Foreword 1 2: The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

CONTENTS
Foreword 1 Mission Statement

It is the mission of the Poliquin International
Introduction 2 Certification Program to globally foster and educate
our strength coaches and personal trainers. Providing
The Poliquin International them with superior education and practical application,
Certification Program in turn will raise the level of sport performance and
healthy lifestyle ideas. Poliquin Performance was
founded on this philosophy and continues to be our
Chapter 1 5 driving force to help us remain the world leader in
Classification of Strength Qualities strength and conditioning education.
Program Overview
Chapter 2 11
Manipulating Reps for Optimal The Poliquin International Certification Program
(PICP) recognizes strength coaches around the world
Strength Gains who demonstrate the knowledge and skills able to
effectively train athletes internationally.
Chapter 3 41 Higher-quality strength coaching is an imperative
IVianipulating Sets for Optimal component in improving sports performance. The
Strength Gains PICP will provide strength coaches with unsurpassed
skills in program design and teaching methodogies.
Chapter 4 55
The Science of Rest Intervals
Chapter 5 65
The Science of Tempo
References 79
Afterword 85
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
SPECIAL ^
THANKS TD
Fergus Connolly, PhD

Fergus Connolly, PhD, is an internationally respected
sports performance consultant based in Ireland.
Through his company, Connolly Sports Performance,

Connolly works with and advises elite coaches and
athletes in many sports all over the world, translating
theory to on-field results. Having been fortunate to
work with and learn from several of the world's best
coaches in many sports, Connolly is consistently
bridging the theory-practice gap in strength,
speed, training organization, injury prevention and
rehabilitation.
Some of the elite athletes and coaches he has worked
Some of his continuing research interests include the with and advised include . . .
following:
•Ashley Jones, Strength and Conditioning Coach,
• Nervous System Monitoring, Feedback and Canterbury Crusaders, New Zealand
Optimization
• John McCloskey, Armagh Coach, All-Ireland
• Optimal Power and Speed Development for Winners 2002, Ulster SFC 2004, 2005, 2006
Team Sport Athletes
• Phil Morrow, Strength and Conditioning Coach,
• Elite Athlete Nutrition and Targeted Ulster Rugby, Celtic League Champions 2005/2006
Supplementation
• Enda McNulty, Armagh Senior Footballer,
• Applied Kinesiology and Biomechanical Analysis All-Ireland Winner 2002, All-Star 2002
• Injury Prevention and Elite Athlete Rehab •Aldan O'Connell, Strength and Conditioning Coach,
Munster Rugby, European Cup 2006
Connolly's research into physical therapy, injury
prevention and athlete monitoring includes product • Tom Crick, Sprints Coach, Loughborough
design for monitoring, biofeedback, injury prevention University Track and Field, UK
and training software aimed at team sports to
• Many individual athletes in many other teams and
maximize player playing time and eliminate downtime
sports, including rugby, soccer, hurling, and track
and fatigue.
and field.
Connolly's by-invitation-only website and forum for

his clients and elite coaches - The Elite Edge - is the
fastest-growing resource for athletes and coaches
looking for cutting-edge knowledge across the world.
Contact Fergus Connolly at www.fergusconnolly.com.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

© Poliquin Peii'ormance Center 2010
FDREWDRD
Charles Poliquin is an extremely well-paid strength This primer in strength coaching theory is not meant to
coach who has trained countless elite athletes, both answer every conceivable question. However, Coach
amateur and professional. He began as a young man Poliquin believes it will bring you a big step closer to
fascinated with weight training and looking for a way to answering most questions, and it will also prepare you
make it his life's work. You may be in a similar position; to draw the logical and correct conclusions as science
or you may be a personal trainer, a coach, a student provides us with more keys to training success. It
of exercise theory and methodology, an athlete looking will also help you coach athletes regardless of their
for an edge or a physician or physical caregiver. particular sports. Although this variety increases the
Regardless, this course contains the theories and difficulty of determining the most effective program
methodologies that dictate how he writes strength for each athlete, this course is designed to be the
training routines. These routines are his bread and most thorough treatise available on modern strength
butter - they separate a coach of winning athletes coaching techniques.
from a coach of wannabes.
Upon completion of the Poliquin Performance
It is Coach Poliquin's aim to share with you the Certification Course you will be able to write
science of strength coaching from his experience. It is better routines for a wider variety of sport-specific
also his aim to help you become as successful as he applications, enabling your athletes to fulfill their
has been in the field of strength coaching. Yet, even physical potential. There's a lot of intense studying
more importantly, he wants to help a new generation ahead for you, but when you're finished I'm certain
of coaches to take the athletes of the next century to you'll agree that your investment has certainly been
greater feats and new world records through intelligent worth it.
training rather than anabolics and other chemical
means. Kim Goss
Strength and Fitness Writer/Editor
With increased contributions from the scientific US Air Force Academy Strength Coach, 1987-94
community, the subject of training methodologies - in
particular, loading parameters - has become rather
complex. However, science has not yet provided all
the answers; and therefore, we will continue to see
much variation in training methods. This course will
help to open doors as we continue to progress.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Foreword 1

© Poliquin Peii'ormance Center 2010
The Poliquin International Certification
Program (PICP)
The Poliquin Strength Institute team is proud to 4. Understand Upper Body Exercise Progressions
present our program to meet the needs of strength and Variations
coaches throughout the world: the Poliquin
International Certification Program (PICP). 5. Be able to differentiate strength programs and
have an introduction to Program Design
The mission of the PICP is to improve the level of
6. Have an introduction to stretching techniques
sports performance the world over though high-quality
strength coaching. We do this by providing coaches
with the latest information on program design and THEORY
teaching methodologies.
The Theory component is the Level 1 Theory Manual.
In the Theory 1 Manual, coaches and trainers will
Program Levels learn to differentiate strength qualities and know
the scientific basis of the following training loading
Levels 1 to 3 of the program are designed for
parameters: Manipulation of Reps, Manipulation of
strength coaches who work with developing athletes
Sets, Rest Intervals and Science of Tempo.
participating at levels ranging from regional to national.
Each level of the PICP has three components: theory, Upon completion of the Theory 1 Manual, the Theory
technical and practical. The PICP issues a diploma 1 Exam (50-question, Multiple Choice) will need to
upon completion of each component. be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be
passed before attending the course.
Levels 4 and 5 of the program are for well-established
strength coaches interested in coaching at the
international or professional sports level. Levels 4 TECHNICAL
and 5 are geared to highly qualified strength coaches.
By the end of Level 5, the strength coach will have The Technical component consists of an in-class
completed 12 requirements. lecture/presentation based on designing effective
strength programs. By the end of the course, a written
exam will be given. The passing grade is 92%.
PICP Level 1: Regional Coach

PRACTICAL
Upper Body Structural Balance
To complete the Practical component, the coach
At the conclusion of the PICP Level 1 Course,
or trainer will administer an Upper Body Structural
coaches and trainers will:
Balance Assessment. Grades will be based on a Pass/
1. Understand all Theory 1 Principles Fail System.
2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance
3. Be able to perform the Upper Body Structural

Balance Assessment
2 Introduction The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

PICP Level 2: State/Provincial PICP Level 3: National Coach
Coach, Lower Body Structural 9 Tasks
Balance {7 of 9 Tasks must be completed to fulfill PICP Level 3
At the conclusion of the course, coaches and Requirements)
trainers will:
At the conclusion of the course, coaches and
1. Understand all Theory 2 Principles trainers will:
2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance 1. Understand Principles of Nutrition
3. Be able to perform the Lower Body Structural 2. Know how to design effective Nutritional Plans
Balance Assessment
3. Understand factors influencing Energy System
4. Understand important Lower Body Exercise Prescription
Progressions
4. Understand Principles of Energy Systems
5. Have an introduction to Short Term Periodization
5. Know how to help Prevent and Rehabilitate Upper
6. Have an introduction to Rehabilitation Principles and Lower Body Injuries
6. Understand Supplementation for effective Training

THEORY and Athletic Performance
The Theory component is the Level 2 Theory Manual. 7. Understand Exercises and Variations for Applied
In the Theory 2 Manual, coaches and trainers will learn Functional Strength
Principles of Safe and Effective Training, Exercise
8. Know how to design an effective Short-Term
Selection, Number of Exercises, Rate of Exercise
Periodization program
Exchange, Exercise Order, and Training Frequency.
9. Understand the fundamentals of Olympic Lifting
Upon completion of the Theory 2 Manual, the Theory
2 Exam (50-question, Multiple Choice) will need to 10. Understand new techniques for instant muscle
be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be strengthening
THEORY
TECHNICAL
The Theory component is the Nutrition Manual. In the
The Technical component consists of an in-class Nutrition Manual, coaches and trainers will learn the
lecture/presentation. The technical exam is designing principles of Macronutrients, Calories, Hormones, Diet
a lower body program with a given case study. Grades Programs and Medication and Supplements.
will be based on a Pass/Fail System.
Upon completion of the Nutrition Manual, the Nutrition
Exam (72-question, Multiple Choice) will need to be
PRACTICAL submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be
To complete the Practical component, the coach or
trainer will administer a Lower Body Structural Balance
Assessment. Grades will be based on a Pass/Fail TECHNICAL
System.
The technical component consists of 14 gym-hours
and 14 hours of in-class lecture throughout the
duration of the course.
PRACTICAL
The practical component is designed to provide
coaches with feedback on their effectiveness when
coaching in the weight room.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Introduction 3

© Poliquin Peitormance Center 2010
At this level, there is a specific criterion the PICP PICP Level 5: Master Strength Coach
will need to grant you in this component. You will
have to prove that you have at least one athlete The highest goal in the Poliquin International
who followed your program and has participated in a Certification Program is to reach the International
national championship and finished at a performance Master Course Conductor (IMCC) level. This level
level representing 90% of the average of the first 3 falls under jurisdiction of the Poliquin Strength Institute
competitors. For example, if the average throw is 20 with the collaboration of the National Sport Governing
meters, the athlete will need to throw 18 meters. Organization (NSGO). The identification of an IMCC
needs the approval of both organizations.
This level is competency-based according to the

PICP Level 4: International Coach coach's experience and his form of education. The
6 Tasks coaches who desire this level of certification have
to submit their curriculum to the Poliquin Strength
At the conclusion of the course, coaches and Institute. All curriculums are based on the achievement
trainers will: of the candidate.
1. Understand Principles of Long Term Periodization Only active coaches can qualify for this level. You
2. Know Training Recovery Methods need to meet four of the seven following criteria to
obtain the IMCC qualification:
3. Learn How to Increase Your Revenue
• Train a medalist at the Olympic Games
4. Know Advanced Strength Training Techniques
• Train a medalist at the Senior World
5. Learn Stretching Techniques Championships
6. Understand the Fundamentals of Plyometrics and • Participate officially as a coach or athlete at the
Speed Progressions Olympic Games or World Championships
PICP Level 4 represents one of the final steps of • Train a World Record Holder in a recognized
the PICP for coaches and is designed for those discipline
working with high performance athletes and for those
• Train an athlete who wins a distinguished award
interested in pursuing a successful career in coaching.
in the professional league: i.e. Norris (NHL),
Level 4 consists of Six Tasks. Coaches will learn
Cy Young (MLB)
new tools that assist in the training of national caliber
athletes. They need to successfully complete the tasks • Develop course material for the PICP
Only active coaches qualify for this level. You need to • Work as a National Coach for 5 years
complete the six tasks and have two of the 5 criteria to
obtain the ICC qualification: * Note: World Championships are for recognized
disciplines where coaching is a factor: i.e. track and
• Participate officially as a coach or an athlete at the field, alpine skiing, volleyball, etc... Examples of sports
Olympic Games not recognized are: ice dancing, speed skiing.
• Participate officially as a coach or an athlete at the
World Championships
• Participate officially as a coach on the World Cup

circuit
• Coach an athlete to the Senior World

Championships
• Coach an athlete to the Olympic Games
• Coach an athlete on the World Cup circuit
4 Introduction The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

Classification of Strength Qualities
strength can be classified into many
different types, each defined by differing
capabilities of the neuromuscular system
and different time frames of strength
expression. Some types of strength can
be defined even more specifically by the
type of muscular contraction. This chapter
classifies these capabilities and defines
these contraction types.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 1

PRE-TEST
1. Maximal involuntary strengtii is another term for neuromuscular system to produce the greatest
which of the following? possible force in the shortest possible time frame?
A. maximal strength A. reactive strength
B. limit strength B. speed-strength
C. fascia strength C. compensatory acceleration
D. explosive power D. B and C
2. How many types of maximal voluntary strength 7. Which of these is a plyometric activity?
are there? A. depth jumping
A. 3 B. bounding
B. 4 C. hurdle hops
C. 15 D. All the above
D. 16
8. The athlete's tolerance level to fatigue in
3. Which of these activities best represents an strength performance of longer duration is related
isometric contraction? to what term?
A. the set position in sprinting A. aerobic volume
B. the shift phase of a roundhouse uppercut B. strength endurance
C. the lowering phase of a bench press C. anaerobic endurance
D.B and C D. neuromuscular volume
4. The maximal stimulus to the neuromuscular 9. Optimal strength can best be described by
system is achieved by what type of contraction? which of the following definitions?
A. concentric A. the maximal force an athlete can generate,
B. isometric irrespective of bodyweight and time of force
C. helvetica development
D. eccentric B. the optimal level of maximal strength needed for
a particular sport
5. Isokinetic strength training would be most C. the capacity to develop a vertical rise in force
appropriate for which sport/s? once movement has been initiated
A. canoeing D. the ability to maintain postural balance in acyclic
B. swimming activities
C. ice squash
10. In what phase is intensity the main stressor?
D. Aand B
A. accumulation phase
6. What term is used to represent the ability of the B. intensification phase
C. Gamma phase
D. Both Aand B
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6 Chapter 1 The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

C HAPTER 1
In certain sporting movements, such as moving out of
starting blocks in sprinting, an isometric contraction in
the set position precedes a concentric contraction, but
there is no external movement.
Concentric Contraction. The muscle develops

Classificatidn of tension and shortens, causing movement to occur
During a chin-up, the joint angle at the elbow is
Strength Qualities decreased from 180 degrees to 15 degrees as the
biceps works concentrically, resulting in an elevation of
Experimental research and empirical evidence have the body.
shown over and over that the amount of resistance
(load) used for a specific exercise is probably the most Eccentric Contraction. The muscle lengthens while
important variable in resistance training (McDonagh producing tension, thus braking or controlling the
& Davies 1984, Spassov 1988). In other words, the speed of movement. This contraction is exemplified by
level of tension imposed upon the muscle is critical the action of the quadriceps during the lowering phase
for obtaining a strength response. The degree of of the squat.
loading is usually described in terms of repetitions
An eccentric contraction of the biceps occurs by
maximum (RM). For instance the maximal weight
lowering the body from the completed chin-up position,
that can be lifted correctly four consecutive times
with the elbow joint angle increasing from 15 degrees
without significant rest would be known as 4RM. The
to 180 degrees. During the positive phase in the bench
relationship between repetitions and the maximum is
press, the triceps contract concentrically as the joint
known as the 1RM continuum.
angle at the elbow increases, but contract eccentrically
Strength can be classified into many different as the joint angle decreases during the return phase
types, each defined by differing capabilities of the (the weight moves up, and then down, respectively).
neuromuscular system and different time frames of
The highest forces that the human body is voluntarily
strength expression. Some types of strength can be
capable of occur during an eccentric contraction, i.e.,
defined even more specifically by the type of muscular
forces of 40 to 50 percent above values produced
contraction. This chapter classifies these capabilities
by concentric contractions. Maximal eccentric
and defines these contraction types.
strength exercises provide maximal stimulus to the
Limit Strength. The peak force or torque the neuromuscular system, but at a cost to the athlete of
neuromuscular system is capable of exerting in a greater levels of muscle soreness.
single maximal contraction. Limit strength is typified by
Isokinetic Contraction. Literally, "same speed,"
a survival (instinctual) response to a life-threatening
meaning that the muscle performs a maximal
situation that involves little or no prior thought or
contraction in moving the joint at constant speed
preparation. Limit strength is also known as maximal
throughout the full range of motion. With an isokinetic
involuntary strength.
action the contraction is maximal throughout the range
IVIaximal Strength. The peak force or torque the of motion: thus, the resistance against which the
neuromuscular system is capable of producing in a muscle works varies depending on the length of lever
single maximal voluntary contraction, irrespective of arm offered by the changing joint angle.
the time element. There are three types of voluntary
An accommodating resistance apparatus allows a
maximal strength, one for each type of muscular
constant and predetermined speed of movement.
contraction: isometric, concentric and eccentric.
The force exerted by the contracting muscle must
Isometric (Static) Contraction. A muscle develops be maximal during an isokinetic contraction. Some
tension while its length remains unchanged, thus isokinetic devices also allow the maximum speed
producing no external movement. In other words, a of contraction to be preset and thereby enable the
muscle develops tension without a change in joint simulation of contraction speeds required by a specific
angle. However, the muscle belly and accompanying sport.
fascia do shorten internally during the process of
Isokinetic strength training is most specific to the
developing tension, but this shortening in the agonist
so-called isokinetic sports, such as swimming.
is countered equally by a shortening in the antagonist.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 1 7

synchronized swimming, canoeing and kayaking, per unit of time; the ability of the neuromuscular
where acceleration occurs against the resistance system to continue developing the already initiated
provided by water (i.e., water is an isokinetic medium). force as quickly as possible; the rate at which one can
It has low specificity in sports such as sprinting, develop maximal or peak force.
jumping and throwing, where acceleration against
gravity plays a major role. However, it does provide the Explosive strength is a key determinant of
option in any sport of exposing the nervous system to performance in sports where the resistance to
a different stimulus for all athletes, thus adhering to the overcome is relatively great, such as wrestling,
principle of variety. hammer throwing and shot-putting.
Maximal strength plays a major role in sports where Reactive Strength. The ability to quickly switch from
great external resistance must be overcome, such as an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction.
hammer throwing, shot-putting and weightlifting. Its This is also known as the stretch-shortening cycle.
importance as a determinant of athletic performance Reactive strength regulates performance in sports
diminishes as the duration of the event increases. where stretch-shortening activity of the musculature is
For example, swimming for 50 meters requires more great, e.g., volleyball, basketball and weightlifting.
maximal strength than swimming for 1500 meters. As Plyometrics. A form of training that utilizes fast
Table 1.1 indicates, strength requirements vary greatly eccentric contractions followed by explosive concentric
from one sport to another. Sports of an intermittent contractions. Such activities as bounding, depth
nature (such as racquetball), which require intense jumping and certain forms of medicine ball work satisfy
bursts of power interspaced with lower-intensity this requirement. The term "plyometric" refers to the
recovery periods, are also dependent on high levels of enhancement of force development of a concentric
maximal strength. contraction that occurs when it is immediately
Speed-Strength (power or fast strength, elastic preceded by a rapid eccentric contraction.
strength). The ability of the neuromuscular system As a training method, plyometrics bridge the gap
to produce the greatest possible force in the between pure strength training and speed-strength
shortest possible time frame. It is the capacity of the training. This training method aims at producing the
neuromuscular system to overcome resistance with
explosive-reactive movements inherent in takedowns
the greatest contraction speed possible.
in wrestling and in jumping, throwing and sprinting.
Speed-strength is a high priority in most cyclical Strength Endurance (muscular endurance).
sports, such as in the field events; in the sprinting, The athlete's tolerance level to fatigue in strength
kicking, jumping and throwing activities of team sports;
performances of longer duration. It is the capacity
and in the starts and acceleration phases of sprinting,
of a muscle to maintain consistent force output with
cycling, rowing, cross-country skiing, ice skating and
repeated contractions over time at a percentage of
kayaking.
maximal strength superior to 30 percent, the capacity
Speed-strength encompasses three other strength of muscles to resist fatigue while generating force over
qualities: starting strength, explosive strength and a period of time.
reactive strength.
Strength endurance is characterized by high strength
Starting Strength. The capacity to generate maximal levels coupled with high levels of endurance. It is of
force at the beginning of a muscular contraction; particular importance in cyclical endurance events,
the capacity to overcome resistance and initiate such as rowing, cross-country skiing, swimming and
movement. Starting strength is of importance in canoeing/kayaking, where the ability to overcome
movements that require great initial speed, such as exceptional resistance must be maintained over long
boxing blows and racquetball thrusts. Starting strength periods. It also plays a key role in sports or events of a
is a key determinant of performance in sports where cyclical nature, such as gymnastics, wrestling, boxing,
the resistance to overcome is relatively light. It is judo, downhill skiing and most team sports.
dependent on the number of motor units accessed at Absolute Strength. The maximum force an athlete
the beginning of the contraction. can generate, irrespective of bodyweight and time of
Explosive Strength. The capacity to develop a force development. Bodyweight and performance are
vertical rise in force once movement has been closely correlated in athletes where absolute strength
initiated, measured in terms of the increase in force is an important physical quality, such as throwers and

Discipline Qualification Full Squat in kg Bench Press in kg
Weightlifting 220 kg jerk 285 70.0 (100)
Shot Put 20 m 235 200.0
Hammer Throw 72 m 225 190.0
Sprint 9.78 s 200 190.0
Cycling Sprint 205 97.5
Bobsleigh Olympic team 200 140.0
Hammer Throw 60 m 180 150.0
Judo (86 kg) Olympic team 180 140.0
Alpine Ski National team 170 80.0
Speed Skating 40.5 s 150 -
Shot Put 14 m 140 115.0
Decathlon 8,000 points 145 110.0
Decathlon 7,500 points 130 95.0
Rowing National class 140 90.0
Badminton National league 95 65.0
TABLE 1.1 Maximal strength performances of male athletes in different sports and with different levels of
qualification. (Modified from Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986, Poliquin 1988).
American football linemen. These athletes can use Accumulation Phase. A training phase where the
maximal strength gains through hypertrophy methods. main stressor is volume. Increased muscle cross-
section or increased strength endurance levels are
Relative Strength. The maximum force an athlete can sought in this phase.
generate per unit of bodyweight irrespective of time of
force development. High relative strength is of critical Intensification Phase. A training phase where the
importance to performance in sports in which athletes main stressor is intensity. Increases in relative strength
have to move their entire bodyweight, e.g., jumps, or speed-strength are sought in this phase.
gymnastics and sports that involve weight classes,
such as judo, wrestling and boxing. Strength training In strength training the total volume of work varies
for these athletes should aim at improving the neural considerably from one sport to another. What
drive (maximal weights/nervous system methods). represents intensification for one sport is accumulation
for another. For example, when synchronized
Optimal Strength. The optimal level of maximal swimmers are working in the 6-8RM range, they are
strength needed for a particular sport (any further doing intensification work; for weightlifters this range
increase in maximal strength would not improve represents accumulation.
performance). In sports such as powerlifting,
where strength is expressed at slow speeds, the
level of optimal strength is open-ended; that is,
the more strength the athlete has, the higher the
sports performance. In sports where motor skill
predominates, such as table tennis, the levels of
optimal strength are quite low, since maximal strength
and performance are not highly correlated in these
sports. Table 1.1 illustrates the different levels of
strength commonly found in elite athletes.

The Four Strength Qualities
RELATIVE FUNCTIONAL
Athletes who need high levels of Athletes who need high levels of
relative strength include gymnasts, high functional strength include football
jumpers, short track speed skaters, and skill positions, sprinters and baseball
sports that involve weight classes, such players.
as judo, wrestling and boxing.
HYPERTROPHY ENDURANCE
Athletes who need high levels of Athletes who need high levels of
hypertrophy include football lineman strength endurance include rowers,
and shot putters. cross-country skiers, swimmers,
canoeists, kayakers and figure skaters.
PICTURES 1.1-1.4

Manipulating Reps for Optimal
Strength Gains
The first step in designing workout
programs should be deciding how many
reps to perform. The selection of reps
affects all other components of a workout.
Sets, tempo, rest intervals and even
exercise selection are influenced by the
number of reps performed.

PRE-TEST
1. What determines how much tension is imposed 6. MUA is an acronym for what exercise term?
on a muscle? A. muscular unit activity
A. how much weight is lifted B. motor-unit activation
B. friction of the muscle fibers during muscular 0. motor-unit acceleration
contraction D. none of the above
C. volume
D . B and C 7. What is the optimal intensity zone for a single
muscle group?
2. What is the effect of reducing the speed of A. 50-70 percent of maximum
movement of an exercise? B. 70-80 percent of maximum
A. increase in the time a muscle is under tension C. 70-85 percent of maximum
B. increase of muscle friction D. none of the above
C. increase in the intensity of the exercise
D. increase in the activation of Nelson motor units 8. Which of the following rep brackets would best
apply to functional training?
3. What is a simple way to describe the intensity of A. 1-5 reps
an exercise? B. 6-8 reps
A. neuromuscular manipulating C. 10-12 reps
B. repetition maximum (RM) D. 10-15 reps
C. set maximum (SM)
D. volume/intensity ratio 9. A 3011 tempo would yield a time-under-tension
value of how many seconds?
4. What is a common way to explain the A. 4
relationship between reps and sets? B. 5
A. accumulation C. 6
B. Orion sequence D. 7
C. co-dependent
D. 1RM continuum 10. A 301X tempo would yield a time-under-tension
value of how many seconds?
5. Which of the following is true? A. 4
A. Low repetitions produce greater gains in B. 5
maximal strength. C. 6
B. High repetitions produce greater gains in D. 7
maximal strength.
C. The capital city of Iran is Iraq.
D. Low repetitions produce greater gains in
strength-endurance.
v-01 a-6 a-8 a-z a-9 v-9 a-t^ a-e v-z v-i. sjbmsuv isej-ejd

Manipulating Reps for Optimal
Strength Gains
There is an abundance of peer-reviewed literature that those performed by strength-power athletes, according
suggests the amount of resistance used for a specific to the universally accepted definition of "intensity."
exercise is probably the single most important variable
in strength training (McDonagh & Davies 1984; Fleck To increase training intensities using conventional
& Kraemer 1987). resistance training, a coach can either have his or
her athletes work at a higher percentage of maximum
How much weight is lifted (the load) determines how ability (lifting heavier weights) or have them move
much tension is imposed upon a muscle, and how the weight faster during the concentric portion of an
much tension is imposed upon a muscle determines exercise. Regarding this second point, proponents of
the strength training response. the "super-slow" weight training programs often claim
that their protocols are more intense than conventional
Because the number of repetitions performed programs. Not quite. Reducing the speed of movement
influences how much an athlete can lift, this chapter of an exercise merely increases the time a muscle is
will review the basic principles for selecting reps. I've under tension, not the intensity.
come up with 24 principles, many that overlap and all
of which are important. The intensity of an exercise can be described in
terms of repetitions maximum (RM). For example,
I suggest you read this chapter several times and the maximum weight that can be correctly lifted four
review it periodically, as the information I'm about to consecutive times without significant rest would be
share with you is especially important and immediately known as the 4RM. The relationship between reps and
applicable to training. repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum
(Fig. 2.1).
Principle 1: The number of reps for a Note: For this standard terminology, all reps are performed at
given time under tension dictates the a moderate tempo for the eccentric range (3-4 seconds) and
training effect as rapidly as possible for the concentric contraction.
How much weight an athlete lifts during a set gives the Although the number of reps an athlete performs
coach immediate feedback about how closely athletes influences the training effect (Fig. 2.2), it's also
are working to their maximum capacity. important to consider the speed at which these reps
are performed. Unfortunately, in the strength training
The concept of workout intensity is often literature most researchers have failed to take into
misunderstood because bodybuilding magazines consideration the effects of different repetition speeds,
use the term "intensity" to describe workouts that assuming that all reps are performed at roughly the
are especially difficult. But the fact is, because same tempo.
bodybuilders use relatively lighter weights (compared
to powerlifters, Olympic-style weightlifters and other The number of repetitions you select will fall on
athletes involved in strength-power sports such as what's called a neuromuscular axis (Fig. 2.3). This
football), bodybuilders' training cannot be as intense. theory states that for a given tempo of execution,
It's not that bodybuilders' training is easy but that their lower repetitions emphasize neural adaptation and
workouts are not as hard on the nervous system as higher repetitions emphasize muscular adaptation.
The scientific basis for this premise has been proven

1RM CONTINUUM
100
90
E
3
Rowers
E
'S
ro
Z 80
#
70
Normal
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
Repetitions
FIGURE 2.1 The relationship between reps and the one-repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum.
time and again: Groups training with low repetitions maximums, MUA increases with each subsequent
achieved greater gains in maximal strength; groups submaximal contraction, becoming maximal with
training with high repetitions achieved greater gains in fatigue.
strength-endurance.
The use of repetition maximums complies with the
principle of overload because the muscle must
Principle 2: Maximal voluntary exert force against a resistance it normally does not
contractions are essential to the encounter. In other words, maximal effort must be
strength training process exerted to achieve maximal MUA, which will stimulate
neural adaptations and lead to enhanced strength.
The foundation of all successful resistance training
programs is the inclusion of maximal voluntary If you accept the idea that one of the most important
contractions (Fleck & Schutt 1985, MacDougall 1986). physiological factors in strength training is maximal
Maximal voluntary contractions can be defined as "the MUA, an effective way to strength train would be the
attempt to recruit as many motor units as possible to rest-pause method.
develop force." This definition has some limitations,
With the rest-pause method the athlete begins with a
however, because neural mechanisms may inhibit an
1RM load, causing all motor units to be fully activated.
athlete's ability to exert maximal force.
Because fatigue would prevent the athlete from
A maximum voluntary contraction does not necessarily lifting this weight again, the weight is reduced slightly
equal a 1RM load. It could mean the performance (2-5 percent) so that he or she can perform another
of the last repetition of a 6RM load, wherein the 7th repetition. Although the weight is lighter, maximal
repetition is impossible to perform. Therefore, the MUA would occur because the athlete is fatigued from
last repetition of the set is accomplished by a muscle the previous rep (Fig. 2.4). The process would be
reaching a fatigued state, at which point maximal force repeated, usually for no more than a total of 8 reps.
is produced.
Working with 1RM loads enables an athlete to

achieve maximal motor-unit activation (MUA) with
each contraction. With a greater number of repetition

POLIQUIN TRAINING EFFECT CURVE
u
u
lU I Relative
OI
c
c I Functional
ro
I.
I-
t*- Hypertrophy
o
IEndurance
Endurance
^ ® ® 1213
To 16 17 la Relative
Repetitions ® —
FIGURE 2.2 The Poliquin Training Effect Curve illustrates how the number of reps influences the training effect.
NEUROMUSCULAR AXIS
100
Metabolic
Adaptations
FIGURE 2.3 The Neuromuscular Axis illustrates that lower reps emphasize neural adaptation, and higher reps
emphasize muscular adaptation.

Principle 3: Use 70 to 100 percent Principle 4: The range in repetitions
of maximum capacity to develop for strength training decreases with
maximal strength training age
According to leading experts in strength training, Training age influences the 1RM continuum. Training
the best way to develop maximal strength is to use age refers to the number of years an athlete has been
weights that allow an athlete to perform 1-12 reps at participating in serious strength training. If an athlete
70-100 percent of the athlete's maximum (Feser 1977; has been strength training seriously for one year, that
Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986; McDonagh & Davies 1984) athlete has a training age of one; if it's two years, that
(Fig. 2.5). There is, however, controversy as to what is equals a training age of two, and so on.
considered minimum intensity.
The average beginning weight trainee can often
Some sport scientists believe the minimum intensity perform a 20RM at 75 percent of maximum. After one
level in strength training is 75 percent (Harre et al. year of training he or she may be down to 10RM for
1989), while others suggest a minimum intensity as the same percentage, and after five years the same
low as 60 percent (Allsen et al. 1984; MacDougall athlete may barely be able to perform 4RM (Table
1986). Although beginners (and especially women) 2.1). Also, differences in the 1RM between sexes have
can often make excellent progress using 60 percent been demonstrated (Table 2.2), as well as differences
intensities, this intensity level may be better suited for between individuals (Chernik 1983, Poliquin & Leger
the development of muscular endurance (Letzeiter & 1990).
Letzeiter 1986; Schmidtbleicher 1985).
Applying this knowledge to the development of
The bottom line is that there is an optimal threshold of maximal strength, a male athlete with a training age
intensity required to stimulate strength gains, and as of one year who can bench press 200 pounds may be
such a coach must closely monitor and adjust intensity able to do 12 reps at 140 pounds (70 percent of max).
levels and repetition ranges. By the time this athlete can bench press 400 pounds,
he may be able to complete only 6 reps at his new 70
MOTOR-UNIT ACTIVATION
100
Pounds
100%
MUA
1 2 3 4 5 6 Repetitions
FIGURE 2.4 This graph demonstrates how fatigue can influence motor-unit activation.

DEVELOPMENT OF MAXIMAL STRENGTH
FIGURE 2.5 The leading experts in strength training have determined that the best way to develop maximal
strength is to use weights at 70-100 percent of the athlete's maximum. Lighter weights may cause an athlete to
lose strength.
percent of maximum, which in this case is 280 pounds. Principle 6: Long-term aerobic work
Because it is generally agreed upon in the strength
modifies the IRIVI continuum
training community that 70 percent of maximum is the
minimum threshold for strength development, it would Athletes who compete in events in which there is a
not be wise to use programs that emphasize weights high cyclical component often can perform abnormally
lower than 70 percent (or repetitions higher than 6), high repetitions at a very high percentage of maximum.
as the weight would be too light to elicit a strength Australian rowers have been shown to be able to
response (Fig. 2.6). complete 12 reps at 97 percent of their maximum, in
contrast to the average athlete who may be able to
Principle 5: The intensity-zone complete only 1-2 repetitions at that percentage (Fig.
2.8).
repetition bracket is specific to the
muscle
Principle 7: The number of repetitions
The 1RM continuum varies greatly among muscle is the loading parameter that athletes
groups. At 12RM in the bench press an athlete may
adapt to most quickly
be working at 70 percent of maximum, but at 12RM
for the leg curl he or she may be working at only 57 Because the body adapts very quickly to a given
percent of maximum. And for lower-body exercises rep range, frequent variation in rep prescriptions is
with a high stretch-shortening cycle, such as the leg necessary to ensure optimal progress. I've found that
press, some athletes may be able to complete as most athletes adapt to a given number of repetitions
many as 65 repetitions at 70 percent of maximum (Fig. in six workouts. After six workouts the rate of progress
2.7)! is so insignificant that it is often futile to continue the
same program.
One approach to program design I particularly like is

to use a given rep bracket for two workouts, lower it
by 1 rep for two workouts and then lower it again by

FIGURE 2.6 As an athlete's training age increases, lower reps with heavier weights are necessary to elicit a
strength response.
another rep for one or two workouts. I've had great When helping Cathy Millen prepare for her onslaught
success using this approach with the more than 70 of powerlifting world records, I wrote a training
National Hockey League players I've trained and with program for her in which the rep bracket was changed
track stars Michelle Freeman and Carlette Guidry (Fig. downward every two workouts. In contrast, for
2.9). Here is one example of such a progression: Olympic bobsleigh gold medalist Pierre Lueders,
who established start records worldwide, I wrote
Workouts 1-2: 4 sets x 6-8 reps programs in which a complete overhaul of the loading
parameters occurred every training session. The
Workouts 3-4: 5 sets x 5-7 reps
difference between Cathy's and Pierre's training was
Workouts 5-6: 5 sets x 4-6 reps necessary because Pierre's sport required him to be
more explosive than Cathy.
Principle 8: Individualize the rep
prescription Principle 9: Elite athletes must pay
attention to specificity of contraction
The unique qualities of the individual athlete must be force
addressed when designing a workout. Some athletes
respond better to rapid changes of reps and sets Repetitions in the 1RM to 5RM range increase
(every 1-2 weeks), while other trainees respond better maximal strength with minimal gains in muscle mass.
to less rapid changes (every 3-4 weeks). Reps in the 8RM to 15RM range produce greater
hypertrophy gains with less effect on maximal strength.
Many factors that influence the rate of adaptation to
Reps between 6RM and 7RM produce equal changes
training are genetic, including muscle fiber makeup,
in hypertrophy and strength. But these are general
systemic recovery rate and hormonal response. I
guidelines.
have also found that athletes in the so-called nervous-
system sports (such as the throws and the 100-meter Coaches must pay special attention to specificity of
sprint) adapt much more rapidly to strength-training contraction force. When training athletes with several
prescriptions (Fig. 2.10). years of lifting experience, low repetitions (1-5) must
be used with high loads (85 percent or higher) for both

UPPER BODY UP TO 12 REPS LOWER BODY UP TO 65 REPS
FIGURE 2.7 The 1RM continuum varies greatly among muscle groups. As such, the most effective
repetition ranges for lower-body exercises such as the leg press are much higher than for upper-body
exercises such as the triceps extension.
1 RM CONTINUUM
100
E
3
E
•>< Endurance
n>
Z
Normal
5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13
15 16 17
18 19 20
Repetitions
FIGURE 2.8 Athletes who compete in sports in which there is a major cyclical component, such as rowing,
can perform abnormally high repetitions at a very high percentage of maximum.

REPETITIONS MAXIMUM IN THE SCOTT CURL
ELITE NOVICE
1 n 1 —1
Mean SD Mean SD Ratio
90% 2.48 1.27 4.29 1.14 0.58
85% 4.59 1.44 6.28 1.37 0.73
80% 6.28 1.88 8.23 1.79 0.76
75% 8.55 2.52 10.42 2.16 0.82
70% 10.84 2.66 12.52 2.08 0.87
50% 23.64 3.79 33.44 4.29 0.71
TABLE 2.1 Repetitions Maximum in tlie Scott Curl Achieved at Loads Corresponding to 50-90% of 1RM.
ELBOW-FLEXION STRENGTH
MALE FEMALE
11 11
Mean SD Mean SD Ratio
1RM(N) 409.0 90.0 *** 190.0 33.0 2.15
90% 3.5 1.9 NS 3.7 2.2 0.95
80% 8.0 2.6 NS 9.1 4.5 0.88
70% 12.0 2.3* 17.0 6.2 0.71
60% 20.0 6.6 ** 33.3 7.8 0.60
50% 34.8 14.2 66.5 27.2 0.52
TABLE 2.2 Elbow-Flexion Strength and Number of Repetitions Achieved at Loads Corresponding to 50-90% of
1RM (*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.00^)(Maughan et al. 1986)
relative and absolute strength; mid-repetitions (6-12) among intensity zones, and that the most successful
must be used with submaximal loads (70-84 percent) weightlifters tended to do most of their sets in the 3RM
for absolute strength gains; and high repetitions (13 to 4RM range.
and higher) should be combined with light loads for
strength-endurance (less than 70 percent). What This belief was echoed by Canada's most successful
this means is that athletes with more weight training weightlifting coach, Pierre Roy. Roy believes that the
experience who are interested in absolute strength average rep for a strength athlete should be around 3.
increases can afford to train with a broader spectrum In other words, if the athlete does singles or doubles
of repetitions. This specificity of contraction force has too often, or for periods extended too long, progress
its physiological basis within both the nervous and will stagnate.
muscular system (Table 2.3).
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, I was able to analyze
training programs of athletes from various Eastern
Principle 10: Don't perform low reps Bloc countries such as Hungary, Cuba, Romania
too frequently and the former East Germany. I found that lifts above
90 percent generally represented between 5 and
Robert Roman is a Russian sport scientist who wrote 13 percent of the volume. The percentages for that
extensively on the training of competitive weightlifters. intensity zone were normally in single digits in the
Roman suggested that training loads be distributed

LINEAR VS. WAVE
100
ts
0)
it
Ul
O)
c
re
u
I-
Linear Loading
Wave Loading
FIGURE 2.9 The wave loading method alternates the repetition bracket. This is in contrast to the linear loading
method, in which there is a gradual, even decrease in the repetition bracket.
INDIVIDUAL NEED FOR CHANGE
FIGURE 2.10 The unique qualities of the individual athlete, such as muscle fiber makeup and hormonal response,
influence the distribution of the repetition brackets.

preparatory periods, and rarely exceeded 12 percent If relative strength is the primary goal, choose reps at
in the competitive periods. a given tempo that do not exceed 20 seconds of time
under tension (TUT). For example:
Principle 11: Each muscle group • 3 reps at a 4020 tempo
or lift responds best to a specific yielding a TUT of 18 seconds per set
average rep range • 4 reps at a 3011 tempo
yielding a TUT of 20 seconds per set
The optimal average rep range should be specific to
the muscle group or the exercise chosen. • 2 reps at a 3210 tempo
yielding a TUT of 12 seconds per set
Analysis of the training logs of the athletes I have
coached demonstrated that in the case of the elbow • 2 reps at a 8010 tempo
flexors, the best strength gains were obtained when yielding a TUT of 18 seconds per set
no less than an average of 2.5 reps per set were
performed, with a minimum total of 15 reps completed My tempo prescription will be explained in detail
per workout. This principle explains why both the in Chapter 5. In brief, I use a four-digit system to
sets/reps prescription in Figure 2.11 were equally represent the time it takes to complete the different
successful. phases of a strength training repetition. Here are the
basics:
The bottom line is that there is a minimum-volume
threshold of reps and an average rep per set The first number is the eccentric lowering: that is,
necessary for optimal strength gains. when you lower the resistance (i.e., going down in the
squat, or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench
press). As a rule of thumb, this is when the muscle is
Principle 12: Intensity dictates being placed under stretch.
hormonal response
The second number is the time of the pause in
Repetition selection affects the hormonal response the stretched position. The pause (an isometric
of the workout. Finnish researchers Hakkinen and contraction) is usually between the eccentric phase or
Pakarinen (1993) demonstrated that moderate loads lowering phase and concentric phase or lifting phase
(10 sets of 10 at 70 percent) produced a twentyfold (e.g., the bottom position in the squat, or when the bar
increase in growth hormone production compared to makes contact with the chest in the bench press).
only a slight change in a high-intensity protocol (21
reps at 100 percent). The third number is the concentric contraction; that is,
lifting the weight (e.g., raising in the squat, or pressing
It is imperative that your training protocols achieve the bar at arms' length in the bench press). In this case
your desired hormone response. When you are the muscle is shortening. An "X" instead of a number
concerned with producing body-composition changes is used to denote "as fast as possible" or "explosive
in your athletes, strive to maximize growth hormone action with full acceleration."
output. In contrast, if relative strength is the primary
goal, then minimize the anabolic response and The fourth number is the time of pause in the
increase neural adaptations (Fig. 2.12). contracted position, such as the top of a curl or a chin-
up.
Principle 13: The number of Obviously, there are quite a few permutations possible
repetitions dictates the load (Fig. 2.13)
When I write workouts, I first determine the desired

training effect and then select a repetition bracket that
Principle 14: Novice lifters require
suits that goal. If you're writing a program to maximize higher repetitions
muscle mass, select a load that enables the athlete
It is wise to use higher repetitions when introducing
to complete between 6 and 12 reps. If the athlete can
trainees to strength training. At the initial stage of
perform only 5 reps with the weight, the weight is too
instruction, beginners can make significant gains in
heavy; if he or she can perform 13 reps, the weight is
strength with as many as 20 reps because they are
too light.
at the lower end of their training-potential curve. Also,

SPECIFICITY OF THE CONTRACTION FORCE
REPS INTENSITY
Relative 1-5 85%
Functional 6-8 79-84%
Hypertrophy 9-12 70-78%
Endurance 13+ 69%
TABLE 2.3 Athletes with more weight training experience can afford to train with a broader spectrum of
repetitions, such as the four major repetition bracl<ets shown in this table.
exercising with these sub-limit loads provides great to get stronger. Athletes must periodically force
opportunities for technique improvement, a priority for themselves to use higher loads or they will not
those athletes of a young training age. experience gains in strength or size (Fig. 2.14). The
decision to determine the extent of fatigue an athlete
Table 2.4 shows loading patterns that can be used should work towards, however, involves a number of
for athletes with less than one year of weight training factors.
experience who need to increase muscle mass.
Before deciding to work to complete muscular failure
* The percentages are only guiding values since the
on each set, consideration must be given to the
relationship between the maximum and sub-maximum loads
athlete's ability to recover from this type of training.
is influenced by training status, gender and muscle groups.
Therefore, you must also try to determine if the training
approach will optimize the training effect.
Principle 15: The extent of effort
applied influences the training effect Principle 16: The muscle fiber type
if you do not apply the overload principle in designing dictates the number of reps
your workouts, there is no reason for your athletes
The fiber composition of any given muscle influences
FIGURE 2.11 There is a minimum-volume

threshold of reps for strength training. For
example, when training the elbow flexors, best
results are obtained when a minimum total of 15
reps is completed.
Option A:
3x1,3x2, 3x3
total reps for that lift per
workout: 18 reps
Option B: 6 X 2-3
fi total reps for that lift per
workout: 12-18 reps
• •'s'l
FIGURE 2.10 The unique qualities of the individual athlete, such as muscle fiber makeup and hormonal response,
influence the distribution of the repetition brackets.

HORMONAL RESPONSE
U
M
(D
U
{D
GH production
FIGURE 2.12 Training protocols affect hormone response. This graph illustrates that higher repetitions produce
maximum growth hormone output.
ZONE TO TRAIN RELATIVE STRENGTH
Time under tension (TUT) per rep cycle (seconds)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o
o o o
FIGURE 2.13 Manipulating the tempo prescriptions allows for a considerable variety in the number of repetitions
performed in a set to achieve a specific training response.

HYPERTROPHY LEADING PATTERNS FOR BEGINNERS
Training Type % 1RM* Sets % 1RM* Sets % 1RM* Sets %1RM* Sets
Reps Reps Reps Reps
German Volume 60% 10

Training 10
Hypertrophy 1 70-75% 3 76-78% 3

10-12 8
Hypertrophy II 70% 3 75% 3 76-78% 3 7% 3

12 10 8 12
Strength Endurance 1 60% 3 65-68% 3 70-75% 2 60% 3

20 12-15 10 20
Strength Endurance II 60% 3 50% 3 65-68% 3

20 30 10-12
TABLE 2.4 This table shows optional set/rep prescriptions for beginners who need to increase muscle mass.
TRAINING LOAD
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Effect of a Session
• Workout 1 a Workout 2 • Workout 3
FIGURE 2.14 Proper application of the overload principle, such as shown here by increasing training loads, elicits
an optimal strength training response.

the number of repetitions required to achieve a training For most fast-twitch athletes the optimal rep bracket
effect. A muscle with a high percentage of slow-twitch for strength gains falls within the 1-to-6-rep range,
fibers may require a higher number of repetitions. For while most individuals will make gains in the 1-to-12-
example, the soleus muscle in the lower leg contains rep range. In both of these examples they are working
88 percent slow-twitch fibers. Repetitions in the at 70 to 100 percent of maximum. Furthermore, the
15-25 range may be needed to give sufficient time fast-twitch athletes would normally use more sets and
under tension for this muscle to receive a stimulus for may even respond well to short rest intervals (1-3
growth. seconds between reps) (Fig. 2.15).
There is an optimal number of reps per muscle group

for each individual, and this is strongly influenced by Principle 17: The function of the
the fiber makeup of the muscles. Athletes gifted with muscle dictates the number of reps
a large number of fast-twitch motor units always do
fewer reps at a given percentage of maximum. Thus, A well-known fact in physiology is that form dictates
while the average trainee does 7RM at 80 percent of function. Moreover, even though the following
his or her maximum, a high fast-twitch individual may conclusion has yet to be validated by science, it is my
complete only 3 reps at this percentage. Conversely, experience that there are specific repetition ranges
high slow-twitch individuals who are highly trained that are more appropriate for certain muscle functions.
aerobically have been shown to do 12RM to 37RM
For example, training the knee flexors with sets
at 95 percent of maximum, in contrast to the average of 12 repetitions appears to have little bearing on
person's ability to do only 2RM to 3RM at this hypertrophy gains. Conversely, when training the knee
percentage (Sayers 1998). extensors, sets of up to 50 repetitions can induce
Because there is substantial empirical evidence and hypertrophy. The reason for this appears to be that
scientific research to suggest that the development knee flexors are used mainly for explosive tasks, while
of maximal strength is best accomplished by using
loads representing 70 to 100 percent of maximum, it's
essential to determine the exact number of repetitions
to be performed at this percentage range.
FAST-TWITCH ATHLETE BRACKET
6-12 reps
Type lla
12+ reps
Type I
FIGURE 2.15 The repetition bracket affects the fiber types stimulated in a strength training workout. As shown
here, the fast-twitch fibers (Type Mb) respond best to 1-5 reps.

FUNCTION OF THE MUSCLE DICTATES THE NUMBER OF REPS
PICTURES 2.1 & 2.2 The knee flexors, which are emphasized with leg curls (left), respond best to lower reps.
The knee extensors, which are emphasized with leg presses (right), respond best to higher reps.
the knee extensors are used in maintaining posture than 6 reps per set for the front squat and even fewer
against gravity and are also used for repeated stretch- for the power clean (Fig. 2.16).
shortening tasks such as rowing (Pictures 2.1 & 2.2).
Principle 19: The velocity of the
Principle 18: The skill requirements contraction determines the load in
of the exercise dictate the number of eccentric contraction
reps
When prescribing eccentric work, the coach should
If an exercise involves multiple joints in a complex skill, have a good understanding of the time under tension
such as the Olympic lifts, excessive repetitions will prescribed for the lowering of the load. If the target is
bring about undesired technical and motor-learning sets of 3 with 8 seconds lowering, the exercise should
changes. Analysis of the training of weightlifters be immediately stopped if the athlete cannot meet the
(especially elite weightlifters) reveals that the snatch time restriction. Let's say an athlete is told to lower
is rarely performed for more than 2 reps per set, while 300 pounds for 3 repetitions of 8 seconds in the squat.
the clean and jerk is often performed for slightly more Repetition 1 is performed for a smooth 8 seconds, but
reps per set. repetition 2 lasts only 5 seconds. The set should be
stopped immediately, as another repetition would likely
In the case of the power clean, when performing be done at a pace that would be far too risky and could
more than 6 repetitions small muscles (such as the lead to injury (Fig. 2.17).
rhomboids, an upper back muscle) would tire out first,
causing a change in exercise posture. This fatigue
would lead to improper technique, impaired motor Principle 20: Use lower reps with
learning and perhaps a greater risk of injury. The same eccentric training
goes for front squats, where the postural muscles
will tire out isometrically before the prime movers Eccentric work is best accomplished with sets of 1 to 6
if the time under tension is too long. This is why repetitions, since supramaximal loads are used in this
knowledgeable strength coaches rarely prescribe more method. Depending on the muscle group or exercise

EXERCISE VS. REPS
1. Complex skill:
Olympic lift, front squat,
etc.
2. Compound: squat,
w bench press, deadlift,
c pull-ups, etc.
o
3. Simple: most
« machines, isolation, etc.
a
&
12 3
COMPLEXITY COMPONENT
FIGURE 2.16 Complex exercises using multiple joints, such as the Olympic lifts, should be performed for fewer
reps than are needed in simple exercises that use only one joint.
VELOCITY OF CONTRACTION
* * ^ %
eccentric ^ concentric
»
•
A
•A
w
velocity
FIGURE 2.17 When performing eccentric work, attention must be paid to the time the weight is lowered to achieve
the optimal training effect and ensure the safety of the athlete.

CONTROLLED CONCENTRIC REPETITIONS
1 rep 2 reps 3 reps 4 reps 5 reps

FIGURE 2.18 Depending on tlie muscle group exercised or the exercise used, loads as high as 175 percent of
the 1RM can be used safely.
ADAM NELSON CHEST AND BACK ECCENTRIC ROUTINE
Order Exercise Sets Reps Tempo Rest

A-1 Eccentric 7 1 10/0/X/0120
Incline
Presses
Weight sequence; 390-410-420-450-460-450-390 lbs (bodyweight included)
A-2 Incline 45° 7 1 40X0 0

Thick Bar (3")
Presses
Weight sequence; 320-340-350-360-370-380-320 lbs (bodyweight included)
A-3 Chin-Up 7 2-4 30X0 120

Supinated Shot-putter Adam Nelson,
shown here with Charles
Grip Poliquin, took a silver medal
Weight sequence; 260-300-310-310-310-310-310 lbs (bodyweight included) in two Olympics, 2000 and
2004.
TABLE 2.5 The above exercise prescription was used by Adam Nelson in
preparation for the 2004 Olympic Games.

Workout
FIGURE 2.19 A classical pyramid training workout consists of loads with a wide variety of intensity levels. In this
example, the intensity spread is 70 to 100 percent.
used, loads as high at 175 percent of maximum NCAA, who outweigh them by more than 80 pounds!
for controlled eccentric repetitions have been used
The pyramid system is a classical training system that
successfully (Fig. 2.18).
has been criticized by a number of strength training
The athlete also should have completed two years of experts, such as Vladimir Zatsiorski of the former
strength training before trying eccentric work. As he or Soviet Union. A classical pyramid system would look
she progresses in qualification, the number of reps per something like the pattern illustrated in Figure 2.19.
set can be progressively reduced to allow for higher
Critics of the classical pyramid system assert that the
intensities (Table 2.5).
intensity spread of 70 to 100 percent of maximum is
far too wide. They argue that the 30 percent intensity
Principle 21: There should be no spread crosses too many borders to be effective, so
more than a 10 percent intensity that the body has a hard time figuring out what exactly
spread for a rep bracket the training stimulus is. These critics generally favor
set/rep schemes that obey the Law of Repeated
By keeping the intensity spread at 10-12 percent, Efforts at a given intensity: for example, 6 sets of 3
workouts will respect the Law of Repeated Efforts, reps at 90 percent of maximum.
and the body's adaptive mechanisms will not be
Romanian strength expert Tudor Bompa does not
confused by wide variation in training intensity. At the
reject the pyramid system entirely, but he argues
same time, the 10-12 percent spread is sufficiently
instead for using only a 20 percent intensity spread
wide to keep the training interesting. This pyramid can
(e.g., 60-80 percent, 70-90 percent or 80-100 percent).
be considered a "broad" pyramid, as opposed as the
I take this line of thought a step further and argue that
classic "narrow" pyramid.
it is even more effective to limit the intensity spread
When selecting a repetition bracket there should be no to 10-12 percent, while keeping the bottom end of the
more than a 10 percent intensity spread between sets. range at not less than 70 percent of maximum (1RM).
That is why the standard narrow-pyramid approach This is in agreement with my colleagues Hartmann
still prescribed by many US college football strength and Tunnemann from the former East Germany.
coaches does not produce exceptional results. In fact, Possible intensity spreads using this approach would
my NHL hockey players can outlift most linemen in the be 70-80 percent, 75-85 percent, etc.

BROAD PYRAMID HYPERTROPHY
u
c
o
3 4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.20 Research suggests that a narrow intensity spread is more effective for achieving an optimal training
effect. In this example for developing hypertrophy, the intensity spread is 78 to 87 percent.
BROAD PYRAMID RELATIVE STRENGTH
FIGURE 2.21 In this workout to develop relative strength, the intensity spread is 85 to 94 percent.

LOADING PARAMETERS FOR BENCH PRESS, CONVENTIONAL SET
REP LOAD ECCENTRIC CONCENTRIC

CPNTRACTION TIME CONTRACTION TIME
(lbs) (seconds) (seconds)
1 240 4 1.2
2 240 4 1.2
3 240 4 1.3
4 240 4 1.4
5 240 4 1.4
6 240 4 1.8
7 240 4 2.3
Total 1680 28 10.6

Average 240 4 1.5
TABLE 2.6 A conventional set of bench presses performed with 240 pounds for 7 reps, lowering the weight with a
4-second count.
LOADING PARAMETERS FOR BENCH PRESS, DROP SET
REP LOAD ECCENTRIC CONCENTRIC

CONTRACTION TIME CONTRACTION TIME
(lbs) (seconds) (seconds)
1 300 4 2.2
2 285 4 2.3
3 270 4 2.5
4 260 4 2.8
5 250 4 2.8
6 240 4 3.1
7 230 4 3.2
Total 1835 28 18.6

Average 262 4 2.6
TABLE 2.7 A drop set of bench presses performed with 300 pounds to 220 pounds, which results in an average
load that is 7.4 percent higher than the set described in Table 2.6.

MOTOR UNIT ACTIVATION ON THE BENCH PRESS
"O
c
3
O
0.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I Conventional 240 240 240 240 240 240 240

I Drop Set 300 285 270 260 250 240 230
FIGURE 2.22 Using tlie examples shown in Tables 2.6 and 2.7, this graph and chart show that the drop set
produces a higher overall level of muscle tension. With the drop set 1,835 pounds were lifted, compared to 1,680
for the conventional set.
1,680 lbs vs. 1,835 lbs

There are many possible variations of the broad variety in terms of reps than if you were training for the
pyramid, depending on the training objective. Two squat or the deadlift. For women, it has been shown
examples are found in Figures 2.20 and 2.21. that the hypertrophic and strength responses occur
earlier in the upper body than in the lower body.
The broad pyramid system has been a staple of
strength training routines in the German-speaking
nations. There it has been used in the training routines Principle 23: Use drop sets to
of bobsledders, throwers, jumpers, strongmen, create maximal tension on the
powerlifters and weightlifters. I have used the broad neuromuscular level
pyramid system successfully with many athletes who
compete in short-duration power events. I also used Motor units are functional units of nerve and muscle.
the system successfully with hockey defensemen. Motor units consist of a nerve cell (motor neuron) and
the muscle fibers it controls. The body of the nerve
cell is located in the central nervous system, in the
Principle 22: Vary reps for tlie upper brain stem or spinal cord. Another portion of the cell,
body more than for the lower body the axon, connects the cell body to individual muscle
fibers.
Research studies have shown that periodization
models using greater variation in intensities were more Motor units have activation thresholds. If your 1-rep
beneficial in upper-body exercises than in lower-body maximum for a particular lift is 300 pounds, lifting
exercises. For example, if you plan a training cycle
for the bench press, you should inject more training
The Poliquin International Certification Program Theory 1 Manual Chapter 2 33

DAVID BOSTON ARIVIS DROP-SET ROUTINE
Order Exercise Sets Reps Sequence Tempo Rest

A-1 Seated 80° 5 4-7 3,2,1,1 2210 120 sec
Half Press
Weight sequence: 245-240-230-220 lbs
A-2 Hoagland 5 4-7 3,2,1,1 4010 120 sec

Bar Reverse Scott Curl
B-1 One-Arm 4 8 4,2,2 3110 90 sec

Low Pulley
Rope French Press
Weight sequence: 125-115-110 lbs
B-2 Standing 4 8 4,2,2 4010 90 sec

Thick Bar (2.5") Curls
TABLE 2.8 NFL receiver David Boston's drop-set routine for arms shows a combination of heavier loads and
slower movements.
150 pounds (50 percent intensity) will activate Now, let's have the same individual perform a 7-rep
only lower-threshold motor units. A higher training set, but lift 300 pounds for the first rep, 285 for the
intensity (e.g., 90 percent, or 270 pounds) would be second, 270 for the third, and so forth, as shown in
required to tap into motor units with higher activation Table 2.7 and Figure 2.22.
thresholds. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are associated
with higher-threshold motor units. These fibers are The average load for a 7-rep set is 7.4 percent higher
capable of generating more force than their slow-twitch with the second protocol. The drop-set protocol
counterparts, which are more resistant to fatigue. As therefore produces a higher overall level of muscle
the name implies, fast-twitch fibers are also capable of tension. Also, the average concentric speed is lower
higher rates of force generation. The fast-twitch fibers with this protocol (2.6 seconds per rep compared to
associated with the highest-threshold motor units are 1.5 seconds per rep), because each rep is performed
the most difficult to recruit. They also have the greatest at 100 percent of momentary maximal strength. The
potential for growth. combination of heavier loads and slower movements
(higher intensity and increased time under tension)
The body's response to weight training depends makes the second protocol more effective than the first
in large part on the amount of tension applied to for developing strength.
muscles. To activate the highest-threshold motor units,
it is necessary to apply maximal tension. On all exercises, there is a 10-second rest between
weight drops. This break will provide enough recovery
One of the best ways to maximize muscle tension and to allow the reactivation of high-threshold fibers. The
motor-unit activation is to vary the load during a set. weight drops are accomplished most effectively with
Let's compare two training protocols. First we'll look the help of two partners. They should quickly strip
at a conventional set. Let's say an athlete can bench the bar when the weight is at the top position, after
press 300 pounds for 1 rep and 240 pounds for 7 reps, the trainee completes the concentric portion of the
lowering the weight to a 4-second count. Table 2.6 movement and before they begin to lower the bar for
shows loading parameters for a conventional set done another eccentric contraction.
with 240 pounds.

For each series of exercises A-1 and A-2, begin with Principle 24: Use 1-5 reps for
a weight that corresponds to the trainee's momentary
maximal relative strength
2RM. Perform 2 reps and rest 10 seconds. Drop the
weight 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. Repetitions in the 1RM-to-5RM range (85-100 percent
Drop the weight another 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and intensity zone) develop maximal strength by training
rest 10 seconds. Drop the weight another 5 percent, the nervous system. The changes you can induce in
perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. This produces a the nervous system with low reps are as follows:
total of 5 gut-wrenching reps.
• Increased neural drive to muscle
For each series of exercises B-1 and B-2, begin with
a weight that corresponds to the athlete's momentary • Increased synchronization of motor units
3RM. Perform 3 reps and rest 10 seconds. Drop the • Increased activation of the contractile
weight 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. apparatus
Do three more single reps, dropping the weight 5
percent on each and resting 10 seconds after each, for • Decreased inhibition by the protective
a total of 7 reps. You will see a practical use of such a mechanisms of the muscle
system system in Table 2.8.
The 1-5 repetition bracket produces minimal increases
You might expect that the momentary 2RM and 3RM in muscle mass, and as such is of great value for
on the second and third series will be lower than on athletes who need higher levels of relative strength;
the first series due to fatigue. In fact, the momentary that is, athletes in sports in which hypertrophy can be
2RM and 3RM could actually be higher on the second detrimental to performance. This would include the
and third series due to neural facilitation, especially following sportsmen, for the following reasons:
among advanced athletes.
• Wrestlers, boxers and judokas (who have attained
The tempo prescription for all exercises has a the upper limit of their weight class)
3-second eccentric component, an explosive • Jumpers and gymnasts (smaller mass to
concentric component, and a pause. Although an accelerate)
explosive concentric movement is prescribed, the
actual velocity of execution may be considerably • Lugers and ski jumpers (better aerodynamics)
slower due to the very heavy loads. Don't worry. As
• Swimmers and synchronized swimmers (buoyancy)
long as your athletes try to lift the weight explosively,
they will elicit the desired training effect. The repetition bracket is also valuable in sports that
require the expression of maximal strength for a single
Canadian researcher David Behm has demonstrated
contraction, such as in weightlifting, shot put, and the
that the intent of the trainee matters more than the
high jump.
actual velocity of execution. On repetitions where
the velocity of execution is in fact explosive, make Training with high loads is highly effective for these
sure that the trainees keep the weight under control. athletic activities because it has a specific training
They should try to accelerate the weight through the effect on the nervous system (Harre et al. 1989;
concentric range. Near the end of the movement, MacDougall 1986).
however, they will need to decelerate the weight to
prevent injuries. Exercising with near-maximal loads is also beneficial
to the athlete because it increases adjunctive skills,
such as timing of mobilization of will power and the
ability to switch from relaxation to tension. Although
these adjunctive skills are more subjective in their
science, these are often the qualities in an athlete
that will make the difference between the gold and the
silver. The following charts shows loading patterns for
developing maximal and relative strength (Fig. 2.23,
2.24, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28).

WAVE LOADING 1
•Workout
3 4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.23 A loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
WAVE LOADING 2
I Workout
3 4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.24 A second loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

KULESZA METHOD 3-5 SETS
FIGURE 2.25 A third loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
ALAN & BAROGA METHOD 5 SETS
Sets
FIGURE 2.26 A fourth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

iillll
BULGARIAN METHOD
^ 90
U)
c
(U
c 85
80
75
70 ^ -
13 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27
Set Number
FIGURE 2.27 A fifth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength. This method was used by
weightlifters from Bulgaria, a country that has consistently produced the top weightlifters for the past 30 years.
STEP LOADING
3 4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.28 A sixth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

C HAPTER 2
REFERENCES
Principle 1 Shimano 2006

The number of reps for a given time under tension
Principle 8
dictates the training effect Shimano et al. 2002,
Individualize the rep prescription
2006, Campos et al. 2002, Gentil, Oliveira, Bottaro,
2006, Mo Donagh & Davies 1984, Paulsen et al. 2003, Folland & Williams 2007, Vikne et al. 2006, Jackson et
Cronin et al. 1997, Tran et al. 2006, Gillies et al. 2006 al. 1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Kraemer et al. 1998
Principle 2 Principle 9
Maximum voluntary contractions are essential to Elite athletes must pay attention to specificity of
the strength training process contraction force
Van Cutsem et al. 1988, 1997, Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Huxley & Kress, 1985, Judge et al. 2003, Nosaka and
Patten & Kamen, 2000, Duchateau, et al. 2006, Farina Newton 2002, Nosaka & Clarkson, 1997, Desbrosses
et al. 2005, Leong et al. 1999, Aagaard et al. 2000, et al. 2006, Gabriel et al. 2006, Kraemer et al. 1998,
Izquierdo 2004, Izquierdo 1999, Nosaka & Newton Kraemer et al. 2000
2002, Taaffe et al. 1996, Michaut et al. 2003
Principle 10
Principle 3 Don't perform low reps too frequently
Use 70 to 90 percent of maximum capacity to Adreani et al. 1997, Allen et al. 1995, Bigland-Ritchie
develop maximal strength 1986a, 1986b, Willardson and Burkett 2005, Pasquet
Campos et al. 2002, Leong et al. 1999, Linnamo et et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Chiu et al. 2004, Fry et al.
al. 2005, Hortobagyi et al. 1996, Nosaka & Newton 1994, 1998, Kay etal. 2000, Hakkinen 1995
2002a, 2002b, Cormie et al. 2007, Paddon-Jones &
Principle 11
Abernethy 2001, Nosaka & Clarkson 1997
Each muscle group or lift responds best to a
Principle 4 specific average rep range
The range in repetitions for strength training Sullivan et al. 1986, Allen et al 1995, Lawton et al.
decreases with training age 2006
Smilios et al. 2006, Hakkinen & Pakarinen 1995,
Principle 12
Hostler 2001, Reeves et al. 2006
Intensity dictates hormonal response
Principle 5 Allen, et al. 1995, Hakkinen 1993, 1998, 2003,
The intensity zone repetition bracket is specific to Kraemer et al. 1998, Athianinen et al. 2005, 2004,
the muscle 2003, Tran et al. 2006, Goto et al. 2007, Smilios et al.
Folland & Williams 2007, Benson et al. 2006, Philippou 2003, Hakkinen 1989, Izquierdo et al. 2006
et al. 2004, Pincivero et al. 2004, Abdessemed et al.
Principle 13
1999, Pincivero et al. 1999, Izquierdo et al. 2006
The number of repetitions dictates the load
Principle 6 Mc Donagh & Davies 1984, Gabriel 2006, Campos et
Long term aerobic work modifies the 1RM al. 2004
continuum
Principle 14
Arciero et al. 2006, Hickson et al. 1980, Bell et al.
Novice lifters require higher repetitions
2000, Goto et al. 2004, Kraemer 2003, Putman et al.
2004 Folland & Williams 2007, Pyka et al. 1992, 1992,
Smilios et al. 2006, Paulsen et al. 2003, Faighenbaum
Principle 7 et al. 1999, Newton & Alen 1998, Izquierdo et al. 2001
The number or repetitons is the loading parameter
that athletes adapt to most quickly
Benson 2006, Enoka 1988, 1997, Hakkinen 2003,

The extent of effort applied influences the training Use 1-5 reps for maximal relative strength
effect Fleck & Schutt 1985, Campos et al. 2004, Mc Donagh & Davies 1984, Athianinen et al. 2005,
Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006 2004, 2003, Campos et al. 2002,
Principle 16
The muscle fiber type dictates the number of reps
Friden et al. 1984, Rayment et al. 1993, Van Cutsem,
etal. 1988, 1997, Taaffe et al. 1996
Principle 17
The function of the muscle dictates the number
of reps Allen, etal. 1995, Otten, 1988, Reeves etal.
2006, Cronin 2004, Chen et al. 2006
Principle 18
Coordination requirements of the exercise dictate
the number of reps Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Vikne et
al. 2006, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Chen et al. 2006
Principle 19
The velocity of the contraction determines the
load in the eccentric contraction Gillies et al.
2006, Gleeson 2003, Hortabagyi et al. 1997, Van
Custom et al. 1988, Vikne et al. 2006, Michaut et al.
2003, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Nosaka &
Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002
Principle 20
Use lower reps with eccentric training Athianinen et
al. 2004, 2003, 2005, Hortabagyi et al. 1997, McNeill
et al. 2004, Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Nosaka
& Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002, Seger et al.
1998, Seger & Thorstensson 2005, Paddon-Jones et
al. 2001, 2004
Principle 21
There should be no more than a 10 percent
intensity spread for a rep bracket Duchateau et al.
2006, Farina et al. 2005, Hostler et al. 2001
Principle 22
Vary reps for the upper body more than for the
lower body Cormie et al. 2007, Larsson & Harms-
Ringdahl 2006, Leong et al. 1999, Van Cutsem, et al.
1988, 1997, Aagaard et al. 2000, Taaffe et al. 1996,
Chen et al. 2006, Chen & Nosaka 2006, Hakkinen et
al. 1997
Principle 23
Use drop sets to create maximal tension on the
neuromuscular level Athianinen et al. 2003, 2004,
2005, Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Pasquet et al. 2000,
2005, 2006, Tran et al. 2006, Van Cutsem, et al. 1988,
1997, Lawton et al. 2006

Manipulating Sets for Optimal
Strength Gains
There has been considerable debate about
whether or not only one set is needed to
elicit strength gains, with a vocal group
of strength coaches saying there are no
advantages in performing multiple sets of
an exercise.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapters

PRE-TEST
C HAPTER 3
1. What type of workout system generally 6. During a specialization phase, what modification
produces strength and power gains at a higher is probably needed in weight training workouts?
rate? A. a decrease in sets
A. single sets of eacli exercise to failure B. an increase in sets
B. multiple sets of each exercise C. a decrease in intensity
C. multiple sets for upper-body exercises, one set D. Aand C
for lower-body exercises
D. multiple sets for lower-body exercises, one set 7. What effect does the use of chains have on an
for upper-body exercises exercise?
A. increases volume
2. The Law of Diminishing Returns applies to B. changes the strength curve
which of the following statements?
C. decreases "time under tension"
A. Sets to failure only leads to failure.
D. Aand C
B. The relative reward for every set diminishes with
each additional set. 8. Which creates the greatest hormonal response?
C. The relative volume for every set diminishes A. an increase in sets
with each additional set. B. an emphasis on isolation exercises
D. Intensity is directly proportional to volume. C. a decrease in volume
3. How many sets would achieve the greatest D. a decrease in reps
neural training effect?
9. A high-jumper would emphasize what type of
A. 1 training protocol?
B. 2 A. high number of exercises and sets
C. 3 B. high number of sets and low number of
D. 5 exercises
C. low number of sets and high number of
4. What is the basic premise of the critical drop-off
exercises
point?
D. low number of sets and low number of exercises
A. High-intensity workouts must be preceded by
high-volume workouts. 10. What rep bracket would best train the Type I
B. If you walk in a straight line long enough, you muscle fibers?
will fall off the edge of the earth. A. 1-5
C. Never increase quantity of stimulus at the B. 2-6
expense of quality.
C. 3-7
D. Never decrease quantity of stimulus at the D. 12+
expense of quality.
5. Which of the following is true?

A. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on sets,
not intensity
B. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on reps,
not intensity
C. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on
intensity, not sets
D. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on
volume, not reps
-0^ a-6 v-8 a-z a-9 v-9 O-P a-e a-s a-i. sjeMsuy }S9)-0Jd
42 Chapters The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

MANIPULATINC3 SETS FDR OPTIMAL
STRENC3TH GAINS
Because those who promote one-set systems are those that are not. This learning curve explains why
often charismatic and because some athletes enjoyed a novice lifter will often have a very erratic bar path
progress on these programs for brief periods, a during his or her first attempt at the bench press, even
perception grew that weight training was simpler than though it is a rather simple motor task.
we had thought. It would be great if this were true, but
the fact is if you want your athletes to get as big or as Once initial strength fitness is achieved, a multiple
strong as possible as fast as possible, you can't adopt presentation of the stimulus (3-6 sets) with specific
such a simplistic approach to training. rest periods between sets is superior to a single
presentation of the stimulus. However, it's important
Chapter 2 examined the first step in program design: that this increase is performed progressively.
rep selection. This chapter focuses on the next step,
which is set selection. I wish this subject could be When an athlete has completed several years of
covered with a few simple guidelines such as the one- proper training, I commonly prescribe 10-12 sets
set proponents advocate, but sometimes a "dummies" of a single key exercise that is highly correlated to
approach is simply dumb. performance in that athlete's sport. For example,
international success in the luge and the hammer
throw is highly correlated to maximal strength
Principle 1: IVIultiple sets lead to performance in the pull-up. The athletes I've trained in
higher and faster rates of strength luge who had the fastest start times at the Olympics
gains could do 3 wide-grip pull-ups with 120 pounds tied
to their waist, at a bodyweight of 175 pounds. They
A workout system that entails performing multiple sets achieved these impressive demonstrations of strength
of an exercise generally induces strength and power by using protocols of multiple sets (6-12) of low
gains at a higher rate (McDonagh & Davies 1984) repetitions (1-3) (Fig. 3.1).
and of a higher magnitude (Gotshalk et al. 1998,
Kraemer 1997, Kraemer et al. 1995, Marx et al. 1998,
Sanborn et al. 1998, Stowers et al. 1983, Atha 1981).
Principle 2: The number of sets is
This means strength increases conform to a "dose- subject to the law of diminishing
response" that is correlated to the number of sets returns
prescribed.
Even though multiple sets induce far greater maximal
Usually 1 or 2 sets are enough for beginners as a strength gains than single-set training protocols,
training stimulus, but after 6-12 workout sessions the those gains are asymptomatic in that the adaptations
coach must increase an athlete's volume of training increase with the number of sets up to a certain point.
because the muscles will have adapted (Fleck & That is, the number of sets is subject to the Law of
Kraemer 1987). If the volume is not increased, Diminishing Returns in that the relative reward for
progress will slow down and plateau for extended every set diminishes with each additional set (Fig. 3.2).
periods.
This principle explains why, when time is limited, such
The coach must realize that the first 30 percent as during the competitive season of a professional
of strength gains come from improvement of sport, it is important to perform 1 or 2 sets of an
intermuscular coordination. In effect, athletes "learn" exercise to maintain, or even in some cases gain,
to lift so that they become more efficient by being able maximal strength. Without the stimulation these sets
to turn on the systems that are needed and to turn off provide over and above the demands of the sport, this
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapters 43

FIGURE 3.1 Athletes with a higher training age achieve better results with more sets.
law comes into play, and the athlete's strength can model establishing the inverse relationship has been
begin to diminish. Professional hockey player Chris proposed (Kovarik 1991).
Pronger is one of my athletes. The first man since
1972 to win awards as both the NHL's most valuable The rule to remember is that the higher the neural
player and top defenseman, Pronger is a strong training effect desired, the higher the number of sets
advocate of in-season training. (for example, 5 or more) are needed. When training
with low repetitions (1-5), most of the adaptations
occur in the nervous system, hence the term (from
Principle 3: The more reps, the fewer the German) "intramuscular coordination training" to
the sets describe that intensity zone.
There is a minimum threshold of work that must be Training with high loads is like learning a foreign
performed for optimal size and strength gains. Many language: Multiple presentation of the learning
former Eastern Bloc and Western strength training stimulus must be present to assure modification and
authorities and weightlifting coaches have suggested retention of the acquired learning process. Conversely,
that there is an inverse relationship between the when a coach is seeking morphological or biochemical
number of sets and the number of reps (Medvedyev adaptations in their athletes (6 or more reps), he or
1989, Worobojow 1984, Hartmann and Tunnemann she should prescribe fewer sets (3-5).
1993, Dreschler 1998). In other words, when using low
reps, do a high number of sets; when using high reps,
Principle 4: Individualize the number
do a low number of sets (Fig 3.3).
of sets
From the perspective of practical application,
the fewer reps an athlete performs per set, the more It is my experience (as well as the experience of many
sets he or she needs to achieve the appropriate other successful strength coaches) that an athlete's
training response (Tables 3.1 and 3.2, Fig. 3.4). The tolerance to greater workloads is one of the markers
rationale is that there is a minimal optimal volume for for predicting success in building impressive levels of
strength development and that when training with low maximal strength.
reps, a higher number of sets would ensure sufficient
The requirements for exercise vary greatly from one
time of loading. More recently, a mathematical
athlete to another because every athlete has unique

responses to a given program. As a rule of thumb, empirical evidence, however, that athletes with a
the athletes most gifted for strength development can high fast-twitch fiber makeup tend to reach the critical
tolerate the highest number of sets. drop-off point faster. In contrast, the intake of various
substrates such as creatine and ribose will tend to
When performing multiple sets, even if you allow delay the onset of the critical drop-off point.
nearly complete rest intervals to replenish the
phosphagens, after a few sets the muscle will become The threshold for the drop-off point will also depend
fatigued to the degree at which fewer and fewer reps on which strength quality the coach is attempting to
can be performed before reaching muscular failure. improve. In the case of maximal strength training, once
This point is what I call the critical drop-off point (Fig. an athlete reaches a 5-7 percent drop in performance,
3.5). it is time to move to another exercise or body part.
That 5-7 percent drop translates into having to lower
The basic premise of the critical drop-off point, which the load by the equivalent percentage to maintain
I learned from discussions with track and field coach a selected rep range (e.g., 6-8 reps), or can be
Charlie Francis, is that a coach should never increase demonstrated by a sudden drop of 2-3 repetitions from
the quantity of stimulus at the expense of quality. It is one set to the next one.
pointless to do sets in which the resistance is lowered
so much that (a) sufficient tension is not put on the From the world of pharmaceuticals we know that
muscle to elicit strength gains, and/or (b) motor units there is a very wide variance in the dose-response
of a lower threshold are trained. These additional curve in substances such as ephedrine. To elicit "x"
"garbage sets" would impede recovery by putting physiological response, the dose may vary from 12 to
excessive strain on the nervous system, energy stores 240 mg between subjects. The same applies for the
and neuroendocrine response. The cumulative effect need to individualize the prescribed exercise stimulus.
could be overtraining.
Ideally, for the purpose of selecting a strength athlete,
The critical drop-off point is highly individual and can a coach must look for a fast-twitch individual who
even vary from workout to workout. There is also
LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS
Relative
gains in
strength
Number of sets
FIGURE 3.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns states that the relative reward for every set diminishes with each
additional set.

INVERSE RELATIONSHIP
FIGURE 3.3 There is an inverse relationship between sets and reps, meaning that when performing fewer reps,
athletes need to perform more sets to achieve an optimal training effect.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIOUS LOADING PARAMETERS
Reps Sets Percentage Rest Speed of

of Maximum Interval (seconds) Execution
2-3 6-12 90-95 300-480 Moderate to Explosive

4-7 5-10 80-88 180-300 IVIoderate to Explosive
4-6 4-8 70-78 180-300 Extremely Slow
8-10 4-8 75-79 120-140 IVIoderate to Fast
11+ 3-6 <72.5 30-180 IVIoderate
TABLE 3.1 A more detailed explanation, using several loading parameters, of the inverse relationship between
sets and reps.

MINIMUM VOLUME OF REPETITIONS
Intensity Zone Total Reps Sets Range

Percentage (%)
95-100 12-20 6-20
90-95 18-36 6-12
85-90 28-60 9-20
80-85 55-85 8-27
75-80 70-110 22-35
TABLE 3.3 Optimal rep-and-set ranges for various training percentages.
The Inverse Relationship Between Repetitions & Sets
Reps 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 +
J k
f r
Sets High (4) Low (2)
TABLE 3.4 A simple illustration showing the inverse relationship between sets and reps.
demonstrates superior work capacity. A classical Monday: 5 sets of 4-6RM

example of this would be three-time weightlifting
Olympic gold medalist Pyros Dimas from Greece, who Set 1: 220 kilos x 6 reps
in one workout performed 12 sets of front squats at the Set 2: 225 x 6
United States Olympic Training Center in preparation Set 3: 225 x 5
for the Sydney Olympics. He averaged 1-3 repetitions Set 4: 225 x 4
per set and, at a t)odyweight of 181 pounds, worked Set 5: 225 x 4
up to approximately 600 pounds! Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise
Saturday you decide to increase the starting weight to

Principle 5: To prevent overtaining,
230 kg, since you know your athlete can comfortably
cut back first on sets, not intensity do 225. Now your athlete's workout turns out like this:
if an athlete has not fully recovered from a workout, Saturday: 5 sets of 4-6RM (intended)
first cut back on the number of sets, not the intensity.
It is generally a mistake to reduce the weight when Set 1 : 230 x 6
an athlete is tired; instead, just decrease the number Set 2 : 230 X 3
of repeated efforts performed at that load. Let's say
a male athlete has done the following workout on Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise
Monday:
The athlete has become stronger (230 x 6 on Saturday
versus 225 on Monday), but on the second set there

CRITICAL DROP-OFF POINT
IRelative
100 93%
#
iFunctional
(0 87%
c
0)
Hypertrophy
80%
•Endurance
73%
Time of Training Unit
FIGURE 3.3 The critical drop-off point is the point at which it is futile to perform additional sets when excessive
fatigue is reached.
was a significant loss in his ability to do repeated Principle 6: A high number of sets
efforts. Therefore, to maintain a high quality of training
develops the skill of activating
stimulus, the athlete must immediately terminate that
exercise after the second set. muscle fibers for maximal efforts
By adhering to this principle of the critical drop-off Just as a student would not expect high results on
point, by the following Thursday (the next workout) an exam after a single night of cram studying versus
your athlete will be stronger because he will have multiple exposures to the study material over a few
sufficiently recovered. weeks, an athlete cannot expect motor-learning
acquisition from single-set sessions. This is particularly
In contrast, the standard approach to handling a true for lifts such as the power snatch and the jerk
similar scenario that I see in colleges all over the when aiming to improve the rate of force development
United States is as follows: (Fig. 3.7).
Set 1 230x6 To improve maximal strength, the body must learn

Set 2 230x3 what the new "normal" weight is; and to become
sets 210x6 comfortable with this new weight, it must be exposed
Set 4 210x6 to it several times. If not, the nervous system is like the
sets 210x6 cramming student in that after the exam, all knowledge
is lost!
Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise
In this case, the athlete's recovery will be taxed so Principle 7: The metabolic cost of
harshly with low-quality work that he will regress again an exercise influences the number
during the next workout instead of being stronger.
of sets to be performed in any given
The body is very well equipped to not overtrain by exercise
intensity - it will just not lift the weight. It is not well
equipped to deal with too great a volume until it is too The larger the mass involved in an exercise, the higher
late (Fig. 3.6). the metabolic cost. Thus, lactate production will be
much greater with squatting than with forearm work,
so it is much easier to tolerate a great number of sets
for the forearms than for the squats. Anybody who has

TRAINING VS. OVERTRAINING
90-!
80-|
70-1
0)
>
o 60
>» 50
0) 40
c
LU 30
20
10
I Training
I Overtraining Microcycles
FIGURE 3.6 Performing too many sets results in overtraining, wliich drastically reduces the training effect.
THE LAW OF REPEATED EFFORTS
-m % w
FIGURE 3.7 When performing complete exercises such as snatches, athletes must perform a high number of sets
to achieve a proper motor-learning response.

ever done Peary Rader's breathing squats or German created by the g-forces held during the high-speed
Volume Training (10x10) can certainly attest to that! turns inherent in alpine skiing. Thus, the hamstrings/
quadriceps strength ratio may decrease just because
Range of motion should also be factored into the of the lack of strength training for the hamstrings
workout equation: for example, power snatches from during the competitive period.
the floor require more flexibility than power snatches
from the hang. Similarly, the metabolic cost of a back To resolve the problem, it would be wise at the start
squat varies greatly between someone who is 5 feet of the general preparatory period to increase the
tall and someone who is 6 feet tall. The same can be overload on the hamstrings at the expense of volume
said for quantity of muscle mass per inch of height. of load on the quadriceps. Normative data collected
from the Canadian National Alpine Ski Team showed
that when the ham/quad ratio went from 58 percent
Principle 8: During a specialization
to 80 percent, the incidence of knee injuries was
phase, more sets may be needed drastically reduced.
Sometimes there is a need for specialized work that
will warrant a greater-than-normal number of sets, Principle 9: Nutrition and
such as 8-12 (Fig 3.8). In this case, you must consider supplementation influence work
that the number of exercises consequently needs to be
capacity
reduced. This condition was very evident in my work
with the Canadian National Ski Team. There is an abundance of evidence in the scientific
literature pointing to the positive influence on work
Alpine skiers tend to lose hamstring strength during
capacity of a variety of supplements, such as ribose,
the competitive season. Further, the torque-producing
creatine, post-workout drinks and glutamine. Such
capabilities of their quadriceps may actually rise during
nutrition support translates into the ability to handle
the competitive season, despite the fact that little
greater average loads when performing multiple sets.
strength training is normally performed. Those gains
in quadriceps strength can be due to the overload
SPECIALIZATION PHASE
Sets
Session
FIGURE 3.8 During a specialization phase of training, a higher number of sets may be needed.

SETS VS. TUT
FIGURE 3.9 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the total time under tension per set. Thus, the more
reps performed, the fewer sets are needed to achieve the same TUT.
It is critical to pay attention to nutrition and 2.5 reps. In my conversations with Bulgarian- and
supplementation to augment work capacity. This Chinese-trained successful weightlifting coaches, this
will enable an athlete to create greater overloads on observation has been further validated.
the neuromuscular system and thereby accelerate
progress. Just by looking at my athletes' work It's been my experience that there are superior
capacities during training sessions, I can determine sets-and-reps combinations that are specific to the
their commitment to their supplementation programs. exercises intended to be improved. For example,
squat poundages in preparatory periods are best
I have been criticized for my strong recommendation driven upwards using a minimum of 7-8 sets of 4-5
of supplements, and it's true I recommend the repetitions. However, once the athlete fails to respond
supplements produced by many different companies. to training volume as a stimulus, intensity becomes the
But I am hired to produce results. In my experience, stimulus of choice. In that case, 6-10 sets of 1-3 reps
supplementation is vital to the success of my athletes. produce the best results.
Supplementation is paramount, especially for the
natural athlete. Principle 11: The number of sets is
inversely proportionate to the total
Principle 10: Specific exercises time under tension per set
require specific sets-and-reps
combinations The understanding of "time under tension" is critical for
fastest results. For example, the optimal sets of 3RM
in analyzing the training logs of the athletes in all the in the bench press will vary depending on whether
various sports that I have been fortunate to coach, they are performed with chains or without chains
I have been able to formulate optimal thresholds for attached to the ends of the barbell, which alters the
sets and reps that are specific to chosen lifts. strength curve. With added-on chains, the time under
tension will be greater; thus the number of optimal
My analysis of the training logs of athletes training sets must be fewer. With chains, the athlete cannot
the elbow flexors for relative strength revealed that a move the load in the concentric range as fast as
minimum of 16 lifts must be performed per workout without them; therefore the time under tension per rep
and the average rep for each set should not fall below increases. So when training with just the barbell alone,

CHRIS HETHERINGTON'S PROGRAM
Order Exercise Sets Reps Tempo Rest (seconds)

A-1 Thick Bar 6 6,6,4,4,2,2 40X0 120
(2.5") Mid-Grip
Incline Presses
Weight sequence: 250-260-290-300-340-350 lbs
A-2 Pronated 6 6,6,4,4,2,2 40X0 120

Narrow-Grip
(3-4" apart) Pull-Ups
Weight sequence: 270-280-285-295-295-300 lbs (bodyweight included)
B-1 Incline Flys 4 6-8 4010 90

On Swiss Ball
Weight sequence: 50-52.5-55-57.5 lbs
B-2 Upright 4 6-8 4010 90

Cable Row
C-1 One Arm 3 8-10 30X0 60

Dumbbell
Cobra
Weight sequence: 25-27.5-30 lbs
C-2 Neck 3 8-10 30X0 60

Extension on
Hammer Machine
Weight sequence: 120-130-140 lbs
FIGURE 3.2 World-class athletes such as pro football player

Chris Hetherington know that multiple sets produce more strength
and hypertrophy gains. Here is one of his pre-season workouts.
Chris Hetherington

EXERCISE AND SETS
FIGURE 3.10 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the number of exercises.
one may prescribe 6-8 sets of 3RM; when chains are Those of us who have produced world-class athletes
added, the coach should prescribe only 4-6 sets (Fig. in a consistent manner know that multiple sets
3.9). produce more strength and hypertrophy gains. For
example, refer to one of Chris Hetherington's (NFL)
protocols (Table 3.2).
Principle 12: The more sets
performed, the greater the hormonal
Principle 13: The number of sets per
response
exercise is inversely proportionate to
The larger increases in strength seen with multiple- the number of exercises
set protocols may be explained, in part, by the finding
that higher volumes of total work produce significantly This principle comes into play because the nature of
greater increases in circulating anabolic hormones the athlete's sport influences how many exercises per
during recovery (Gotshalk et al. 1997). training session are necessary.
Because the first 30 percent of maximal strength is For example, high jumping requires emphasis on
due solely to intermuscular adaptations, to infer that the lower-body musculature, while judo requires the
1 set produces the same results as 3 sets is true only athlete to be able to apply or resist force at many
for novice lifters, which unfortunately is the standard different angles or planes. Thus, a high jumper's
in the bulk of university studies on optimal loading strength training may consist of only 3-4 exercises,
parameters. What is true for an unmotivated physical whereas a judoka's may contain 8-12 exercises.
education student who trains for an extra 5 percent on Because the high jumper is going to perform only 3-4
a term paper has little to do with a dedicated national exercises, he or she will be able to do more sets for
team member, or even a state champion candidate. optimal overloading without compromising the ability to
recover (Fig 3.10).

Multiple Sets lead to higher and faster rates of Nutrition and supplementation influence work
strength gains Benson et al. 2006, Paulsen et al. capacity Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Kanaley et al. 2001,
2003, Cronin & Crewther 2004, Munn et al. 2005, Denton & Cronin 2006, Kraemer et al. 1998
Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Denton & Cronin
2006, Principle 10
Specific exercises require specific sets-and-reps
Principle 2 combinations Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff
The number of sets is subject to the law of 2004, Abdessemed et al. 1999
diminishing returns Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005,
2006, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Hass et al. 2000, Principle 11
Izquierdo et al. 2006, Chen et al. 2006 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to
the total time under tension per set Kawamori &.
Principle 3 Haff 2004, Teramoto & Golding 2006, Denton & Cronin
The more reps, the fewer the sets Hass et al. 2000, 2006, Gentil et al. 2006
Kawamori & Haff 2004, Munn et al. 2005, Hakkinen
1989, Lawton et al. 2006 , Kovarik 1991 Principle 12
The more sets performed, the greater the hormonal
Principle 4 response Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006,
Individualize the number of sets Jackson et al. Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Goto et al. 2007, Kraemer
1990, Paulsen et al. 2003, Teramoto & Golding 2006 et al. 1999, Raastad et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003,
Hakkinen etal. 1998, Hakkinen 1989
Principle 5
To prevent overtraining, cut back first on sets, not Principle 13
intensity Chiu et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, The number of sets per exercise is inversely
Paulsen et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989, Hakkinen 1995, proportionate to the number of exercises
Izquierdo et al. 2006 Abdessemed et al. 1999, Ahtianen et al. 2005, Kang et
al. 2005
Principle 6
A high number of sets develops the skill of
activating muscle fibers for maximal efforts Cronin
& Crewther 2004, Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006,
Goto et al. 2004, Hass et al. 2000
Principle 7
The metabolic cost of an exercise influences
the number of sets to be performed in any given
exercise Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Goto et
al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Hunter et al. 2003,
Hakkinen 1989
Principle 8
During a specialisation phase, more sets may be
needed Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff 2004,
Kraemer et al. 1999, 2003, Ahtianen et al. 2005

THE SCIENCE DF REST INTERVALS
Rest intervals, also known as rest periods,

refer to the length of rest between sets
and exercises. We can also elaborate on
the concept of rest between repetitions
within a set. It is an important but often
underestimated loading parameter.

PRE-TEST
1. What is another name for rest intervals? when training the alactic power system?
A. tempo pause A. Use shorter rest intervals
B. aerobic phase B. Use longer rest intervals
C. anaerobic phase C. Use a combination of shorter and longer rest
D. rest periods intervals
D. Aand B
2. Which are among the five main causes of fatigue
in intense exercise?
A. the accumulation of fatigue substrates 7. What is the effect of pairing antagonistic
B. the depletion of energy substrates muscles?
C. disturbed coordination of movement A. It allows for greater motor unit recruitment
D. all the above B. It decreases motor unit recruitment
C. It allows for shorter rest intervals
3. The neuromuscular basis of relative strength
D. Aand C
training methods centers around the use of which
of the following?
A. brief, submaximal voluntary contractions 8. What would be the best pairing of exercises?
B. brief, maximal voluntary contractions A. overhead presses and chin-ups
C. brief, maximal involuntary contractions B. bench presses and rows
D. brief, submaximal voluntary contractions C. deadlifts and chin-ups
4. How much longer does it take the nervous D. squats and deadlifts
system to recover than the muscular system?
A. two to three times longer 9. What is the effect of shorter rest periods?
B. three to four times longer A. greater psychological anxiety
C. four to five times longer
B. decrease in fatigue
D. five to six times longer C. lactate reduction
D. B and C
5. Which of the following is true?
A. The length of the rest intervals dictates the 10. What is an appropriate ratio of aerobic training
hormonal responses to a given workout. to strength training for a football lineman to
B. The motor-unit magnitude decreases the develop an aerobic base?
hormonal responses to a given workout. A. 1:2 ratio (1 aerobic to 2 strength training)
C. The sky is blue because it reflects the ocean. B. 1:3 ratio
D. Aand B C. 3:2 ratio
D. A football lineman does not need an aerobic
6. How should you manipulate the rest intervals base
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THE SCIENCE OF REST INTERVALS
The rest interval during the strength training session The length of the rest interval used in heavy resistance
impacts the extent and nature of involvement of the training appears to bring about specific changes.
anaerobic energy sources and the intensity of the The work of Kraemer et al. (1987) demonstrated
training load. You must realize that there are five main that powerlifters, even though accustomed to high-
interrelated causes of fatigue (see Table 4.1) all of resistance training, have little tolerance to resistance
which affect recovery from exercise bouts. training with minimal rest intervals. Bodybuilders who
tend to train in this fashion tolerate this type of work
with greater ease.
Principle 1: The length of the rest
interval is dictated by the training
Principle 2: The nervous system
goal
takes five to six times longer to
"What is the training objective?" is the question the recover than the muscular system
strength coach must answer before deciding on the
length of the rest intervals. The next question to Many exercise physiologists tend to prescribe rest
answer is "Do you want full recovery or incomplete intervals in strength training that are far too short
recovery?" because they make their recommendations based on
muscle cell physiology recovery studies. They forget
The training effects of various rest periods in that the nervous system is hooked to these muscles,
strength training have been extensively documented and they are not aware that the nervous system takes
in the scientific literature. Generally, if you want five to six times longer to recover than the muscular
to maximize impact on the nervous system, full system (Figures 4.2,4.3 & 4.4). As such, they tend to
recovery is recommended. When maximal strength underestimate the length of the rest interval. Olympic
is a concern, longer rest intervals are more likely to lifting coaches have known this for a very long time
promote strength gains than shorter ones because and just by sheer experience have prescribed the
near-maximal recovery offeree generation parallels correct length of rest interval by taking into account the
restoration of energy substrates (Figure 4.1). nervous system.
The neuromuscular basis of relative strength training
methods centers around the use of brief, maximal Principle 3: The length of the rest
voluntary contractions. The great voluntary effort (and interval dictates the hormonal
excitation) normally associated with these brief bursts response to a given workout
of maximal exercise recruits the highest-threshold
motor units to make use of their greater strength Generally, the shorter the rest interval, the greater the
and rate of force development. This is why every metabolic adaptation. When you keep the number
repetition must be performed with full concentration of RM identical (e.g., 10RM) but manipulate only the
and maximum effort. The high intensity required rest interval (1 minute versus 3 minutes), the growth
calls for the use of long rest intervals. The ability hormone response varies dramatically. In this case,
to restore neural drive, active muscle tension and the shorter the rest interval, the greater the GH
energy substrates is a time-dependent process, response. When repetitions are low and the length
demonstrating the importance of a non-contractile interval is long, there is minimal hormonal response
period of rest following exercise. Rest intervals need (Figure 4.3).
to be prescribed based on the training intent, such as
strength, relative strength, hypertrophy and strength
endurance.

THE FIVE MAIN CAUSES OF FATIGUE IN INTENSE EXERCISE
1. The accumulation of fatigue substrates

(e.g., lactic acid)
2. The depletion of energy substrates

(e.g., lowering of glycogen levels)
3. Changes in the physio-chemical state

(e.g., lowered blood pH)
4. Disturbed coordination of movement
5. Lowering of neural conduction
TABLE 4.1 There are five main interrelated causes of fatigue, all of which affect recovery from
exercise (adapted from Pahike and Peters 1992, Davis and Bailey 1997, Green 1997).
Principle 4: When training the alactic Principle 6: The length of the rest
power system, the longest rest interval is a function of the amount of
intervals are indicated muscle mass recruited
When training with maximal loads (1RM-5RM at The larger the muscle mass recruited, the greater the
85-100 percent of maximum), length intervals of length of the rest interval; for example, in back squats,
3-4 minutes (Weiss 1991) or even up to 5 minutes as they recruit the largest muscle mass in the human
(Schmidtbleicher 1986, Zatiorsky 1995) have been body. Similarly, the glutes and thighs need longer
suggested to prevent the onset of early fatigue and rest intervals than biceps curls, which recruit only the
to allow for repeated efforts at these high intensities. relatively smaller elbow flexors.
There is considerable debate in the literature on
the length of the rest interval to replenish the ATP
stores and the phosphocreatine stores (PCr). Some
researchers have demonstrated that both PCr and interval is a function of the size and
ATP stores are almost completely restored following strength levels of the athlete
a 4-minute rest interval, suggesting that the energy
contribution to successives from ATP and PCr is The bigger and stronger the trainee, the longer the rest
unchanged. interval should be. Empirical evidence shows a direct
relationship between the length of the rest interval and
the weight class of the weightlifter. One only has to
Principle 5: The length of rest interval attend a National Team Weightlifting Camp to verify
is a function of the magnitude of the this concept. In other words, the 54 kg lifter will tend to
range of motion take shorter rest intervals than the super-heavyweight
lifter. Conversely, aN offensive lineman would rest
The greater the range of motion, the greater the need longer than a running back.
for a longer rest interval (Picture 4.1). For example,
power snatches performed while standing on a 4-inch
Principle 8: The length of the
platform require longer rest intervals than power
snatches performed from the mid-thigh. Also, for rest interval is a function of the
a given repetitions range, heavy dumbbell work is neurological complexity of the
more demanding than barbell work; so for a 6RM set, exercise
incline dumbbell presses require more rest than incline
barbell presses for 6RM. The more demanding an exercise is neurologically,
the greater the length of the rest interval. Exercises of

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RECOVERY COMPARISON OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Time in Seconds
• Muscular • Nervous
FIGURE 4.2 The nervous system takes five to six times longer to recover than the muscular system.
HORMONAL RESPONSE VS. REST INTERVALS
FIGURE 4.3 When repetitions are low and the length interval is long, there is minimal hormonal response.

TRAINING THE ALACTIC POWER SYSTEM
Atactic Lactic
Power rapacity Pow Capacity Power fapaci
Rest 1 :30 1 : 15 1:3

Ratio 1 ;50 1 :29 1:4
FIGURE 4.4 Work-to-rest prescriptions to develop the various energy systems.
a highly coordinative nature, such as split jerks and Principle 9: Pairing antagonistic
power snatches, need far longer rest intervals than muscles allows for greater motor unit
simple isolation exercises such as rotator cuff work.
Olympic lifts and their variations demand very precise
recruitment, shorter rest intervals
patterns of force application and smooth coordination and greater total volume done per
as opposed to machine exercises, which are relatively training session
no-brainers. Again, this explains why heavy dumbbell
pressing work requires longer rest intervals than heavy By having the antagonistic pairs contracting alternately
barbell pressing work. Another example would be (e.g., flexion followed by extension) instead of
single-leg dumbbell calf raises versus seated one-leg employing agonist contractions alone (precontraction
calf press. of antagonists), the ability to achieve full motor unit
activation (MUA) in a muscle contraction is often
enhanced. This has the added benefit of allowing you
to double the workload per training unit. A good plan

PICTURES 4.3 & 4.4 Intra-set pause should be taken at the advantageous position of the exercise to increase
workout intensity.
is to alternate exercises working agonist muscles with of that set. For example, there would be significant
exercises working antagonistic muscles together, differences in the nature and the extent of the energy
while respecting long rest intervals. For example, after substrate for sets of single repetitions in the chin-
doing a 3RM set of close-grip triceps presses, rest up done at a 5:0:1:0 tempo versus reps done at a
2-3 minutes, perform a heavy set for the antagonist 30:0:30:0 tempo.
muscle (e.g., a 3RM to 4RM set of dumbbell curls
for the biceps), rest another 2-3 minutes and repeat
the above procedure for the required number of sets.
By training in this fashion, an athlete can do greater interval is a function of the training
tonnage per training unit, as alternating antagonist age
pairs has been shown repeatedly to lower drop-off
curves more effectively than traditional standard sets Tolerance to short rest intervals with loads in the
even with complete rest intervals. 60-80 percent range (6-20 reps) is a function of
years of accumulated training. Short rest periods are
The paired muscle groups are normally in opposite linked to greater psychological anxiety and fatigue,
motor patterns. For example, overhead presses and the lactate buildup resulting from this type of
are alternated with forms of chins-ups, and lying training is tolerated by only the well-conditioned
forms of presses are alternated with rows. You do athlete. Consequently, shortening the rest intervals
not necessarily need to pair large motor patterns when working with 10RM loads should be done
with other large ones. For example, deadlifts can be progressively as the buffering mechanisms adapt to
alternated with tibialis raises, and chin-ups can be increased muscle and blood lactate concentrations. I
alternated with rotator cuff work. believe that rest intervals have to be shortened for only
the advanced trainee, as lactate buildup will interfere
with the maintenance of proper technique in the
learning trainee.
interval is a function of the tempo
prescribed Even in neural training, rest intervals can be
progressively shortened with no reduction in training
Another factor that influences rest interval selection is weight. Adepts of the Westside Barbell Club style of
the cadence at which it is performed. Although there training and the Bulgarian lifters are the living proof of
is a scarcity of research in this particular area, you the trainability of this physical quality.
may consider total time under tension of a given set
before prescribing the proper rest interval. Given that
information, you would prescribe a rest interval that is
inversely proportionate to the total time under tension

PICTURE 4.5 To develop maximal strength, the intra-set rest intervals for a high fast-twitch individual should
never exceed 15 seconds when training on complex compound exercises such as the squat.
Principle 12: Short, intra-set rest Principle 13: The aerobic base is not
intervals recruit higher-threshold a factor in strength development
motor units The higher the aerobic base of an athlete, the
The rest interval between repetitions within a series shorter the rest interval the athlete will want to take.
has received very little attention from the strength However, this practice is a double-edged sword, as the
training community, yet it is an extremely important aerobically fit trainee is normally weaker. Also, it is the
loading parameter. Experience in the gym over the author's experience that these athletes have a hard
last 50 years, also confirmed by scientific research time grasping the concept of resting for a long time
during the last two decades, has clearly shown that between heavy sets to bring about neural adaptations.
taking small intra-set rest intervals in an advantageous For example, rowers and boxers will complain that
angle of execution permits the recruitment of higher- they are not sweating enough when doing relative
threshold motor units (Picture 4.3 & 4.4). For a given strength training and "there must be something wrong"
submaximal force of contraction, motor unit activation with the training process.
is greater for repeated (intermittent) contractions than
The work of Cooke et al. (1997) suggest that V02 max
for sustained contractions.
is a poor predictor of metabolic recovery rate from
For the development of maximal strength, the intra-set high-intensity exercise, and differences in recovery
rest interval should never exceed 15 seconds, and that rate observed between individuals with similar V02
is only for high fast-twitch individuals training only on max imply that other factors such as peripheral
complex compound exercises (Picture 4.5). Both the adaptations and muscle fiber type influence recovery.
experimental and practical settings have confirmed The rate of recovery may be influenced to a greater
this finding. That is why authors who recommend 20 extent by aerobic adaptation within the muscle and
pauses in cluster training have obviously no clue about may or may not be associated with V02 max.
how to train athletes.

Principle 1 al. 2004, Matuszak et al. 2003, Willardson & Burkett
The length of the rest interval is dictated by the 2005, Richmond & Goddard 2004, Willardson &
training goal. Chiu et al. 2004, Willardson & Burlêtt Burkett 2006a, 2006b, Willardson 2006
2005, IVIatuszal^ et al. 2003, Pincivero et al. 2004,
Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997 Principle 9
Pairing antagonist muscles allows for greater
Principle 2 motor recruitment, shorter rest intervals and
The nervous system takes five to six times longer greater total volume done per training session
to recover than the muscular system Newton & Alen 1998, Chiu et al. 2003
Chiu et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Kawamori &
Haff 2004, Matuszaket al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989 Principle 10
The length of the rest interval is a function of
Principle 3 the tempo prescribed Willardson & Burkett 2005,
The length of the rest interval dictates the Abdessemed et al. 1999, Pincivero et al. 2004,
hormonal response to a given workout Paulsen Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997
et al. 2003, Raastad et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003;
Abdessemed et al. 1999; Pincivero et al. 2004; Principle 11
Pincivero & Campy 2004; Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997; The length of the rest interval is a function of the
Ahtianen et al. 2005; Fry et al. 1994, 1998; Hakkinen training age Kawamori & Haff 2004, Kraemer et al.
1989; Richmond & Goddard 2004; Willardson & 1999, Kraemer etal. 1998, Hakkinen et al. 2000,
Burkett 2006a, 2006b; Willardson 2006 Izquierdo et al. 2001
When training the alactic power system, the Short, intra-set rest intervals recruit higher-
longest rest intervals are indicated Cronin & threshold motor units Willardson & Burkett 2005,
Crewther 2004, Willardson & Burkett 2005 Matuszak et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1995, Kang et al.
2005, Lawton et al. 2006
Principle 5
The length of a rest interval is a function of the Principle 13
magnitude of the range of motion Willardson & An aerobic base is not a factor in strength
Burkett 2005, Matuszak et al. 2003, Abdessemed et al. development Leveritt et al. (1999)
1999, Pincivero et al. 2004, Pincivero & Campy 2004,
Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997
Principle 6
The length of the rest interval is a function of the
amount of muscle mass recruited Kawamori & Haff
2004, Matuszak et al. 2003, Abdessemed et al. 1999,
Ahtianen et al. 2005, Richmond & Goddard 2004,
Willardson & Burkett 2006a, 2006b, Willardson 2006
Principle 7
size and strength levels of the athlete Jackson et al.
1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Ahtianen et al. 2005
Principle 8
neurological complexity of the exercise Chiu et

THE SCIENCE DF TEMPO
Tempo is the least understood of

all the strength-training loading
parameters and the one most associated
with popular myths: Slow training is best!
Fast training is dangerous! Fast training
is the only way to train fast-twitch fibers!
This chapter teaches you the principles
that regulate tempo of execution

prescription while dispelling the myths.

PRE-TEST
1. What does the first number represent in the isokinetic loading is associated with increases in
tempo prescription 4210? which of the following?
A. eccentric lowering A. muscle glycogen
B. stretched position B. CP, ATP, ADP
C. concentric contraction C. CP, ATP, IRS
D. pause in the contracted position D. Aand B
2. What does the second number represent in the 7. Slow-tempo work is best applied to which of the
tempo prescription 4210? following exercises?
A. eccentric lowering A. squats
B. the pause in the stretched position B. push jerks
C. concentric contraction C. power snatch
D. pause in the contracted position D. clean pulls
3. Is training at slow speeds disadvantageous to 8. What can be said about the relationship between
power development? maximal strength and speed of movement?
A. yes A. They are negatively correlated.
B. no B. They are positively correlated.
C. only with advanced athletes C. They are inversely proportionate to
D. all the above except A, B and C magnitude of the training load.
D. They're just friends.
4. How could you increase the degree of
intramuscular tension during a bench press? 9. When using eccentric contractions to develop
A. shorten the rest intervals relative strength, what is the maximal time limit of
B. use lifting chains a single set?
C. use a smaller-diameter barbell A. 5 seconds
D. B and C B. 10 seconds
C. 10-12 seconds
5. For maximal strength development, the D. 20 seconds
resistance must be heavy enough that the
concentric contraction takes roughly how long? 10. Pausing in the advantageous isometric
A. 0.3-0.5 seconds position will favor which of the following?
B. 0.4-0.7 seconds A. muscle glycogen replacement
C. 0.5-0.8 seconds B. high-threshold motor unit recruitment
D. 0.8-1.0 seconds C. low-threshold motor unit recruitment
D. Aand B
6. High-intensity, slow-speed training using
a-01 a-6 a-8 v-z a-9 v-9 Q-P a-e Q-Z V-I. sj0msuv isei-ejd

CHAPTER 5
PRINCIPLES OF TEMPO PRESCRIPTION FOR

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAXIMAL STRENGTH
Here is the significance of the tempo symbol. I use contact with the chest. It can also refer to a pause
a four-digit system to represent the time it takes to taken during the middle of a concentric range. A 5310
complete the different phases of strength training tempo in the standing paused reverse curl would
repetition (Figure 5.1). indicate a 3-second pause at a predetermined angle in
the concentric range of the reverse curl.
The first number is the eccentric lowering, that is,
when you lower the resistance (e.g., going down in the The third number is the concentric contraction, that is,
squat or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench lifting the weight (e.g., rising in the squat or pressing
press). As a rule of thumb, that is when the muscle the bar at arms' length in the bench press. In this case
is being placed under stretch. During the eccentric the muscle is shortening. If X is present in the tempo
contraction the muscle is actually lengthening. expression instead of a number, it implies explosive
action with full acceleration.
The second number is the time of pause in the
stretched position. The pause is usually between the The fourth number is the time of pause in the
eccentric (lowering) phase and the concentric (lifting), contracted position (e.g., the top of a curl or chin-up).
phase (e.g., the bottom position in the squat or when
the bar makes contact with the chest in the bench Thus, 2010 in the flat dumbbell press would mean 2
press). So the "2" in a 4210 tempo in the bench press seconds to lower dumbbells, no pause (0), lifting for a
would refer to a 2-second pause when the bar makes count of 1, and no pause at the top.
UNDERSTANDING TEMPO
TEMPO
4 2 1
uu u u
0 How It Looks: Slow, controlled lowering
(4 seconds down) with a medium (2 seconds)
D) CD c
L_ Q. pause, fast return (1 second to top) and
c W 0
L_
-I—»
cc CD x immediately (0 seconds) repeat the lift again.
Q. Q)
C
CD
CO
Q.
Time in seconds
FIGURE 5.1 A four-digit symbol can be used to prescribe the appropriate tempo that should be used during a
weight training exercise.

FIGURE 5.3 Tension is critical for maximal strength development. If maximal strength is the desired goal, high-
resistance training at slow velocities appears more effective than high velocities with light loads.
As another example, in the case of 4211 in the chin- to less power even though the levels of maximal
up, it would mean 4 seconds to lower yourself to the strength may have increased.
arms outstretched position, a 2-second pause in the
stretched position, raising yourself for a count of 1, and
Principle 2: Tension is critical for
pausing for 1 second at the top.
maximal strength development
Principle 1: It is the brain's intent that if maximal strength is the desired goal, high-resistance
determines the training effect, not the training at slow velocities appears more advantageous
than training at high velocities with light loads (Fig.
actual velocity of the bar 5.3). This is because high levels of intramuscular
There is some concern that displacing high loads tension are the biological stimulus for the adaptive
at slow speeds may be disadvantageous for power process of strength development.
development, but these fears are totally unfounded. It
When you reach the upper levels of strength
is the brain's intent that determines the adaptation to
development, you must seek ways to increase the
high-speed lifting. In other words, "concentrating on
levels of intramuscular tension. This explains the
acceleration" while reaching muscle failure will bring
success of training implements that accommodate
about the same adaptation as will lifting at high speed,
the strength curve to increase the amount of tension
as long as you concentrate on accelerating the load.
throughout the strength curve. One such example
The key in power training for athletes is to keep the
is the use of chains added to the barbell squat to
repetitions low (1-5) so that the high-threshold motor
accommodate the ascending strength curve. Another
units are recruited. Training with higher reps (e.g., 10-
example is the use of bungee cords attached to a bar
12), even though concentrating on acceleration, would
for training the incline press.
still access lower-threshold fibers more so than if the
reps were done at a controlled medium tempo. Even though science has yet to verify the following,
in my experience the best way to achieve the optimal
Training with loads moved purposely slow will move
combination of slow velocity and high tension is not to
the force-time curve towards the right, which translates
use purposely slow contractions but to use low-reps

METABOLIC ADAPTATION
Speed
FIGURE 5.4 For maximal strength development, the resistance must be heavy enough that the concentric
contraction takes roughly 0.3 to 0.5 seconds.
.3 sec to 0.5 sec
85% • 100%
descending sets (which, of course, are done with a Principle 3: For maximal strength
proper warm-up). Here is an example of a descending
development, the resistance must
set for strength athletes:
be heavy enough that the concentric
1 RM @100 percent of maximum contraction takes roughly 0.3-0.5
Rest 10 seconds, drop load 5 percent
seconds
1 RM @ 95 percent of maximum
Rest 10 seconds, drop load 5 percent For maximal strength development, high-threshold
fibers must be recruited. High-threshold fibers take a
1 RM @ 90 percent of maximum minimum of 0.3 seconds to generate maximal tension
Rest 3-5 minutes, repeat steps 1-6 another 4-5 (Fig. 5.4). Lifting explosively with light loads will not
times do much for strength development. A minimum of 85
percent of the 1RM is necessary to elicit a strength
response when training explosively. In strength training
circles, this refers to the method of maximal efforts,
(a.k.a. relative strength training and weightlifter's
method).

Principle 4: Slow-speed lifting brings Schmidtbleicher 1981; Heyden et al. 1988) (See Table
5.1).
about more metabolic adaptations
than does high-speed lifting For example, consider a lineman who can incline
press 400 pounds versus a quarterback who can
High-intensity, slow-speed training using isol<inetic incline press 250 pounds. If you test both athletes for
loading is associated with increases in muscle maximal bar speed at 100, 150, 200 and 250 pounds,
glycogen, CP, ATP, ADP, creatine, phosphorylase, the lineman with the higher 1RM performance is more
PFK, and Krebs cycle enzyme activity. Training at likely to move all those loads at greater speeds than
faster speeds does not induce these changes (Brooks the quarterback will. It goes without saying that the
and Fahey 1985). speed of the bar for the quarterback would be 0.0 with
loads of 300 pounds and above.
Principle 5: For slow-tempo work, the
exercise must be adapted to fit the Principle 7: It is easier to gain
strength curve strength at slow speeds than at high
Slow tempo can be best applied to all extensor work
speeds
(e.g., squats, bench presses and deadlifts), particularly The potential for strength gains is much greater
when you use chains or bands to make the resistance at slow speeds than at high speeds (Moffroid and
curve match more evenly the strength curve. However, Whipple 1970, Berger 1982, Coyle and Feiring
in the case of the more bell-shaped force curve (a.k.a. 1980). For example, you can expect higher rates and
ascending-descending) of certain muscles, slow- magnitudes of improvement in back squats and bench
tempo work appears to be appropriate in only partial presses (slow lifts) than in power cleans and power
ranges (e.g., the first 45 degrees) of elbow flexion if snatches (fast lifts).
one uses constant-resistance devices such as the
old reliable barbell and dumbbells. For example, in
the case of slow-tempo elbow flexion work, I prefer to Principle 8: The nature of the
prescribe the use of a Scott bench and a low pulley for exercise dictates the tempo at which
resistance overload. Using a barbell as the resistance it will be optimally executed
implement for the full range in this case would waste
most of the effort expended. Some exercises by their very nature must always
be done at high speeds, while others can be done
If a constant-resistance mode (e.g., dumbbell) is the
only means of resistance available, I would suggest
partial work, such as the first 45 degrees of elbow
flexion on a Scott bench. Concerning elbow flexion
work, resistance training devices that permit the shape
of the resistance to be adjusted, such as many of the
Strive® machines and some of the Hammer® pieces,
allow the optimalization of the resistance patterns for
those ascending-descending force curve muscles.
Another way to increase maximal tension when

training the flexors is to include isometric pauses in
the concentric range (see shaded box on isometronic
training in this chapter).
Principle 6: Maximal strength and

speed of movement are positively
correlated at all loads
FIGURE 5.3 Tension is critical for maximal strength
Scientific research has demonstrated that there is development. If maximal strength is the desired goal,
a positive correlation between maximal strength high-resistance training at slow velocities appears
and speed of movement at all loads (Burhle and more effective than high velocities with light loads.

ISOMETRONIC TRAINING
This routine's physiological basis is what American sport scientists Fleck & Kraemer and O'Shea call
"functional isometric contractions" (FIC). Over thirty years ago, players of the Iron Game were introduced
to this training method under the term "isometronics," which was a contraction of the terms "isometrics"
and "isotonics." German strength experts such as Letzelter & Letzelter and Hartmann & Tunnemann
prefer to use the term "auxotonics" to describe this training method. The concept behind this training
method is to use the best of what the isometric method can offer and combine it with the regular type of
lifting still known as "isotonics."
With FIC you make use of the specific joint-angle strength gains of isometrics after pre-fatiguing the
muscles involved by using heavy short-range repetitions in the power rack.
In the bench press movement, you'll select three equally divided ranges of motion: start range, mid-range
and end range. In all three ranges, you will select a specific weight that you can move from the bottom of
the range of motion to its top position. In all ranges, the amplitude of the movement will be regulated by
sets of pins. Here are the steps for performing FIC:
1. Perform 4-6 partial reps in the normal fashion on a 20X2 tempo.
2. When you come to the end of the last concentric repetition, make contact with the bar against the top
pins. Apply as much force as possible for 6-8 seconds, trying to blast through the pins! Do not hold your
breath during the isometric contraction; instead, use a very brief cycle of breathing, alternating rapidly
between short inhaling and short exhaling. This would be performed on a 20X8 tempo.
3. If you've performed this set properly, you should not be able to perform another concentric repetition
after lowering the barbell—if you can do the rep, the weight you used was simply too light.
Make sure to do this program only once every 10 days. Do a more regular program on other training days.
at any speed (Pictures 5.1 & 5.2). Exercises that Relative strength is the maximum force that an athlete
need to performed at only high speeds include the can generate per unit of bodyweight irrespective of the
Olympic lifts (clean and jerk, snatch), partial Olympic time taken to develop this force. A high-level relative
lifts (e.g., power cleans, power snatch) and the strength is of critical importance in sports in which
numerous Olympic pulls. These exercises train the athletes have to displace their entire bodyweight
synchronization of muscular chains to improve the rate (e.g., jumps, gymnastics); in sports that have weight
offeree development and involve a multitude of joints classes (e.g., judo, wrestling, boxing); and in sports
that have to be used in a precise order for optimal in which sudden acceleration is critical (e.g., sprints,
performance. Normally these are done at a XOXO hockey, soccer). Strength training for athletes in these
tempo. However, in some instances, I may prescribe sports should be based on maximum-weights/nervous-
an isometric pause right in the middle of the concentric system methods, methods that enhance the neural
range. For example, in the power clean, if an athlete drive, producing increased recruiting and firing rate of
has a tendency to rush the lift, I may have him or her motor units. A list of sports requiring relative strength
pause for 2 seconds once the bar clears the knees in can be found in Table 5.2.
the concentric range.
For relative-strength sports, hypertrophic adaptations
Exercises that can be done at almost any speed are should be minimized, hence the need to access
usually less complex in coordinative nature and are only high-threshold motor units and keep time under
used most often for the purpose of building maximal tension to a minimum. By keeping the time under
strength and/or hypertrophy (e.g., presses, squats, tension short, you ensure that the high-energy
curls). phosphagens are the main fuel sources for those high-
intensity contractions (Table 5.3).
Principle 9: For relative strength Normally, for relative strength development, the athlete
development, the total time under utilizes 1-5 repetitions per set. Of course, to keep the
tension per set should not exceed 20 total time under tension under 20 seconds, the higher
seconds

CORRELATIONS
Angular speed (°/s)

15,6 31,3 62,6 94,0 125,3
Group n r r r r r
GO 17 .97+++ .95+++ .92+++ .90+++ .95+++
G1 8 .95+++ .89++ .73+ .60 ns .78+
G2 9 .97+++ .87+++ .80++ .74+ .69+

(ns = not significant; p < .05 = +; p < .01 = Hi-+; p < .00'i = +++
GO (weightlifters) G1 (strongest lifters) G2 (weakest)

TABLE 5.1 Correlations Between Isometric Maximal Strength and the Relative Dynamic Strength Maximum
at Different Speeds of Movement for the Three Groups: GO (all weightlifters), G1 (strongest weightlifters), G2
(weakest weightlifters) (Heyden et al. 1988).
the number of reps per set, the lower the time under do not exceed times under tension of 40 seconds.
tension per repetition can be. Table 5.4 illustrates a In those sports, you want hypertrophy but the
sample tempo selection in relation to sets and reps for hypertrophy must be functional, hence the short times
the development of relative strength. under tension. It is my experience that hypertrophy
gained by sets of longer time under tension negatively
affects performance.
Principle 10: Relative strength
training allows for a great variety of
tempos in the eccentric and pause Principle 12: Variation in tempo
phases is critical for long-term maximal
strength development
When seeking to develop relative strength, eccentric
contractions can be as slow as 10 seconds, while Various authors have contended that muscles gain in
isometric pauses can be as long as 8 seconds. strength faster if trained at various speeds, rather than
However, the length of the total set should not exceed constantly being trained at the same speed (Biihrle
20 seconds. In the case of the 8-second isometric and Schmidtbleicher 1981, Lilikow and Worobjow
pauses, they are done with maximal tension against 1984, Poliquin 1988).
an immovable object like the pins in a power rack.
A recent study (Harris et al. 1996) supports these
authors. In this study performed at Appalachian State
Principle 11: Time under tension per University, three separate groups of trainees were
set should not exceed 40 seconds in used. Group 1 trained at 30 percent of their one-
repetition maximum, Group 2 trained at 80-85 percent
absolute strength sports with a high
of their one-repetition maximum, and Group 3 trained
speed component using two intensities, one day at 80-85 percent of
their max and a second day at 55-60 percent of their
If you are in an absolute-strength sport with a high
one-repetition maximum. All three groups were divided
power component (e.g., bobsleigh, hammer throwing).

THE CONCEPT OF TIME UNDER TENSION
When hypertrophy is the goal, research and empirical data both tend to support the 40-to-70-second rule
of thumb, which states that a muscle must be loaded within that time frame to optimize the hypertrophy
response. When relative strength is the primary concern, duration of the stimulus (set) should not exceed
40 seconds, and for even better results should not exceed 20 seconds. The reason for doing this is to
recruit the high-threshold motor units, which use the high-energy phosphagens as a source of fuel.
For the purpose of selective hypertrophy, here is how you can adjust the sets, reps and tempo to achieve
the desired training effect:
a. 3 x 15-20 on 2010 tempo will recruit slow-twitch fibers and stimulate specific biochemical
adaptations.
b. 4 X 4-6 on 4080 will stimulate the intermediate Ma fibers.

c. 6 X 2-3 on 3011 will access high-threshold lib fibers, the fibers that have the highest potential for
growth. In this case, the pause should be at a mechanically advantageous angle to permit higher-
threshold fibers.
Slow Speed vs. Fast Speed
OPTIMAL TEMPO
PICTURES 5.1 & 5.2 Olympic lifting exercises such as the clean pull (left) should be performed at high speeds,
whereas basic strength exercises such as the decline triceps extension should be performed at slow speeds.

SPORTS REQUIRING RELATIVE STRENGTH
Reason Sports (Examples)
Buoyancy Synchronized swimming

Hydrodynamics Swimming, water polo
Aerodynamics Luge, ski jump, cycling, downhill skiing
Weight-Class Sports Combative sports (e.g., judo), lifting sports (e.g., weightlifting)
Jumping Power Basketball, handball, pole vault, triple jump
Aesthetics Figure skating, rhythmic gymnastics, synchronized swimming
TABLE 5.2 A list of sports requiring relative strength.
TIME UNDER TENSION FOR STRENGTH AND ITS RELATED ENERGY SYSTEM & FUEL SOURCE
Time under Tension Energy System Fuel
1-10 seconds Anaerobic alactic power ATP-CP
11-20 seconds Anaerobic alactic capacity CP
21-40 seconds Anaerobic lactic power Glycogen
41-120 seconds Anaerobic lactic capacity Glycogen
TABLE 5.3 By keeping the time under tension short, you ensure that the high-energy phosphagens are the main
fuel sources for those high-intensity contractions.
SAMPLE TEMPO PRESCRIPTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIVE STRENGTH
Tempo Reps Sets Time/Rep Time/Set

10/0/1/0 1 7-10 11 11
3110 2 6 5 10
3012 3 6 6 18
4010 4 5 5 20
TABLE 5.4 To keep the total time under tension under 20 seconds to emphasize relative strength, an increase in
reps per set requires that the TUT per rep be reduced.

equally in number, training for nine weeks using the strength, power and speed are desired, a combination
same loading parameters in terms of sets and reps. of training velocities is desirable (Harris et al. 1996;
Performance measurements demonstrated that the Little et al. 1996).
third group made the biggest improvements in athletic
performance. However, for elite athletes the variation of training
velocities may be necessary to elicit a training
Two recent studies have shown the superior value of response. Various world-class athletes have reported
periodizing speed compared to keeping the speed of enhanced sports performance from systematically
contraction identical throughout a program. The study planned variations in speed of contraction. For
by Urdang et al. (1989) demonstrated that periodized example, in hammer throwing, low-velocity work (e.g.,
training in which individuals move from low velocity to slow-tempo deadlifts) has been perceived as beneficial
high velocity may be necessary if increases in force for enhanced control of knee- and trunk flexion during
are required at both speeds. The work of Doherty et al. turns, and high-velocity training (speed snatch) is used
(1989) supports current theory with regard to velocity- to ameliorate power in the release of the throwing
specific resistance training; that is, low-velocity training implement (Picture 5.3 & 5.4).
produces greater increments in force production at low
speed than does high-velocity training. However, their My experience with elite athletes indicates that the
results suggest that high-velocity training alone does tempo of contraction for any given exercise should
not produce changes as great as periodized low- and be varied every three weeks or less. In preparation
high-velocity training performed in sequence. for the Athens Olympic Games, shot-putters would
vary the tempo on a four-training-day system. The
These data support the practice of periodized training very nature of the exercise helped dictate the velocity.
programs in which the velocity of the movement is The following workout shows how the hip extension
varied over the course of the training program for movements were periodized.
athletes attempting to increase force production at
high speeds. Recent studies support the concept
that when athletic performance variables demanding
TEMPO VARIETY
PICTURES 5.3 & 5.4 Elite athletes need a greater variety of training velocities to elicit a training response. This
requirement necessitates a variety of exercise types.

Adam Nelson Program Principle 14: Pausing in the
advantageous isometric position
Workouts 1, 5, 9, 13
Snatch deadlifts on podium, 5 x 6-8, will favor high-threshold motor unit
5020 recruitment
Workouts 2, 6,10, 14 This rest interval between repetitions within a series
Clean pulls from low blocks, 5 x 4-6, has received very little attention from the strength
32X0 training community, yet it is an extremely important
Pause is taken just above the kneecap loading parameter. A question that has been raised
recently is whether hypertrophy is best accomplished
Workouts 3, 7,11, 15 by pausing between reps or by continuous exercise
Above-kneecap power cleans, 6 x 2-4, (Pictures 5.5 & 5.6).
10X0
A Canadian study done six years ago has shown that
Workouts 4, 8,12, 16 sets of 15-20RM done in a continuous mode with one
Mid-thigh power snatch, 9 x 1-3, minute between sets increases primarily the cross-
XOXO section of slow-twitch fibers. This study negates the
ideas about fiber recruitment of Iron Man author Jerry
As you can see, as the intensity is raised through the
Robinson. Japanese researchers have contended
cycle by dropping reps, the tempo is shortened to
that these results may be due to the oxygen debt
work on acceleration. Thus, muscle adaptations are
caused by continuous-tension sets. This debt may
favored initially to move on to neural adaptations as
very well be the cause of the adaptation taking place
you go through the cycle. Also, the range of motion is
in the slow-twitch fibers. In a talk on future trends
diminished as the tempo is shortened.
in strength training held at the National Coaches
Here is how varying the tempo can be used to im Seminar in Ottawa, Canada, Australian strength and
prove performance in the incline press: biomechanics expert Greg Wilson advanced the
concept that pausing between the concentric and
Workouts 1, 5, 9, 13 eccentric portions of reps may offset that oxygen debt
Incline dumbbell presses, 5 x 6-8, and permit the recruitment of higher-threshold fibers
4010 such as the fast-twitch Mb fibers. So for bodybuilders
who don't care where the hypertrophy comes from,
Workouts 2, 6, 10, 14
both styles of rep performance can be used to
Inertia incline press in rack, 5 x 4-6,
maximize the cross-section of all fibers. On the other
2210
hand, strength and power athletes will want to pause
Workouts 3,7,11,15 between reps so that they hypertrophy only the fibers
Incline barbell presses with chains, 7 sets, that they need - the high-threshold fast-twitch fibers.
(2,2,2,4,4,6,6) 3011
For relative strength development, it would be
Workouts 4, 8,12,16 beneficial to pause in the advantageous isometric
3-inch-thick-bar incline press, 9 sets position. The placement of this pause would of course
(3,2,1,3,2,1,3,2,1), 20X0 vary from one exercise to another. In most flexion
exercises, such as biceps curls and hamstrings
curls, the advantageous pause would be between
Principle 13: The length of the the eccentric and concentric phases of the repetition
eccentric contraction is proportionate cycles (Picture 5.5). In contrast, in most extension
to the range of motion of the exercise exercises such as bench presses and squats, the
pause would be between the concentric and eccentric
As a rule of thumb, for safety purposes, the longer the phases of the repetition cycle, when the limbs achieve
range, the longer the eccentric tempo; this is so the the near-lockout position. Based on my experience,
athlete can maintain proper bar pathway and reduce the length of the pause should be in the range of 1 to 2
the probability of a musculoskeletal injury. Therefore, seconds.
theoretically, a squat done on a 10X0 tempo is
potentially riskier than a reverse wrist curl done on the
same tempo.

Principle 15: Threshold levels of Principle 16: Purposely slow training
maximal strength are needed before a is applicable only in rehabilitation
fast lift can be improved phases or in the training of
When you need to improve performance on a fast lift
bodybuilders
lil<e the power snatch, you need to attain a threshold- Purposely slow training, such as bench presses done
level of maximal strength. For example, you cannot on a 5050 tempo, only brings muscular adaptations.
power snatch 100 kg unless you can full squat 184 It only has applications in the early stages of injury
to 194 kg. So if you can back squat only 160 kg, no rehabilitation or in the development of non-functional
magical program in the power snatch will enable you muscle mass.
to do 100 kg until you put 24 to 34 kg on your full back
squat.
At the Poliquin Strength Institute we use the ratios

between the power snatch, power clean, front squat
and back squats to determine the percentage of time
devoted to power vs. maximal strength development,
TEMPO VARIETY
PICTURES 5.5 & 5.6 Pausing at the advantageous isometric position, as shown at left, will favor high-threshold
motor unit recruitment.

CHAPTER 5
REFERENCES
Principle 1 For relative strength development, the total

It is the brain's intent that determines the training time under tension per sets should not exceed
effect, not the actual velocity of the bar 20 seconds Abdessemed etal. 1999, Farthing &
Bottaro et al. 2007, Chen et al. 2006, Paddon-Jones et Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Gentil et al. 2006
al. 2001, 2004
Principle 10
Principle 2 Relative strength training allows for greater variety
Tension is critical for maximal strength of tempos in the eccentric and pause phases
development Aagaard et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003, Raastad et al. 2000, Michaut et al. 2003, Farthing &
Taaffe et al. 1996, Hakkinen 1995, Gentil et al. 2006, Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b
Paddon-Jones et al. 2001, 2004
Principle 11
Principle 3 Time under tension per set should not exceed 40
For maximal strength development, the resistance seconds in absolute strength sports with a high
must be heavy enough that the concentric speed component Bottaro et al. 2007, Behm & Sale
contraction takes roughtly 0.3-0.5 seconds 1993, Chapman et al. 2006, Gentil et al. 2006
Munn et al. 2005, Hunter et al. 2003, Michaut et al.
2003, Higbie et al. 1996, Hortobagyi et al. 1996a, Principle 12
1996b, Housh et al. 1996 Variation in tempo is critical for long-term maximal
strength development Aagaard et al. 2000, Jackson
Principle 4 et al. 1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Behm & Sale 1993
Slow-speed lifting brings about more metabolic
adaptations than does high-speed lifting Principle 13
Bottaro et al. 2007, Hunter et al. 2003, Raastad et The length of the eccentric contraction is
al. 2000, Brandeburg & Docherty 2002, Chapman et proportionate to the range of motion of the
al. 2006, Higbie et al. 1996, Hortobagyi et al. 1996a, exercise Chen et al. 2006, Nosaka & Clarkson 1995,
1996b, Housh etal. 1996, Nosaka & Newton 2002, Brandeburg & Docherty
2002, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Gentil et
Principle 5 al. 2006, Higbie et al. 1996, Hortobagyi et al. 1996a,
For slow-tempo work, the exercise must be 1996b, Housh et al. 1996, Seger et al. 1998, Seger &
adapted to fit the strength curve Munn et al. 2005, Thorstensson 2005
Chen et al. 2006, Behm & Sale 1993, Paddon-Jones
et al. 2001, 2004 Principle 14
Pausing in the advantageous isometric position
Principle 6 will favor high-threshold motor unit recruitment
Maximal strength and speed of movement are Chen et al. 2006, Michaut et al. 2003, Desbrosses et
positively correlated at all loads Taaffe et al. 1996, al. 2006, Hakkinen et al. 1997, 2000, Izquierdo et al.
Brandeburg & Docherty 2002 1999, Philippou et al. 2004
It is easier to gain strength at slow speeds than at Threshold levels of maximal strength are needed
high speeds Bottaro et al. 2007, Munn et al. 2005, before a fast lift can be improved
Teramoto & Golding 2006, Chapman et al. 2006 Hakkinen 1989, Behm & Sale 1993
The nature of the exercise dictates the tempo at Purposely slow training is applicable only
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Now that you've completed this theory section of the that are not optimal but produce slow changes due
Poliquin Performance Certification Course, I'd like to to the anabolics - therefore, they never optimize
discuss a few points that sum up the current situation the training process and their methods contribute
in this profession: litte to the knowledge of training methods.
• There are no magical programs. If a magical • There are always new ways to improve your
program existed, every trainee would be able to training program; that is, of course, if you are
squat 1,000 pounds and bench press 800 pounds. prepared to be open-mined and learn from others.
Then there would be no need for this course. In many instances people are not prepared to do so
because they believe their way is the best and only
• There are several ways to train. Athletes who have
way.
achieved world-class standards in the Iron Game
have all experimented with various combinations The Poliquin Performance Certification Course reflects
of the loading parameters to get to their level my way. As you begin to apply its methods, bear in
of sporting excellence. Both Bulgaria and the mind the aforementioned points. Keep an open mind
former Soviet Union, for example, have produced and don't try to look for a single, straightforward
numerous world records in weightlifting using very answer. Be an active participant and apply what you
different training philosophies. read to what you practice. Then analyze the results,
and adjust the formula accordingly with your new
• Knowledge about training programs has been
knowledge. With that, we will both continue learning
hampered by the common use of anabolic steroids.
and traveling the path toward optimal performance.
Training on anabolic steroids makes it difficult to
access which is working - anabolics or the training Charles Poliquin
methods. Many anabolic users gain on programs
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual afterword 85


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CONTENTS

Foreword 1 Mission Statement

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

Fergus Connolly, PhD

Through his company, Connolly Sports Performance,

Connolly's by-invitation-only website and forum for

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Foreword 1

PICP Level 1: Regional Coach

2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance

3. Be able to perform the Upper Body Structural

2 Introduction The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance 1. Understand Principles of Nutrition

6. Understand Supplementation for effective Training

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Introduction 3

This level is competency-based according to the

• Participate officially as a coach on the World Cup

• Coach an athlete to the Senior World

• Coach an athlete to the Olympic Games

• Coach an athlete on the World Cup circuit

4 Introduction The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

strength can be classified into many

different types, each defined by differing

capabilities of the neuromuscular system

and different time frames of strength

expression. Some types of strength can

be defined even more specifically by the

type of muscular contraction. This chapter

classifies these capabilities and defines

these contraction types.

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 1

a-OI. a-6 9-8 Q-L a-9 a-9 a-t'V-e V-3 an sjeMsuvisai-eJd

6 Chapter 1 The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

Concentric Contraction. The muscle develops

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 1 7

8 Chapter 1 The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

Shot Put 20 m 235 200.0

Hammer Throw 72 m 225 190.0

Sprint 9.78 s 200 190.0

Cycling Sprint 205 97.5

Bobsleigh Olympic team 200 140.0

Hammer Throw 60 m 180 150.0

Judo (86 kg) Olympic team 180 140.0

Alpine Ski National team 170 80.0

Speed Skating 40.5 s 150 -

Shot Put 14 m 140 115.0

Decathlon 8,000 points 145 110.0

Decathlon 7,500 points 130 95.0

Rowing National class 140 90.0

Badminton National league 95 65.0

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 1 9

10 Chapter 1 The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

The first step in designing workout

programs should be deciding how many

reps to perform. The selection of reps

affects all other components of a workout.

Sets, tempo, rest intervals and even

exercise selection are influenced by the

number of reps performed.

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 2

12 Chapter 2 The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual Chapter 2 13

Working with 1RM loads enables an athlete to