The current rating of
an AC generator is based on the insulation rating of the machine.
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References
1. Department Of Energy, Fundamental Handbook Electrical Science

Volume 1, 1992
2. Department Of Energy, Fundamental Handbook Electrical Science
Volume 3, 1992
3. Ion Boldea, The Electric Generators Handbook Volume I:
Synchronous Generators, 2006
4. K. R. Rao, Energy and Power Generation Handbook, ASME Press,
2011
5. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Power Generation Handbook, 2004

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MODULE

MINISTRY OF ENERGI AND MINERAL RESOURCES

By thanking God for the presence of Allah SWT, the module

Cepu, May 2019

5.3 Voltage Regulation ................................................................... 44

Figure 1.1 Electric Generator Set............................................................... 6

Figure 5.1 Simple AC Generator .............................................................. 32

Figure 1.1 Electric Generator Set

1.3 Specials Learning Outcome

1.4 Core and Sub Materials

Chapter 2. Atom and It Forces

What is electricity? Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through

2.1 The Atom

Figure 2.1 The Atom

The proton carries a single unit positive charge equal in magnitude to

electron is the fundamental negative charge (-) of electricity and

Figure 2.2 The Carbon Atom

2.2 Electrostatic Force

Figure 2.3 Electrostatic Force

Figure 2.4 Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Opposite Polarity

Figure 2.5 Electrostatic Field Between Two Charges of Same Polarity

2.3 Free Electrons

Figure 2.6 Energy Shells and Electron Quota

Figure 3.1 Mutual Induction

In magnetic materials, the atoms have certain areas called domains.

Figure 3.2 Mutual Induction

Figure 3.3 Mutual Induction

3.2 Magnetic Materials

if an electric current was caused to flow through a conductor, the

Figure 3.4 The Magnetic Field Produced by Current in a Conductor

A convenient way to determine the relationship between the current flow

Figure 3.5 Left-hand Rule for Current Carrying Conductors

3.4 Magnetic Induction

Figure 3.6 Induced IMF

If the conductor is moving outside the magnetic field at position 1, zero

The Equation is the mathematical representation for Faraday’s Law of

Chapter 4. Part of Generator

AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how

4.1 Prime Mover

Figure 4.1 Diesel Generator Set

Figure 4.2 Name Plate Generator Example

Figure 4.3 Salient Pole Rotor

The salient pole rotors are commonly used in synchronous

Figure 4.4 Non Salient Pole

Figure 4.5 Stator Frame

Figure 4.6 Stator Core

Figure 4.7 Stator Winding

Figure 4.8 Slot

4.5 Brush Excitation System

Figure 4.9 brush excitation system

4.6 Brushless Excitation System

Figure 4.10 Brushless Excitation Generator

Figure 4.11 Pilot Exciter

Figure 4.12 AVR

Figure 4.13 Exciter

Figure 4.14 Rotating Diode

Chapter 5. Generator Operation

AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how

Figure 5.1 Simple AC Generator

Voltage drop = IaRa + IaXLa

5.2 No Load Operation

Before operating a generator, it is necessary to pay attention to the

Figure 5.2 No Load Generator Single Line

No load voltage an AC generator can be calculated using Equation