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Elastic Bonding
The basic principles of adhesive technology and
a guide to its cost-effective use in industry
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Innovation through
elastic bonding
Elastic bonding is a tried and tested fastening
technique that complements the existing range
of traditional fastening methods. This innovative
technology has recently begun to establish itself
in various sectors of the manufacturing industry,
most notably in the manufacture of domestic
Appliances and appliances and industrial plant. In essence it
equipment involves the bonding of two materials by an
interfacial layer of permanently elastic adhesive
that also performs a sealing function. One ex-
ample is washing machine casings, which are
routinely stiffened by bonding reinforcing pro-
files to the inside of the casing with elastic adhe-
sives. Unlike welding, this leaves no marks or
blemishes which would then have to be tooled
out. Elevator doors are another example: Because
there is no risk of thermal distortion when ma-
terials are bonded with adhesives, the doors can
be constructed from thinner metal sections, with
consequent savings in weight. However, the most
important area of application for this innova-
tive fastening technique remains the transport
industry, where it is widely used in the assembly
of road and rail vehicles. dates back to the early 1980s. The modern bus Fig. 1:
The transport People’s willingness to use public transport industry now depends on elastic adhesives for a Modern trams owe
industry depends to a very significant degree on the whole range of fastening applications – includ- their stylish looks to
actual appearance of the buses and trams on a combination of
ing roof assemblies, window glass, side walls, glass, plastics and
their roads. When vehicles of older design are front and rear ends, floor pans and countless lightweight metals,
replaced by new ones of more attractive appear- smaller assemblies (Fig. 2). But what attracts bonded together with
ance, there is a marked rise in passenger num- people to public transport is not just the external adhesives.
bers. Elastic bonding technology has contributed appearance of the vehicle fleet, but also the
significantly to innovation in vehicle design, quality of the ride. An adhesive-bonded body
since it allows designers to create bold and un- assembly possesses greater torsional stiffness,
usual shapes by combining different materials dampens road noise and vibrations and generally
such as glass, plastics and lightweight metals helps to improve ride comfort.
(Fig. 1). In most cases, adhesive bonding is more econom- Economic
The first use of adhesives to bond components ical than conventional fastening methods. It is benefits
and assemblies in the manufacture of buses also cleaner and uses less energy. Manufacturing
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 6
Fig. 3:
Washing machine Elastic bonding
casings – a typical
adhesive application compared with other
fastening techniques
Table 1:
Adhesive bonding, whether of the elastic or hard- The principal indus-
setting variety, differs fundamentally from trad- trial joining tech-
itional mechanical fastening methods (Table 1). In niques – a compari-
this chapter the salient characteristics of mech- son of features
Structural bonding
Clip fastenings
Elastic bonding
Bolts/Screws
Spot welding
mechanisms of elastic bonding technology in
clear language, and to serve as a reference guide
Clinching
Welding
for the cost-effective application of adhesive
Rivets
technology in industrial practice.
Joining together Optimum choice/most + + 0 – + ++ ++ ++
dissimilar materials economical use of materials
Calculability of joint, Development costs, the need ++ ++ ++ ++ + 0 +/0 +
dependability of joint to take account of specific
strength on tempera- work processes and design
ture, creep under requirements associated
statistic load with the fastening technique
Thermal distortion Additional processing stages ++ + – – + ++ ++ ++
Occupational physi- Loss of man-hours as a + 0 0 0 0 ++ +/– +/0
ology (noise, chemical result of illness
emissions)
Sealing of joint Additional work and – – + 0 0 0 ++/+ ++
expense in sealing joint
Susceptibility to Preventive measures to 0 – + 0 + 0 + +
corrosion guard against crack corrosion
and galvanic corrosion
Waiting time between Integration in the ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +/0 +/0
joint assembly and production cycle
adequate strength
attainment
Temperature-resist- Need to take account of ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +/0 + +/0
ance of joint extreme exposure conditions
Ease of disassembly Ease of repair/effect on ++ + 0 0 + + 0 +
recycling costs
++ = very suitable, + = suitable, 0 = partly suitable, – unsuitable
10 Elastic bonding compared with other fastening techniques Elastic bonding compared with other fastening techniques 11
struction, which deliberately exploits the spe- surface indentations caused by spot-welded thin-
cific performance characteristics of the various gauge sheet metal). None of this corrective work
materials used. Synthetic materials and plastics, is necessary with adhesive bonding.
either fibre-reinforced or made up into compos- The impact on the health of the workforce is an Physiological
ites, are also being used increasingly in light- important factor these days in evaluating the aspects
weight construction. This means that fastening merits of a new technology. High noise levels and
techniques have to accommodate a wide spec- chemical emissions that are potentially harmful
trum of different material properties. Elastic ad- to health and the environment are undesirable
hesives lend themselves particularly well to this contaminants. Adhesive bonding is a noise-free
type of application. Materials of low intrinsic joining method. Some adhesives and the surface
strength can be fastened together flexibly and preparation products associated with them can
without localized stress peaks, resulting in a release volatile and potentially harmful chemical
strong, load-bearing adhesive joint. substances. The actual health risks are, however,
Computer-aided Computer calculations play a key role in the de- negligible provided the products are used as dir-
stress calculation sign and configuration of adhesive joints. Calcu- ected and proper safety precautions are ob-
lating the mechanical strengths of these joints, served (see chapter entitled Safety at work and
however, remains a complex and time-consuming environmental safeguards).
task. Methods of calculation that are valid for Because elastic adhesives also act as sealants, Bonding and
rigid joints are only partly applicable to elastic they offer a relatively simple but effective way sealing in one
connections between components. When it comes of protecting a joint against the ingress of gas or operation
to building prototypes or setting up test arrays, water. Adhesive-bonded joints can also be made
engineers have to base their calculations on ref- resistant to chemical action more easily. Any
erence values which in most cases are only rough special performance requirements of this kind
approximations (i.e. technical material data, such need to be discussed at an early stage with the
as tensile lap-shear strength, with appropriate manufacturers of the adhesive products, so that
safety margins factored into the calculations). both the adhesives and/or sealants and the de-
Following extensive studies carried out at various sign and configuration of the joint can be
universities and technical colleges, engineers now matched to the type of substrate and the chem-
have access to a growing body of experimental ical environment to which the joint will be ex-
design data that can be used to calculate the posed (in terms of chemical composition, con-
strength of an adhesive joint with the aid of finite- centration, temperature and exposure times).
element methods (see chapter entitled Calculating The causes of corrosion are complex. As in the
the strength of elastic adhesive joints). case of chemical resistance, adhesive bonding
No thermal Some joining methods involve the application of has been shown to offer better protection against
distortion heat to the components. This can cause thermal crevice corrosion and galvanic corrosion than
distortion and lead to deformation and breakdown many other fastening techniques. Successful re-
of the material’s internal structure. Correcting this sults depend on good workmanship and the use
kind of damage is usually very costly and labour- of adhesives that are themselves effective elec-
intensive. This type of manual work offers only trical insulators (i.e. with a specific resistivity in
limited opportunity for automation. Therefore in a excess of 108 Ωcm).
series production environment, such corrective Unlike mechanical joints, adhesive bonds do not Strength
procedures are only carried out where absolutely immediately reach their maximum or ultimate development …
necessary (e.g. filling and making good visual strength. In many cases, however, assemblies can
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 12
be handled and passed on to the next stage of vide additional mechanical fixtures as safety
processing before they attain their ultimate support systems, to prevent possible damage and
strength levels. On the plus side, the actual pro- injury from falling components or to prevent
cess of bonding the components together takes potentially hazardous leaks (e.g. from gas meters).
… and waiting significantly less time than conventional joining It should also be possible to separate the joint at Separating the
times methods. Process times have been further re- some later date without undue difficulty. This is joint
duced by the development of new adhesives with important both for ease of repair and for recyc-
short cure times and by adhesives based on a ling the individual components when they reach
special two-stage cure system. The rapid initial the end of their service life. These matters are
cure provides sufficient early strength for the as- discussed in more detail in the chapter Disas-
sembly to be handled and moved on through the sembly and repairs.
production cycle, while the second, slower stage In contrast to rigid adhesive joints, elastic adhe- Mechanical
of cure provides the ultimate strength and the sive layers undergo some deformation when properties
long-term temperature resistance required for the loads are applied to them. This property is ex-
proposed application (Fig. 4). tremely useful in terms of damping vibrations or
taking up any displacement resulting from the
application of an external force. Exposure to
Reserve strength
heat, for example, may result in differential ther-
mal expansion, causing adhesive-bonded com-
Normal service strength ponents to move relative to one another.
Strength development
the joint. Conventional joining methods such as the zone of greatest stress is reached around the
bonding with hard-setting adhesives, welding, shaft of the bolt. A plan view of the connection
riveting, screwing or bolting cause localized reveals a similar picture: A high concentration of
stress peaks at the joint itself. stresses around the bolt (Fig. 5b). At these points
Distribution of The distribution of stresses can be clearly re- we can expect the component to suffer damage. … in mechanical
stresses … vealed in photoelastic models of joint assemblies A similar pattern of stress distribution is ob- fastenings and
made from a transparent material that becomes served in components that are fastened together adhesive bonds
doubly refractive when subjected to stress. If a with rivets or spot welds.
beam of polarized white light is shone through a Figure 5c shows a thin-layer rigid adhesive
stressed component, coloured lines appear when bond, made with an acrylic adhesive cured
the object is viewed through a second polariza- under UV light. The expansion and deflection of
tion filter as a result of interference effects. the bonded substrates causes stress peaks at the
These lines indicate areas of equal stress. If ends of the overlaps, which is why the adhesive
stress levels are increased, the sequence of col- layer is beginning to break down at this point.
oured lines is repeated. Different lines of the The central portion of the bond face, on the
Fig. 5: same colour do not therefore necessarily indicate other hand, contributes very little to the load-
Stress patterns in
photoelastic models: the same degree of stress. bearing capacity of the joint.
a) Bolted connection The photographs below show specimen compon- Figure 5d shows a thick-layer elastic adhesive
under load (side ents made from clear acrylic or polycarbonate bond, made with a black one-part polyurethane
elevation) joined by different methods. In the side view of adhesive. Here, the stresses in the bonded sub-
b) Bolted connection a bolted connection under load, the stress peaks strates are uniformly distributed along the bond-
under load (plan around the bolt appear very clearly (Fig. 5a). line, indicating that the whole of the bond face is
view)
c) Thin-layer rigid The unstressed zones of the component appear contributing to the strength of the joint. Hence
adhesive bond yellow, e.g. in the upper right-hand corner. the fact that the breaking strength of elastic ad-
d) Elastic adhesive Moving from this unstressed area towards the hesive bonds increases in more or less direct
bond bolt, a series of coloured lines are crossed until proportion to the area of the bond face. By con-
trast, the stresses in rigid adhesive bonds are
a b concentrated at the ends of the overlaps. This ef-
fect is even more pronounced in substrates with
a low modulus of elasticity, as for example when
the bond is made between plastic components
rather than steel. In practice, this means that
elastic-bonded joints can be designed to transmit
relatively large forces simply by increasing the
area of the bond face (length of overlap).
c d
Tolerance compensation
Manufacturing tolerances for components in the Manufacturing
motor and general transport industries are usally tolerances
measured in millimetres. This applies particu- measured in
larly to large components made from glass (e.g. millimetres …
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 16
curved windshields) or plastics (e.g. roof mod- and even slight deviations can reduce the
ules). Where structural support is provided by a strength of the joint by more than 50%. In the … and strength
welded steel or aluminium frame, the tolerances case of elastic adhesives, the actual thickness of of joint
… or even involved in the case of very large or very long the adhesive layer does not have a critical bear-
centimetres components may well exceed a centimetre. Elas- ing on the strength of the joint, and variations
tic bonding technology allows manufacturers to can readily be accommodated (Fig. 6).
bridge gaps of this order without any loss of
strength.
Peel strength
Fig. 6:
The effect of adhe- When force is applied in such a way that it tends
Rigid adhesive bond to peel or prise apart the faces of an adhesive
sive layer thickness
on the strength of 100 joint, the stresses involved very quickly reach
Bond strength (%)
rigid and elastic critical levels. In such cases the applied load is
adhesive bonds 80 no longer distributed over the whole of the bond
60 face, but is concentrated along a narrow line at
the edge of the joint (Fig. 7). The ultimate
40 breaking stress of the materials is rapidly ex-
20 ceeded, resulting in tearing or total failure of the
adhesive bond.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Adhesive thickness (mm)
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Adhesive thickness (mm)
18 Elastic bonding compared with other fastening techniques Strength and safety 19
Load (N)
Substrate: Aluminium sheet,
adhesive layer has started to tear – prevents sud- 2500 thickness 1.5 mm
den and catastrophic failure of the joint. This
forgiving behaviour means that damaged adhe- 2000
sive joints can be identified and repaired before 1500
total failure occurs. Nevertheless, exposure to 1000
peeling stresses must be considered at the design One-part polyurethane
stage and avoided by appropriate measures. 500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strength and safety Displacement of bonded substrates (mm)
The ability of elastic adhesives to undergo de-
formation and then recover makes them very virtually linear, the bond face between the joined Fig. 8:
forgiving when subjected to sudden stresses or components must be sufficiently large to achieve Comparative tensile
the required strength. lap-shear test
brief periods of overload. In moving vehicles,
such stresses may result from vibrations or from Since the strength of an elastic bond can be
sudden impact with an obstacle. Whether or not reliably predicted with the aid of the finite-
an adhesive bond can withstand overloading element method (FEM) by factoring in the tech-
without damage depends on its strength and nical characteristics of the adhesive and the spe-
Fracture energy above all on the fracture energy. This is the cific mechanical properties of the substrates,
energy required to deform the adhesive layer be- the required dimensions of the contact areas can
fore failure occurs. It is proportional to the area be accurately calculated and the components
beneath the curve on a graph plotting the tensile forming the assembly can be developed ac-
lap-shear strain. The thin, rigid bond made with cordingly. When designing joints for elastic ad- Designing for
a high-strength epoxy adhesive exhibits very hesives, the basis for calculation is not the ten- adhesives
little deformation under high breaking loads. sile lap-shear strength of the adhesive, but rather
By comparison, the fracture energy required the modulus of shear and the residual strength
for the elastic polyurethane adhesive bond values subsequent to vibration and ageing tests.
is much greater. The result is a significant gain Based on these values, the components can be
in safety (Fig. 8). specifically designed and dimensioned for elas-
To summarize, elastic adhesive bonding has tic bonding.
proved its effectiveness in over 25 years of use
under all types of service conditions. Correct
joint design is critical: Because the strength of
an adhesive is transferred only over the actual
contact area, and the relation between contact
area and transferred load for elastic adhesives is
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22 Joint design for elastic bonding applications Joint design for elastic bonding applications 23
roof panel, gaps must be left in the lower bead at Fig. 11:
regular intervals in order to drain and ventilate Direct glazing in
Glass window construction
the cavity. Otherwise water collecting in the cav- (sealed unit)
ity as a result of condensation or water infiltra-
tion that goes undetected may lead to corrosion.
Similarly, the sealed joint on the outside, at the
junction between the roof panel and the framing
profile, is located in the sloping portion of the
roof to assist the rapid run-off of water.
Direct glazing The earliest and best-known application of elas- Adhesive
tic bonding technology was direct glazing in
car and bus production – meaning the installa-
tion of window glass by means of adhesives. This
has now been standard practice in the automo- PVC frame
tive industry for more than 25 years. The main without
benefit initially was a reduction in glass break- steel re-
ages caused by excessively tight tolerances. A inforcement
significant increase in torsional stiffness was
later recognized as another plus. These and other
secondary benefits such as automatable installa-
tion, improved weatherproofing, a quieter and
more comfortable ride and greater aesthetic free- In exterior direct glazing applications, the inter-
dom for the vehicle designer, have resulted in face between glass and adhesive must be shield-
the universal adoption of direct glazing tech- ed against UV radiation. The usual method is to
nology throughout the automotive industry. apply an opaque ceramic screen-printed border
Today it is not just the window glass that is to the glass, with a transmittance value of not
bonded with elastic adhesives, but the body more than 0.1%, or a correctly dimensioned
panels and floor pan as well. This has enabled cover strip for light of wavelengths between
vehicle manufacturers to use all kinds of light- 400 and 500 nm. Guidelines for the dimensioning
weight materials without compromising on of adhesive joints in direct glazing applications
safety, functionality or comfort. As a conse- are given in Figure 12.
High standards quence, lightweight construction in the auto- The sheet metal skins of vehicle bodies used Sheet metal
of lightweight motive industry has now attained a very high to be spot-welded onto a structural frame. The vehicle bodies
construction standard. In the meantime, direct glazing welds created a whole series of dimple marks
methods have been successfully adopted in in the metal surface, which then had to be filled
other areas of manufacturing, notably in win- and rubbed down in a separate operation
dow construction (see chapter entitled Elastic to produce a smooth finish. With adhesive
bonding in practice: A typical industrial ap- bonding, the metal surface remains completely
plication). Here, the continuous adhesive bond flat and free from distortion and makes this
between glazed unit and PVC frame serves labour-intensive process unnecessary. Anti-
to stiffen the whole sash assembly while also corrosion paint coatings remain intact, which
reducing its weight and increasing the visible prolongs the life of the assembly. The natural
glass area (Fig. 11). damping properties of the elastic adhesive
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Fig. 12:
Dimensioning Joint width
Calculating the
adhesive joints for
direct glazing
14 Joint width
strength of elastic
adhesive joints
joint width (mm)
12
Minimum
10
8
6
4
Joint In technical data sheets, the strength of an adhe-
2
0
width sive is generally stated in terms of its tensile lap-
0 1 2 3 shear strength, which is determined by per-
Largest window dimension (m) forming tests on a single-lap adhesive joint. The
test piece is subjected to a shearing stress by
Adhesive layer thickness applying a tensile load centrically to the two lap-
∆α = 12 x 10-6 K-1 ped substrates (Fig. 13).
∆α = 0 K-1
of adhesive layer (mm)
10 Fig. 13:
Minimum thickness
12 – 20 mm
joint used in tensile
6
lap-shear test
4
2
Adhesive
0 layer
0 1 2 3 thickness
Largest window dimension (m)
Adhesive
layer
tual component or assembly. And in many cases sive bond subjected to constant static loading ft: Constant
it is necessary to test the adhesive joint by ap- (Fig. 15). The strength of the adhesive decreases static loading
plying compressive or tensile loads before the with increased exposure. In constant-load tests
final design calculations can be performed. of this kind, particularly at higher temperatures,
Since the effect of stress peaks at the ends of the creep strain is observed in the adhesive layer.
overlaps can be discounted in bonds formed
with elastic adhesives, it is not normally neces- Fig. 15:
sary to calculate the optimum ratio of substrate Reduction factor: The
1 effect of constant
Reduction factor ƒt
static loading
0.8 2
Reduction factors 0.6 1.5
One-part polyurethane adhesives belong to the 0.4 1
group of substances known as elastomers, and as
such their mechanical material properties are 0.2 0.5
highly dependent on service temperature and the 0.06
0 0
duration of any exposure to stress. The changes 0.01 0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105
in the strength and stiffness of the elastomer Exposure to static loading (hrs.)
when the temperature and/or the period of expos-
ure to stress are increased can be roughly quan-
tified by applying the reduction factors plotted For this reason, a safety factor of at least 2
on the graphs below. should always be included in the design calcula-
fT: Temperature The reduction factor for the effects of tempera- tions.
ture exposure on a structural adhesive was deter- The fatigue behaviour of adhesive bonds is fZ: Dynamic
mined with the aid of a tensile lap-shear test tested by subjecting a test piece to dynamic load stress
(Fig. 14). The strength of the adhesive decreases cycling. When the test values are plotted on a
with a rise in temperature. Wöhler chart, the appropriate reduction factor
The results of creep rupture tests on single-lap for prolonged exposure to dynamic stress can be
joints yielded the reduction factor for an adhe- read off (Fig. 16). As the number of cycles is
1 2.5 1 2.5
Reduction factor ƒZ
Reduction factor ƒT
0.8 2 0.8 2
0.4 1 0.4 1
Sample calculations FZ
FG
Constant static shear stress
To estimate the required area of the bond face in
joints subject to a constant static shear stress, the
minimum safety factor of 2 combined with a
reduction factor of 0.06 for exposure to constant
static stress gives a design figure of 3% of the The windshield’s own mass of 80 kg imposes a
tensile lap-shear strength of the adhesive: constant shear stress on the adhesive bond. To
determine the gravitational force involved, the
FShear FShear
ΑK = S K ⇒ ΑK = 2 (2) mass of the windshield is multiplied by the
τB · f t τB · 0.06 gravitational acceleration:
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32 Calculating the strength of elastic adhesive joints The finite-element method in adhesive joint design 33
Fig. 18: ness of adhesive (Fig. 18). A GRP roof panel The finite-element method in
Stresses in an adhe- 8 m in length is to be adhesive-bonded to a struc-
sive bond resulting adhesive joint design
tural steel framework. The maximum tempera-
from differential
thermal expansion
ture difference is assumed to be 70 kelvin (K), The finite-element method (FEM) is a powerful
based on a projected rise in temperature from mathematical tool for the numerical solution of a
20ºC to 90ºC in summer. whole range of strength problems associated
with elastic and plastic materials. It is based on
∆l = l0 · ∆α · ∆T (9) the calculation of linear equation systems with
the aid of a computer. The system that is to be
∆l = 8 m · 8 · 10 K · 70 K
-6 -1
calculated, known as a structure, is subdivided
∆l = 4.5 mm into a network or grid of smaller elements that
are linked together via nodes. By dividing up the Solving problems
where structure into a finite number of elements, an by mathematical
∆l Difference in linear expansion approximate solution to the problem can be ar- approximation
l0 Length of object rived at. The larger the number of elements – or
∆α = αGRP – αSteel The difference in the coeffi- the finer the network – the greater the accuracy
cients of linear expansion (reference values: of the solution. In FEM simulations, joints made
αGRP = 20 · 10-6 K-1, αSteel = 12 · 10-6 K-1) with elastic adhesives are typically modelled
∆T Temperature difference using shell, spring and volume elements. The
last two options are explained in more detail
Table 2: In the case of a roof assembly that is free to below.
Maximum permis- move at both ends, the change in length at ei-
sible movement of ther end is half of the total differential move- Modelling with spring elements
adhesive layer ment, i.e. 2.25 mm. As a general rule, the
In a whole vehicle simulation, it is helpful to use
Thermal movement Accident Loading Normal service
spring elements for modelling because the ad-
(discounting restraining (e.g. de- and un- operation (dy- hesive joint can then be represented by means of
force of adhesive) railment loading namic stresses) relatively large elements. The basic rule of
Tension/Compression thumb is: The higher the number of elements,
(relative to width of 20% 20% 20% 10%
adhesive/sealant layer)
the better – i.e. finer – is the resolution of the ad-
Shear
hesive joint. In modelling with spring elements,
(relative to thickness of 50% 50% 50% 25% only the three stiffnesses for translational move- Three stiffnesses
adhesive/sealant layer) ment are factored into the equation: Two springs
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 34
34 Calculating the strength of elastic adhesive joints The finite-element method in adhesive joint design 35
for the stiffness in shear and one spring for ten- an adhesive layer 15 mm in width and 4 mm in
sion/compression. These three spring elements thickness, the spring constant for shear can be
are decoupled from each other. A rotational calculated as follows:
stiffness is represented by several adjoining
spring elements. Surface to be bonded
kShear = Stiffnes in shear · =
For purposes of modelling the adhesive layer by Thickness of adhesive layer
means of spring elements, the mechanical char-
acteristics of the adhesive joint are stated as the 200 · 15 N N
generalized elasticity factor or stiffness. This is = 0.5 · = 375 (11)
4 mm mm
expressed in the same physical units as the
modulus of elasticity. The spring constant for an
adhesive-bonded joint can then be calculated by The spring constant for compressive/tensile
multiplying the stiffness value – a dimensionless stresses is determined in exactly the same way.
quantity – by the known dimensions of the joint
Adhesive joint as (Table 3). This allows the adhesive joint to be Modelling with volume elements
spring element represented as a spring element in the overall Volume elements are well suited for modelling
structure being calculated. the adhesive layer since they allow tensile and
compressive stresses to be represented with
k=c·
AK N
d mm ( ) (10) great accuracy. The optimum compromise be-
tween modelling complexity, computing time
Abb. 19a:
and accuracy results from using at least one
where quadratic volume element (Fig. 19a) or two Quadratic volume
element
k Spring constant for adhesive joint linear volume elements (Fig. 19b) over the
c Stiffness whole of the adhesive layer thickness. It is
AK Area of bond face important to model the adhesive layer at the
d Thickness of adhesive layer finest possible resolution, so that its deform-
Table 3: ation behaviour can be accurately represented.
This spring element is also used to check the The more elements are used, the better our
Mechanical data for
a typical structural adhesive joint geometry, bearing in mind that the understanding of the distribution of stresses with-
adhesive, which can maximum permissible deformations must not be in the adhesive layer. If there are no restrictions
be used for computer exceeded. If, for example, we assume a stiffness on modelling complexity or computing time, it Abb. 19b:
modelling purpose. in shear of 0.5 N/mm2 over a 200-mm section of is generally advantageous to increase the num- Linear volume
ber of elements. element
Temperature Stiffness Strength
Stress Shear Compression/ Shear
Tension
Constant static, 23°C 0.5 MPa – 0.16 MPa
exposure period 3 years 70°C 0.1 MPa – 0.11 MPa
Quasi-static, 60 mm/min. 23°C 0.7 MPa 4 MPa 2.5 MPa
Dynamic, 10 Hz with 23°C 1.5 MPa 7 MPa –
1% displacement amplitude 90°C 0.8 MPa 4 MPa –
– 40°C 13 MPa 56 MPa –
Dynamic, 50 Hz with 17% 30 – 40°C 1.2 MPa – 0.2 MPa
amplitude, up to 108 cycles
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 36
Selecting and working are widely preferred on the grounds that they are
easier to use and give more consistently reliable
with adhesives results (less room for operator error). With two-
part systems, it is necessary to check and monitor
the accuracy of the mixing and dosing processes
and the quality of the adhesive bond, and the ad-
This chapter looks at the question of selecting ditional cost and effort involved can only be
the right adhesive for the job. The key to a suc- justified in applications where the joint has to
cessful adhesive bond – apart from choosing an attain a high initial strength very quickly.
adhesive with the required performance charac- The vast majority of one-part elastic adhesives
teristics – lies in correct application techniques. are moisture-curing polyurethanes, which com-
The adhesive develops its full strength only bine high flexibility and elongation at break with
during the assembly process, so that at least as good strength characteristics. Also available are
much careful attention needs to be paid to cor- sealants of lower adhesive strength. These are
rect application procedures as to the mechanical based for the most part on moisture-curing poly-
properties of the product itself. urethanes, silicones or silane-terminated poly-
Mechanical per- The mechanical performance data for all elastic mers (hybrids/MS), and do not attain the same
formance data adhesives are broadly comparable. Once the high mechanical strengths or exhibit the same
right joint configuration has been established, it durability as polyurethane adhesives. Because of
is then a matter of selecting an adhesive that is their excellent adhesion and the wide variety of
(1) suitable for the materials to be joined and (2) different mechanical properties and working
simple and economical to apply. To achieve this characteristics, polyurethanes are unquestion-
it may be necessary to set up a new production ably the most important class of adhesives for
line that is specially geared to the adhesive bond- elastic bonding applications. The discussion that
ing process. Alternatively, that process can be follows therefore confines itself exclusively to
integrated into an existing manufacturing opera- these products.
tion. The crucial point is to design the produc- Polyurethanes are based on isocyanate-termin- Polyurethanes
tion process in such a way that the final strength ated prepolymers that react with atmospheric
properties of the adhesive and the adhesive bond moisture. The isocyanate groups combine with
are exactly and consistently reproduced in every water to form a polymer (polyurethane) by the
part assembly processed. The application char- elimination of carbon dioxide. Through the use
acteristics of the adhesive, together with the of so-called latent hardeners, which are added to
whole surface preparation sequence (cleaning, one-part adhesives, this elimination of gas can
degreasing, priming), therefore have a very im- be avoided. In this case, water or heat separates
portant role to play. the latent hardener and liberates a component
that then reacts with the isocyanate prepolymer
The range of choice in to form a polymer without the elimination of
elastic adhesives gas.
The start of the reaction is signalled to the user
One- and two- Reactive adhesives for elastic bonding are avail- by the formation of a skin on the adhesive,
part systems able as two-part systems, based on polyur- which marks the point from which proper wet-
ethane, polysulphide or silicone compounds, or ting of the substrate can no longer take place,
one-part systems (see below, p. 64 f.). The latter and satisfactory adhesion can no longer be
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 38
38 Selecting and working with adhesives The range of choice in elastic adhesives 39
Fig. 20:
The effect of a cure Standard product With Booster 1.4
accelerator (Booster)
on adhesive cure 1.2
With Booster
0.6
0
achieved. The cure process becomes progres- 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
sively slower as the depth of the adhesive layer Elapsed time (hrs.)
increases; adhesive joints made with this type of
product should not exceed 20 mm in width in or-
der to ensure that full cure is attained within 14 High early strength and sag resistance can be Fig. 21:
achieved by the use of precuring systems or Comparative rates of
days. strength development
All these adhesives have been specifically de- adhesives that contain crystalline substances
with and without
signed for elastic bonding, and as such they (warm-melt systems). These adhesives possess Booster
Shear modulus have a shear modulus which is generally in the excellent working characteristics when heated
1 – 10 MPa range 1 – 3 MPa. Special formulations for modu- up, and for the most part exhibit high early
lar construction systems achieve shear modulus
values of up to 10 MPa while still exhibiting an
elongation at break in excess of 200%. The Chemical reaction
many different types of cold-applied standard
adhesives are distinguished by application-spe-
cific characteristics such as sag resistance or
case of tooling and finishing.
Physical
reaction
Faster rate Strength development can be speeded up by the Service
of cure use of a cure accelerator or Booster. The add- strength
ition of a cure accelerator to the adhesive has
Strength
Two-part
very little effect on the open or working time system
Standard one-
(i.e. the interval between application of adhesive part system
and joint assembly), but results in significantly Handling Warm-melt/
faster setting after just two hours (Figs. 20 and strength Precuring
21). Since the cure mechanism again depends on system
High early strength and sag resistance very quickly after of reaction can be adjusted here within broad Adjustable speed
strength and cooling down (Fig. 22). This means, for ex- limits and adapted to the specific application of reaction
sag resistance ample, that an adhesive-bonded car windshield requirements. Table 4 gives a comparative over-
will not slip down after installation. Which in view of the different systems and their prop-
turn means that the vehicle can be despatched erties.
from the factory more quickly. With warm-
melt adhesives, a handling strength of approx.
0.4 MPa is attainable five minutes after the bond Surface preparation
is completed; tack-free and full cure times re-
main largely unaffected. In other words, the use The most important factor in adhesive bonding
of adhesives does not slow down the manufac- is the condition of the substrate – the surfaces of
turing process. the materials to be joined. Since adhesion takes
Short cure times can also be achieved by using place only at the interface between the work-
Table 4: piece and the adhesive, it is evident that surface
Comparative per- two-part adhesives. These are based on isocyan-
formance data for ates or prepolymers, and react with a second preparation has a crucial bearing on the quality
elastic adhesives hydroxyl- or amine-based component. The speed of the adhesive bond.
The options for surface preparation and treat- Treatment
Adhesive Standard Booster Warm-melt/ Hot-cure Two-part ment are many and varied. They include simple methods
properties one-part adhesives Precuring adhesives adhesives cleaning of the surface, mechanical abrasion,
products systems the chemical alteration of the surface by pick-
Open or working 5 – 45 15 – 30 5 – 15 Up to 60 0.1 to 60 ling or phosphatizing, thermal processes such as
time (mins.) flame treatment, as well as specialized physical-
chemical techniques such as corona or low-
Tack-free time (mins.) 10 – 60 n.a. 10 – 30 n.a. n.a.
pressure plasma treatments. In addition there
Resistance to +/++ + 0/+ + 0/+ are various kinds of paint systems and coatings, Table 5:
sagging/slip-down including primers and lacquers, which can often Typical surface treat-
Depth of cure after 2 – 5 mm Fully cured 2 – 5 mm n.a. n.a. be used to provide a satisfactory substrate for ments for common
24 hours1) adhesives. Glass surfaces need to be treated substrates
Handling strength 0 – 0.2 >1 > 0.4 n.a. n.a.
after 4 hours (MPa) Material Abrading/ Degreasing/ Priming Remarks
Cleaning Activating
Application Cold 20/80°C 60 – 80°C Cold Cold Aluminium, anodized x x
temperature Aluminium, bare x x x
Tensile lap-shear 1 – 10 1–3 3–5 2–5 2 – > 20 Steel x x x
strength when Stainless steel x x x
cured (MPa) Glass x x UV protection
Glass with ceramic x
Specific product Easy to Rapid rate of High early Rapid rate Working screen print
features apply, min- cure at room strength and of cure and final Wood x Remove dust
imal invest- temperature good working above characteristics
ABS x x x
ment in character- 100°C adjustable
GRP x x x
application istics, cures within broad
systems at room limits PVC x x x
temperature Polycarbonate Seek advice from Technical Service Department
n.a. = not applicable 0 = slight + moderate ++ high Paint systems (depending x
1)23°C/50% rel. humidity on chemical composition)
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 42
Adhesive application
Application equipment and systems
Triangular bead Adhesives of stiff, paste-like consistency are
normally applied in the form of a triangular The choice of adhesive determines the type of
bead, which is then compressed to its final application equipment required. For most indus-
design height (generally half of its original trial applications pump-operated applicator sys-
height) when the two substrates are brought to- tems are used, designed to pump the adhesive
gether under pressure. The correct bead con- direct from bulk drums at relatively high work-
figuration is obtained by extruding the adhesive ing pressures. Systems for use with hot-applied
through a nozzle with a triangular cutout in the adhesives need to be equipped with heated
side, which is held perpendicular to the surface. follower plates, hoses and guns. For automated
It is important to ensure, either at the design application, additional dispensing units are
stage or by taking appropriate measures at the necessary to meter the exact quantity of ad-
time of application, that the desired thickness of hesive required for each application.
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 44
46 Elastic bonding in practice: A typical industrial application Elastic bonding in practice: A typical industrial application 47
Abb. 26:
Sealed unit and sash Disassembly and
profile – joint detail
Adhesive
repairs
Repairs to elastic-bonded assemblies are easily
carried out with the aid of modern tools de-
signed to facilitate disassembly. A variety of such
tools are now available on the market. Wind-
shields are removed either with a special cutting Tools for
wire or with trimming knives powered by com- removing
pressed air or electricity (Fig. 27). Depending on
the type of vehicle, these knives are used with
special offset blades designed to cut cleanly
through the old adhesive without damaging the
window surround.
Abb. 27:
Removing an
adhesive-bonded
windshield
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 50
As Table 7 shows, the task of assuring the Area of Checks and controls Department/
quality of the bonded assembly begins at the responsibility Person responsible
project stage and does not end until production Ensuring con- Specification (name, brand, grade, supplier, Design and
sistent quality chemical composition, etc.) Engineering
ceases. A typical quality management pro- of substrate Contractual agreements specifying quality and Purchasing
gramme for adhesive applications is set out in condition of substrate (duty to inform in event of
Table 8. This model has been adopted with very changes)
satisfactory results in many areas of the manu- Checks on incoming deliveries (name, brand, grade, QA
product characteristics)
facturing industry.
Correct storage (temperature, humidity, prevention of QA/Logistics
soiling, first-in first-out stock rotation)
Project study Construction of End of test phase Series production Preparation of Specification (mechanical surface preparation, Design and
prototype substrate chemical products, type of application, Engineering/
processing schedule) Adhesives technician/
Design and con- Checking and specifying Evaluation of Implementation of
Adhesive supplier
struction adapted correct method of sub- test phase, quality assurance
to adhesive technol- strate preparation in making any design system Checks on incoming deliveries (name, brand, grade, QA
ogy and assembly consultation with adhe- changes that may visual inspection of packs, product characteristics)
methods sive and paint suppliers be indicated Correct storage (temperature, humidity, prevention QA/Logistics
of soiling, use of stock by expiry date)
Dimensioning and Construction of Preparation of a Periodic refresher
configuration of prototype based on production and quality courses and further Subjective checks for visible defects in primers, etc. QA/Foreman
adhesive joints design criteria for assurance manual training for personnel (cloudiness, sedimenting, thickening, etc.), plus
based on existing adhesive bonding. for adhesive bonding (corporate training checks on expiry date
codes of practice Adhesive supplier applications (taking programme) Periodic checks on correct application procedures QA/Adhesives
and design data (applications engineer) account of the key (method of application, observance of recommended technician
to advise where application param- drying times, correct handling of primed components
necessary eters temperature prior to assembly, etc.)
and relative humidity)
Application of Checks on incoming deliveries (name, brand, grade QA
Appointment of an Specifying Training of Introduction of activ- adhesive product characteristics, visual inspection of packs,
in-house adhesives type and scope assembly personnel ities aimed at raising periodic adhesion tests)
specialist to liaise of repair works in use of quality standards Correct storage (temperature, humidity, conditioning QA/Logistics
between depart- adhesives (e.g. quality aware- of stock to room temperature, use of stock by
ments on all aspects ness groups) expiry date)
of adhesive usage
Subjective checks for visible defects in adhesives QA/Foreman
(changes in consistency, flow behaviour, etc.), plus
checks on expiry date
Table 8: In commercial enterprises that use adhesives in
Quality-related Periodic checks on correct application procedures QA/Adhesives
series production, a sound working knowledge (method of application, observance of specified technician
activities over the life of adhesive technology is generally confined to open times, correct joint assembly sequence, waiting
of a project times prior to further processing, etc.)
a few individuals in technical departments. The
policy of training one technician as an in-house
adhesives specialist has proved to be an efficient Most people, no matter how well-versed they Table 9:
In-house solution to this problem. This person is also able are in technical matters, are instinctively scep- Checklist for
adhesives to coordinate all aspects of adhesive usage for tical about the concept of adhesive bonding. monitoring adhesive
the project as a whole and act as a neutral applications
specialist Those who work in the traditional mechanical
adviser to the individual departments concerned. fastening trades are especially difficult to con-
Table 9 is intended as a guide to the preparation vince: Having worked hard to acquire an ex-
of a quality assurance concept. The scope and acting skill, they are naturally reluctant to accept
frequency of the test regime will need to be ad- that it can be replaced by such a seemingly basic
justed to the scale of the project and the avail- and simple joining method. Once it has been in-
able technical and manpower resources. troduced, however, adhesive bonding is quickly
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 54
54 Quality assurance 55
60 Long-term serviceability 61
purposes of these publications – and certainly in the construction sector. Table 12 lists the
they are perfectly manageable. various constituents of these products that may
represent a health risk, together with the critical
exposure periods.
Some practical pointers to Primers contain large amounts of solvents, vary- Protection
the safe use of reactive one-part ing between 50% and 99%, depending on type against emissions
elastomeric adhesives and cure mechanism. An effective extractor sys-
tem must be installed in the workplace to draw
Elastic one-part adhesives can broadly be classi- off the emissions (fumes, etc.) associated with
fied in terms of the following chemical com- the use of these products.
pounds: Elastomeric adhesives, unlike hard-setting adhe-
• Polyurethanes sives, can be applied over primer or paint systems
• Silicones that are necessary to protect components against
corrosion. Minor adjustments to the assembly pro-
• Modified silicones. cess often make it possible to restrict the amounts
Table 12: of chemical substances released during applica-
Constituents of Polyurethanes are widely used as industrial ad-
elastic adhesives that hesives because of their excellent plasto-elastic tion to negligible levels. Table 13 lists various
pose a potential properties, while silicones and modified sili- methods of surface preparation and treatment de-
health risk cones are primarily used as sealants and adhesives signed to reduce such emissions to a minimum.
Table 13:
Provided the products are used as directed and Methods of min-
Product Potentially Effects on human health all the necessary precautions are taken, any risk imizing emissions
basis harmful
constituents Adhesive users End users of bonded
to the health of production staff and end users when working with
assembly can effectively be discounted. adhesives
Polyurethanes Isocyanate Provided they are used No known adverse effects,
monomers, correctly, elastic one-part provided the assembly Method Substrates Remarks
solvents, polyurethane products is used in accordance
plasticizers give off no measurable with the adhesive Use of precoated Sheet metal Depending on the type of application, coil
emissions of monomers manufacturer’s recom- substrates (coated coil) stock can be supplied with a coating to one
at room temperature mendations. Many products or both sides. The stock can then be painted
(in some cases minute are also approved for use on one or both sides with a primer or finish
quantities of solvents may in contact with foodstuffs. lacquer to aid adhesion.
be emitted over a period of
Metals Many ferrous metals are coated with a
several days).
(precoated individual weldable anti-corrosion primer before they are
Silicones Cross-linking During the hardening pro- No adverse effects in components) used for industrial construction purposes.
agents, cess, some reaction by- normal use. Some products Since adhesives bond well to these primers,
plasticizers, products such as acetic are also approved for use the need for further surface preparation is
solvents acid, amines, oximes, etc. in contact with foodstuffs. largely eliminated.
may be released, depending
on the cure mechanism. Physical methods of surface treatment
Silan-ter- Cross-linking Small amounts of methyl No adverse effects in Flame treatment Polyolefins such as Simple, fast process, but not suitable for
minated agents, alcohol are released during normal use, no known polypropylene, etc., manual application
systems plasticizers, the hardening process. approvals for use in together with many
solvents contact with other plastics
foodstuffs Corona treatment See above Somewhat more time-consuming than the
Primers, etc. Isocyanate Until the product has fully No adverse effects above process. The ozone produced during
monomers, hardened, significant in normal use the electrical discharge must be extracted from
cross-linking amounts of solvents and the workplace.
agents, small amounts of reaction
solvents, by-products or isocyanate Fluorination See above Relatively costly treatment method, and there-
plasticizers monomers are emitted. fore uneconomic except for small components
++SIKA_e 27.06.2006 13:06 Uhr Seite 66
66 67
68 Glossary 69
70 Glossary
Sealant Substance that separates a joint from any medium to which it The company behind this book
is exposed
Shear modulus Defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the shear Sika Services AG
strain in a body that undergoes simple angular deformation Tüffenwies 16
Shelf life The period of time that may elapse between the manufac- CH-8048 Zurich
ture of an adhesive and its use, subject to storage of the product under Phone: +41 44 436 40 40
controlled conditions Fax: +41 44 436 40 30
Solvent An organic liquid that dissolves the base materials and other Internet: www.sika.com
soluble adhesive constituents without effecting any chemical change
Substrates Solid layers that are to be joined together or are already
joined together Sika was established in 1910 and today employs more than
Tack-free or skinning time The time between the application of the 10,000 people in 70 countries and 90 group subsidiaries around
adhesive and the formation of a skin on its surface, after which point
bonding can no longer take place the world. Within its four core areas of technological expertise –
Tensile lap-shear strength The breaking strength of the adhesive sealing, bonding, damping and reinforcing – Sika concentrates
bond joining two parallel surfaces in a single lap joint when the joint is specifically on the following sectors:
subjected to a shearing stress by applying a tensile load centrically to
the two lapped substrates • Automotive
Tensile strength The breaking stress of a material under tension • Automotive Aftermarket
Thermosetting resins Closely cross-linked macromolecules that do • Transportation
not undergo plastic deformation even at high temperatures • Appliances and Components.
Thick-layer adhesive bonding An elastic bonding application where
the thickness of the adhesive layer exceeds 3 mm Sika’s international network of production and marketing com-
Transmittance The ratio of the intensity of a beam of light passing
panies has now extended its operations all around the world.
through a body to its original intensity
Viscosity The resistance to flow exhibited by fluids or paste-like sub- This global market presence enables the group to adapt its
stances as a result of internal friction highly specialized know-how quickly and efficiently to the
Wetting The ability of liquids to disperse themselves uniformly over changing needs of local markets.
solid materials
Wöhler chart The representation of the magnitude of a mechanical The company’s central R & D facility in Switzerland is sup-
stress to cause failure as a function of the number of load cycles ported by regional technology centres in Germany, Denmark,
Yield point The force that must be applied to a non-sagging medium France, the USA and Japan.
in order to cause it to flow
Sika brand names such as Sikaflex®, SikaTack®, SikaLastomer®,
SikaForce®, SikaMelt®, SikaBaffle®, SikaPower®, SikaDamp®
and SikaFast® are now firmly established in the international
marketplace, where they are the expression and embodiment of
a unified, marketing-oriented corporate philosophy.