Presiometros

Pressuremeters in Geotechnical Design
Pressuremeters in
Geotechnical Design
B.G. CLARKE
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne
Taylor &Francis
LONDON AND NEW YORK
Published by Taylor & Francis
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270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016
First edition 1995
Transferred to Digital Printing 2007
@ 1995 Taylor & Francis
Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by AFS Image Setters Ltd, Glasgow
ISBN 0 7514 0041 6
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In the 1950s, independent developments of pressuremeters took place in
France and Japan which led to the successful use of these probes in ground
investigation for foundation design. Design rules were developed from obser-
vations of full scale structures which are continually being updated and
expanded as greater use is made of pressuremeters. In the 1970s, self-boring
pressuremeters were developed in France and the UK to determine ground
properties directly, especially in-situ stress, stiffness and strength. This led to
significant developments in the analysis and interpretation of pressuremeter
tests. The third major technological advance took place in the 1980s with the
development of the cone pressuremeter.
The principal attraction of the pressuremeter test is that it most closely
models an ideal condition in which the ground is positively loaded from the
in-situ stress conditions. By observing the deformation with applied pressure,
the in-situ stress-strain response of the ground can be obtained. The par-
ameters obtained from a pressuremeter test, which include in-situ stress,
stiffness and strength, are a function of the probe, the method of installation
and the method of testing, as well as the chosen method of analysis and
interpretation.
The aim of this book is to explain how pressuremeters can be used in
geotechnical design. A form of pressuremeter can be used in all ground
conditions, from soft clays to hard rocks. The parameters obtained, either
directly, theoretically or empirically, represent realistic estimates of ground
properties. Detailed descriptions are given of the major developments in
pressuremeter technology, highlighting the most common and significant
probes. Site operations, including calibrations, installation, testing and data
reduction, are described, highlighting national standards. Attention is drawn
to the need for careful installation and correct calibrations if the results are to
be of value. A brief summary of the theories of cavity expansion, as they apply
to pressuremeter tests, is given in order to describe the development and the
limitations of the theoretical or empirical methods of interpretation. Design
rules and examples of the use of interpreted values of horizontal stress,
stiffness and strength are described to show that foundation behaviour can be
predicted.
This book could not have been written without the considerable efforts of
all those involved in pressuremeter testing. I would like to make special
mention of a number of people who have had a significant input into my
interest in pressuremeter testing. The late Professor Wroth, who pioneered
vi PREFACE
much of the development in the 1970s and 1980s in the UK, was a source of
inspiration and encouragement. His vision led to the formation of research
teams at both Cambridge and Oxford, and their work on pressuremeters is
continuing throughout the world. M. Gambin and his colleagues of the
International Committee on Pressuremeters gave much debate to the inter-
national role of pressuremeter testing for design. The recent use of the
pressuremeter in the UK could not have taken place without the enthusiasm
of J.C.P. Dalton and his colleagues at Cambridge Insitu and the encourage-
ment of J. Scarrow and his colleagues at Soil Mechanics Ltd. Finally I would
like to thank N. Sugawara, Dr P. Allan and S. Tindale for their help and
encouragement.
B.G. Clarke
Contents
List of symbols
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of a pressuremeter
1.3 The development of the pressuremeter
1.4 The pressuremeter test
1.4.1 The probe
1.4.2 The expansion curve
1.5 Summary
2 Pressuremeter probes and testing equipment

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Key features of pressuremeters
2.2.1 The probe
2.2.2 The control unit
2.3 Prebored pressuremeters
2.3.1 The Menard pressuremeter
2.3.2 The Oyometer
2.3.3 The high-pressure dilatometer
2.3.4 Other prebored pressuremeters
2.4 Self-boring pressuremeters
2.4.1 The pressiomitre alctoforeur
2.4.2 The Cambridge self-boring pressuremeter
2.4.3 The weak rock self-boring pressuremeter
2.4.4 Other self-boring pressuremeters
2.5 Pushed-in pressuremeters
2.5.1 Full displacement or cone pressuremeter
2.5.2 The Stressprobe
2.6 Summary
3 Site operations
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Installation techniques
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Prebored pressuremeters
3.2.3 The self-boring pressuremeter
3.2.4 The pushed-in pressuremeter
3.3 Calibrations
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Pressure gauges
3.3.3 Displacement transducers
3.3.4 Total pressure transducers
3.3.5 Effective pressure and pore pressure transducers
3.3.6 Membrane stiffness
3.3.7 Membrane thinning
3.3.8 Membrane compression
.. . CONTENTS
Vlll
3.3.9 System compression

3.3.10 The initial dimension of the probe and readings of the
transducers
3.3.1 1 Frequency and relevance of calibrations
3.4 On-site system checks
3.5 The test
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 The Menard method
3.5.3 Stress-controlled tests
3.5.4 Strain-controlled tests
3.5.5 Additional test procedures
3.5.6 Testing in ice
3.5.7 Summary of test procedures
3.6 Termination of a test
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 Maximum pressure capacity
3.6.3 Maximum oil capacity
3.6.4 Burst membranes
3.6.5 Maximum displacement
3.7 Reduction of data and initial plots
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 The Menard pressuremeter test and other volume type
pressuremeter tests
3.7.3 Radial displacement type PBP tests
3.7.4 Radial displacement type SBP and PIP pressuremeter tests
3.8 Summary
4 Analysis of expanding cavities

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Distribution of stress and strain
4.3 Elastic ground
4.4 Undrained expansion of cylindrical cavity (quick tests in clay)
4.4.1 General analysis
4.4.2 Linear elastic perfectly plastic soil
4.4.3 Non-linear material
4.5 Drained expansion of a cylindrical cavity (tests in sand)
4.5.1 Volume changes
4.5.3 Very dense sands
4.6 Tests in rock
4.7 Specific analyses
4.7.1 Non-linear stiffness
4.7.2 Undrained analysis assuming entire expansion at the limit
pressure
4.7.3 Coefficient of consolidation
4.8 Summary
5 Factors affecting the interpretation of pressuremeter tests

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Reasons for the use of semi-empirical methods
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Effects of installation
5.2.3 Effects of the in-situ stress
5.2.4 Effects of discontinuities and bands of hard and soft layers
5.2.5 Effects of test procedure
5.2.6 Effects of test cavity shape
5.2.7 Effects of probe type
5.3 Summary
CONTENTS
6 Interpretation of pressuremeter tests

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Data quality and ground type
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Quality of installation
6.2.3 Ground type
6.3 Interpretation of an MPM test: The pressuremeter modulus and
modified limit pressure
6.4 Estimating horizontal stress from a pressuremeter test
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Lift-off method
6.4.3 Methods based on shear strength
6.4.4 Methods based on test procedure
6.4.5 Curve fitting methods
6.4.6 Correlations
6.4.7 The subjectivity of the selection of horizontal stress
6.5 Modulus
6.5.1 Initial modulus
6.5.2 Unload/reload modulus
6.5.3 Non-linear stiffness profile
6.6 Undrained shear strength
6.6.2 Elastic perfectly plastic soil
6.7 Angles of shearing resistance and dilation
6.8 Limit pressure
6.9 Consolidation and creep
6.10 Overconsolidation ratio
6.11 Summary
7 Design rules and applications

7.1 Introduction
7.2 The direct method: the Menard method
7.2.1 Shallow foundations
7.2.2 The Menard method based on results of SBP tests
7.2.3 Axially loaded piles
7.2.4 Horizontally loaded piles
7.2.5 Ground anchors
7.3 Other direct design methods for horizontally loaded piles
7.4 Comparisons between results of pressuremeter and other tests
7.4.1 Total horizontal stress
7.4.2 Modulus
7.4.3 Undrained shear strength
7.4.4 Angle of shearing resistance
7.4.5 Limit pressure
7.5 Applications
7.6 Summary
8 Choice of pressuremeter, specifications and developments

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Current state of pressuremeter testing
8.3 Choosing a pressuremeter
8.4 A typical specification
8.5 Costs
8.6 Future developments
Appendix Specifications and quantities

A.l Introduction
CONTENTS
A.2 General
A.2.1 The equipment
A.2.2 The operator
A.3 Probes
A.3.1 General
A.3.2 Volume displacement type probes
A.3.3 Radial displacement type probes
A.4 Calibrations
A.4.1 Types
A.4.2 Total pressure transducer
A.4.3 Displacement transducer
A.4.4 Pore pressure transducers (if fitted)
A.4.5 System compression
A.4.6 Membrane stiffness
A.4.7 Membrane compression
A.4.8 Frequency
A.5 Installation
A.5.1 Prebored pressuremeters
A.5.2 Self-bored pressuremeter
A.5.3 Pushed-in pressuremeters
A.6 Testing procedure
A.6.1 Strain-controlled tests
A.6.2 Stress-controlled tests
A.6.3 Stress-controlled tests: Menard method
A.7 On-site data processing
A.7.1 Volume displacement type probes
A.7.2 Radial displacement type probes
A.8 Interpretation
A.9 Information to be submitted
A.9.1 Prior to commencing work on site
A.9.2 Preliminary results for each test
A.9.3 Report data processing and analysis
A.9.4 Information to be submitted in the report
A.10 Bill of quantities
References and bibliography
Index
List of symbols
Experimental constants
Radius of the membrane
Constants
Angle for inclined loads and slopes
Cavity radius at end of reloading
Radius of probe during expansion
Cavity radius at yield pressure
Radius of cavity at p,,
Maximum displacement reached at the end of loading or
displacement of cavity wall at start of consolidation
Radius of the probe or cavity
Initial radius of pocket
Radius at the start of reloading
Cavity radius at the start of unloading
Width of foundation
Radius to solid rock
Corrected width to allow for load eccentricity
Equivalent dimension of foundation
Reference width or diameter
Constant
Cohesion
Coefficient of consolidation
Depth of foundation
Drainage path
Diameter of ground anchor
Equivalent embedment depth
Relative density
Modulus of elasticity
Eccentricity of load
Deviatoric stiffness
Pile stiffness
Menard modulus
Modulus of elasticity from a reloading curve
Modulus of elasticity from an unloading curve
Stiffness of soft soil layer and stiffness of layer above
Pile modulus
xii LIST OF SYMBOLS
Maximum modulus of elasticity from the reloading curve

Maximum modulus of elasticity from the unloading curve
Isotropic stiffness
Factor of safety
Shear load
Degree of fixity
Cavity expansion factors
Base shear load
Shear modulus
Initial shear modulus
Small strain shear modulus obtained from a seismic test or
maximum modulus
Secant shear modulus from a reloading curve
Incremental secant modulus
Secant shear modulus from an unloading curve
Shear modulus from an unload/reload cycle
Modulus at the in-situ stress
Horizontal load
Length of element of pile
Relative depth of foundation
Reduction factor for inclined load or adjacent excavations
Rigidity factor
Internal radius of membrane during expansion
Internal radius of membrane
Constant
Bearing capacity factor
Coefficient of permeability
1lKpcv
Design value of modulus of subgrade reaction
Equivalent modulus of subgrade reaction
Constant volume principal stress ratio
Modulus coefficient
Modulus of subgrade reaction
Length of ground anchor
Length of membrane during expansion
Initial length of membrane
Critical state parameter
Moment
Coefficient of compressibility
Constant
Constant
Total and effective applied pressure
Applied effective cavity pressure at the start of unloading
Applied pressure at points A and B
.. .
LIST OF SYMBOLS Xlll
Total and effective applied pressure at onset of constant volume

conditions
Resistance to horizontal deflection of a pile
Applied pressure at end of constant creep
Total and effective limit pressure
Modified (Menard) limit pressure
Equivalent limit pressure
Pressure at 10% cavity strain from P I P test
Maximum pressure reached at the end of loading
Internal pressure
Initial cavity pressure
Applied pressure at the start of reloading
Applied pressure at the start of unloading
Total and effective applied pressure at yield
Intersection of hyperbolic model with vertical pressure axis
Normal load
Constant
Total bearing pressure
Cone resistance
Net bearing pressure
End bearing capacity of axially loaded pile
Unit skin friction
Ultimate bearing capacity
Radius of an element
Ratio of the actual strength to the asymptotic value given by the
Duncan and Chang model
Radius of the plastic zone at the start of unloading
Relative rigidity
S, R Coefficients from reaction curves to calculate pile settlement
S Settlement
S Slope of In (p') versus In (E,,,,)
Sb Base settIement of axially loaded pile
Si Settlement of pile element
Su Undrained shear strength
Su c Undrained shear strength corrected for end effects
Sum Undrained shear strength uncorrected for end effects
T Tension load on ground anchor
T Time factor
t Time
T5 0 Time factor to reach 50% dissipation
t50 Actual time to reach 50% dissipation
ti Reduced thickness of membrane on expansion
to Initial membrane thickness
uo Ambient pore pressure
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Current volume ( = I/o + AI/)

Volume at points A and B
Volume of cavity at p , ,
Volume of membrane
Initial volume of the cavity equivalent to radius a,
Initial volume of pocket
Volume of slotted tube
Horizontal displacement
Displacement
Thickness of soil layer
Settlement factor
Constant
Constants dependent on stiffness, in-situ stress and disturbance
Shape factors for horizontally loaded pile
Volume change parameters dependent on the mean normal
stress and relative density
Ratio of undrained strength on unloading to that on loading
Soil identification coefficient
Angle for slopes
Pressuremeter constant
Shear strain
Average shear strain
Shear strain at peak shear stress
Unit weight of water
Inclination of load
Thickness of soil element
Change in thickness of element
Change in radius of probe
Excess pore pressure
Change in volume of the test section
Volumetric strain at onset of constant volume conditions
Volumetric strain within the sand once yield occurs
Difference between the maximum and minimum cavity strain
during a cycle
Measured cavity strain
Cavity strain
Current cavity strains on unloading and reloading
Cavity strain corrected for reference datum
Current cavity strain
Cavity strain at onset of constant volume conditions
Cavity strain during unloading
Maximum cavity strain
Cavity strain at reference datum
Radial strain
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Triaxial shear strain

Strain at the onset of yield
Maximum cavity strain during unloading
Volumetric strain
Volumetric strain at onset of constant volume conditions
Circumferential strain
Axial strain
Correction factors
Shape coefficients
Poisson's ratio
Displacement of membrane
Average mean effective stress
Total in-situ horizontal stress
Total horizontal stress at base of pile
Minimum value of circumferential stress
Radial stress
Effective radial stress
Tensile strength
Onset of yield defined as ah(1 +sin@) for a yield criterion
conforming to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion
Total vertical stress
Effective vertical stress
Circumferential stress
Effective circumferential stress
Shear stress
Shear stress during unloading
Ultimate undrained shear strength during unloading
Maximum shear stress
Ultimate undrained shear strength during loading
Angle of shearing resistance
Angle of shearing resistance at constant volume
Adjustment for limit pressure
Angle of dilation
Bearing capacity coefficient
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
A ground investigation is undertaken to determine ,vertical and horizontal

variations in ground type and ground properties which include the in-situ
stress conditions, deformation and strength parameters and parameters de-
fining time-dependent behaviour. A design engineer can then make a pre-
diction of the behaviour of the ground when it is subject to any change such as
that caused by unloading or loading.
There are many techniques used to assess ground conditions and changes
in ground conditions ranging from the simple standard penetration test (SPT)
to the most sophisticated computer-controlled true triaxial test. Tests can be
divided into laboratory tests and in-situ tests which can be further subdivided
as shown in Figure 1.1. Laboratory tests include those that test elements of
w tests
borehole
9
1
Field
fu" yle I 1 non deyuctiveI

I
Laboratory
!
! j
plle tests suriace
~nstrumented geophys~cs
embankments
Constant head
PIP plate
Figure 1.1 Types of ln-sltu and laboratory tests

Table 1.1 The applicability and uscfulncss of in-situ tests (arter Robertson, 1986 and Wroth, 1984)
Group Dcvicc Paramctcrs Ground type
Soil Profile u (/,' a,, D, tn, (,, k G rr,, OCR cri: Hard Soft Gravel Sand Silt Clay Peat
rock rock
Penetrometers Dynam~c CA C C B - - C C C B A B B B
Mcchan~cal BA C C B C B C C - C - A A A A
Statlc (CPT) BA C C B C B C C - C - A A A A
P~erocone(CPTIJ) AA A B B A B A B B C AB - C - AAAA
S e ~ s m ~(SCPTLJ)
c A A A B B A B A B A B A B - C A A A A
Flat d~latometer(DMT) B ACBBCB - B B - B B C A A A A
Acoust~cprobe CB C C B C - C C C - A A A A
- - -
SPT BB C C B - C B A A A A
Remtlv~typrobe B H B C A C C - - - C A A A A
Pressuremeters PBP B B C B C B C B C C CAA B B B A B
SBP BB A A A A A A B A A AA - A - BAAA
PIP AB B C B C C A B A C C' C - - - B A A B
Cone PIP C B B C B C C A B A C C C' - - - A A A A
Other\ Vane BC A - - - - - - - - B A B
Screw plate C C C B B H C C A C BB - - A A A A
Plate C C B B B C C A C B B B ABBAAA
Borehole permeablhty C - A - - A- B A A A A A A R
Hydraul~cfracture - - B - - - - C C B - B B C C B A C
Crosshole/downhole/
surface selsmlc c c - - - - A B A A A A A B A
Appl~cability:A-high; B-moderate; C low; - not
INTRODUCTION 3
ground, such as triaxial tests, and those that test prototype models, such as
centrifuge tests. Field tests include borehole (in-situ) tests, full-scale tests such
as preloading trials, and non-destructive tests such as surface geophysical
testing. Borehole (in-situ) tests include those that penetrate the ground (e.g.
the SPT), those that statically load the ground (e.g. pressuremeters) and those
that dynamically load the ground (e.g. crosshole geophysics). Robertson
(1 986) proposed a list of applicability and usefulness of in-situ tests for soils
and rocks as shown in Table 1.1. He stated that most in-situ soil tests are used
in sands, silts and clays and concluded that the best in-situ tests for soils are
electric piezocone tests and self-boring pressuremeter (SBP) tests. In-situ tests,
commonly used in rocks, include SPT tests (in weak rock), dilatometer or
pressuremeter tests, plate tests and geophysical tests.
Results obtained from field tests vary in quality. quantity and applicability.
Parameters are test dependent. A parameter obtained from one test may not
have the same value as that obtained from another despite being given the
same time. Atkinson and Sallfors (1991), in their general report to the 10th
European Conference, discussed methods used to determine stress-strain
time characteristics of soils and concluded that parameters obtained from
in-situ tests could be classified as follows:
(a) Primary correlation sound theoretical basis to analyse a test with
few assumptions
(b) Secondary correlation theoretical basis together with major
assumptions and approximations
(c) Empirical correlation no theoretical basis.
Tests are carried out as part of a design exercise and the results can be used
either directly or indirectly in design (Figure 1.2). Data from an in-situ test can
In situ tests
I
I
Theoreticallempirical interpretation Empirical interpretation
Stress stress response Design parameters
Indirect design
Figure 1.2 The use of in-siru tests in design.

INTRODUCTION 7
be converted to ground properties using primary, secondary or empirical
correlations. The properties are used in a design method. the choice of which
depends on the parameter used, the method by which it was obtained and the
ground model chosen. Jamiolkowski et al. (1985), in their report to the 1lth
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
(ISSMFE), outlined advantages and disadvantages of in-situ tests and sug-
gested the applicability of in-situ tests to soil modelling as shown in Table 1.2.
A conclusion that can be drawn from this is that Jamiolkowski et al.
suggested that the self-boring pressuremeter has the most potential of all in-
situ devices since ground properties are derived using primary correlations.
Alternatively, the in-situ test data can be used directly in design methods
developed specifically for that test. Examples of this include SPT, cone and
pressuremeter design rules. Baguelin (1989),in his report to the 12th ISSMFE,
considered that the theoretical interpretation of in-situ tests to derive basic
soil parameters could only be justified if the application of those parameters
in theories of design could be calibrated and validated against an extensive
database of the behaviour of full-size structures. He concluded that direct
methods of design are more efficient in many cases.
Inspection of Table 1.1 shows that the only type of in-situ test that can be
used in all ground conditions is the pressuremeter. There are different types of
pressuremeter designed for different ground conditions and it is for that
reason that this instrument is so versatile. A further advantage of pressure-
meter testing is that the expansion of the pressuremeter can be likened to the
expansion of a cylindrical cavity which can be simply modelled using close
form solutions. The pressuremeter has been used to obtain fundamental
properties and design parameters, as a profiling tool, as a control test for
ground improvement and to calibrate other devices.
1.2 Definition of a pressuremeter
The term pressuremeter was first used by Menard to describe the testing
equipment he developed in 1955. Baguelin et al. (1978) referred to the
pressuremeter probe as a device that applies hydraulic pressure through a
flexible membrane to the borehole walls. Mair and Wood (1987) further
restricted the definition of a pressuremeter to a cylindrical device and this
definition is recognised internationally by the ISSMFE (Amar et ul., 1991).
The definition used here, and shown in Figure 1.3, is
A pressuremeter is a cylindrical probe that lzas an expandable .flexible
membrane designed to apply a uniform pressure to the walls of a borehole.
The pressuremeter can refer to the probe in the test pocket or to the probe,
drill rods and testing equipment. The latter definition is used here.
Others have used the term dilatometer to describe pressuremeters. Strictly
PRESSUREMETERS IN GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
Figure 1.3 The definition of a pressuremeter.
the term pressuremeter is more correct since pressuremeter refers to the

application of a pressure whereas dilatometer is a term more correctly used to
describe expansion due to temperature. Several instruments are referred to as
pressuremeters, but they are not - for example, BS 5930:1981 refers to the
Goodman Jack as a pressuremeter. There are also several types of in-
struments given a name other than pressuremeter which are actually
pressuremeters. An example of this is the high-pressure dilatometer (Hughes
and Ervin, 1980).
A pressuremeter test is defined as the expansion of the membrane after the
probe is installed in the test pocket. Pressure and displacement are monitored
during a test and these data are used to produce a stress-strain curve from
which design parameters or ground properties are determined.
1.3 The development of the pressuremeter
The first documented evidence of a pressuremeter is that of Kogler in 1933. In

1954, Fang at Purdue University and Menard at the University of Illinois,
independently began the development of the first of the modern pressure-
meters. The instrument developed by Menard was patented in 1955 and
became known as the Menard pressuremeter. It was first used in Chicago
INTRODUCTION 9
(Menard, 1957) to obtain ground properties for the design of structures and
has since become one of the most widely used types of pressuremeter. In
France, Louis Menard is referred to as the father of pressuremeters since he
not only developed the instrument, but also developed a design method based
on that instrument which, almost uniquely, became a national standard. This
approach is referred to as the Menard method. Independently, in the 1950s,
Fukuoka of Japan developed a lateral load tester to assist in the design of
horizontally loaded piles. This form of pressuremeter led to the development
of the OYO Corporation's range of pressuremeters, the other most widely
used type of pressuremeter.
The Menard pressuremeter (MPM), lowered into a test pocket of slightly
larger diameter than the probe, is a form of prebored pressuremeter (PBP).
Menard recognised in 1955, while developing the instrument, that it would be
very difficult, if not impossible, to analyse the tests since the process of
preboring changes the properties of the soil adjacent to the pocket. This
implies that a PBP test cannot be simply modelled as an expanding cavity in a
homogeneous soil. Additional interpretation is required to allow for the
effects of installation. To overcome this, Menard developed a series of design
charts based on relationships between foundation performance and pressure-
meter test results. This empirical direct design approach is still widely used
and is continually being updated as further case studies become available.
This approach, similar to that used with other in-situ testing equipment, is
recognised internationally.
In 1968 it was argued (Jezequel et al., 1968) that it should be possible to
install a pressuremeter into the ground without changing the ground prop-
erties so that those fundamental properties, using simple cavity expansion
theories, could be obtained. This led to the development of self-boring
pressuremeters (SBP) both in France and in the UK. The SBP, theoretically,
causes no disturbance to the surrounding soil since it can be drilled into the
ground. The parameters obtained should be properties of the soil rather than
of the installation procedure, thus they can be used in any analyses that
correctly model soil. These instruments were primarily developed for research
but, especially in the UK, are now used in commercial site investigations.
In practice, there must be some disturbance of the ground during the
installation of an SBP though it should be possible to keep it to a minimum.
Self-boring instruments require careful installation to minimise disturbance.
Pressuremeters that are pushed into the ground (PIP) were developed in the
1980s to overcome this need for careful installation. They produce repeatable
disturbance and an increase in speed of testing though the interpretation is no
longer based on simple cavity expansion theories as the soil is disturbed
during installation.
Advances in the analysis and interpretation of pressuremeter tests have
taken place in parallel with the development of the equipment. Lame (1852)
was the first to produce an analysis for the expansion of a cavity but no
no of publications
Figure 1.4 The increase in the number of publications on pressuremeters
further, substantial developments took place until the 1960s following the
development of the MPM. Since then, there has been an increasing use of
pressuremeters both in design and research. This is reflected in the number of
publications shown in Figure 1.4.
The theories of cavity expansion do not always apply to PBP and PIP tests
because of the disturbance during installation. The results from SBP tests
cannot be used in the Menard design methods referred to below since the
installation and testing techniques are different. This is no different from
other tests since many soil parameters are a function of the sampling]
installation technique and the testing technique. The interpretation of
pressuremeter tests depends on the parameters required, the pressuremeter
used, the installation procedure and the test procedure. For these reasons it is
necessary, when considering a test, to specify clearly the purpose of the test
and the type of pressuremeter to be used.
Design rules, covering bearing capacity and settlement of shallow founda-
tions, pile foundations, caissons and grouted anchors were developed in the
1960s by Menard Techniques. In 1971 the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et
Chaussee (LCPC) produced a standard for the Menard test and in 1972
recommendations for design methods. This has since been superseded by
LCPC-Setra-1985.
Several countries, including France, Russia and America, have developed
national specifications, and recommended procedures have been published
by, for example, the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM).
Institutions and companies have also developed specifications that have since
become recognised as good practice. There is, however, no international
standard but the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering is developing a statement on current international practice.
There have been three international conferences devoted to pressuremeters.
The first two - in 1982 in Paris and in 1986 in Texas were concerned with
-
pressuremeters and their marine applications, and the third conference, in

1990 in Oxford, covered all aspects of pressuremeter testing. A fourth is
proposed.
INTRODUCTION
1.4 The pressuremeter test
1.4.1 The probe

The different installation techniques give rise to three groups of pressure-
meters: prebored (PBP), pushed-in (PIP) and self-bored (SBP). The Menard
pressuremeter is a form of prebored pressuremeter. Prebored pressuremeters
are placed in prebored pockets, but pushed-in pressuremeters are inserted
and displace the ground. Pushed-in probes include full displacement probes
that completely displace the soil during installation, and thick-walled probes
that allow some soil to pass up into the probe. Self-bored pressuremeters
replace the ground using a drilling system within the probe, allowing the
probe to be drilled to the test position.
One of the first probes, the Menard pressuremeter, had three expanding
sections, or cells, and is known as a tricell probe (Figure 1.5a).The central cell
or test section was connected to a volume-measuring device. The other two
probe lowered into test pocket

n
Figure 1.5 Types of prebored pressuremeters: (a) a tricell probe; (b) a monocell probe.
12 PRESSUREMETERS IN GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
cells, known as guard cells, were designed to ensure that the central cell
remained a cylinder and, hence, ensured that a true cylindrical cavity expan-
sion was measured. Developments of this probe are still widely used.
In the 1950s, a single-cell or monocell probe (shown schematically in
Figure 1.5b) was developed by OYO Corporation of Japan. The expansion of
the membrane was measured directly using transducers. Many modern
pressuremeters, independent of the installation technique, include some form
of transducers, both pressure and displacement.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s self-boring probes were developed
independently in France (Jezequel et al., 1968) and the UK (Wroth and
Hughes, 1973). The main difference between these single-cell probes is the
measuring system. The French probe has a volume-measuring system like the
original Menard pressuremeter while the the UK probe has displacement
transducers. Figure 1.6 shows the principle of this instrument.
Pressuremeters specifically developed to be pushed into the ground were
first considered in the late 1970s in order to overcome the problems (a) of
installing prebored pressuremeters in ground that could collapse and (b) of
probe drilled into test pocket
Figure 1.6 The self-boring pressuremeter.

INTRODUCTION
probe pushed into test pocket
Figure 1.7 The pushed-in pressuremeter showing on the left an external cone for the full
displacement probe, and on the right an internal cone for the push-in thick-walled probe.
drilling self-boring pressuremeters in difficult conditions. Menard pressure-

meters are pushed into some soils using slotted casing but they are not
considered as PIPs as the Menard pressuremeter generally refers to the
method including the design rather than the probe. The first true PIPs were
developed from the SBP and static cone for use offshore. These instruments
are single-cell probes, as shown in Figure 1.7.
The Mtnard pressuremeter is the only trice11 probe; all others are monocell
probes. The Mtnard pressuremeter has a volume displacement measuring
system, while the other pressuremeters may have either a volume or a radial
displacement measuring system. Thus, within each category there are sub-
divisions depending on the measuring system, as shown in Figure 1.8.
There are numerous pressuremeters, examples of which are given in Table
1.3. Some pressuremeters have been developed for research purposes only,
while others have been developed for commercial use. Only those used
extensively in site investigations are described here in detail. The details of the
pressuremeters are continually changing as improvements are made, there-
fore the reader is referred to the manufacturers for exact details of current
models.
Table 1.3 Examples of specifications of typical pressuremeters
Group Name Symbol Manufacturer Pressure Strain Diameter Total Expand~ng L/D Displacement
capac~ly capacity length length measurement
(MPa) (mmJ (m) (mmJ system
Prebored Menard pressure mete^ Apageo (Fr), Bonne Surface volume

Esperance (Fr),
Geomatec (FI), Roctest
(USA)
Mdnard pressuremeler Apageo (Fr), Bonne Surface volume
Esperance ( F a
Ceomatec (Fr), Roctest
(USA)
Oyometer LLT O Y O corporation Surlace volume
Oyometer Elastometer 100 O Y O Corporation Diameter
Oyometer Elastometer 200 O Y O Corporation Diameter
High-pressure dilatometer HPD Cambrldge Insllu Six d~splacementtransducers
PA-I08 NII Osnovanil Surl:ice volumc
D-76 NII Osnovanli Surface volume
CSM Colorado School of
Mines
LNEC' Four displacement transducers
Marter 60 Mazier Three potenl~omelers
Mazier 95 Marler Three potentiometers
Self-bored Cambridge sell-borlng presauremeler CSBP Cambridge Insilu Three displacement transducers
Weak rock self-bonng pressuremeter RSBP P M Insitu Techn~ques Three displacement transducers
Press~ometreautoforeur PAF-76 Mazier Surface volume
Pushed-in Strearprobe Volume

Cone pressuremeter FDCP Cambridge lnsltu Three displacement transducers
Wireline expansometer WILE Symlnex
LPC-TLM ~ressio-oenetrometer LCPC Volume
INTRODUCTION 15
1 PRESSUREMETER I
SELF-BORED
-
VOLUME RADIAL VOLUME RADIAL PARTIAL FULL
VOLUME RADIAL
Menard
(1957)
1st tricell
LLT
(1958) Oyometer
1st monocell
(1968)
(1970)
Cam kometer
(1971)
3 radii
-
Stressprobe
(1979)
1st PIP
HPD
(1 980)
3 diameters
cone
(1 983)
Weak Rock
(1989)
Figure 1.8 The historical development of the pressuremeter showing categories according to the
method of installation and the method of measuring deformation.
1.4.2 T h e expansion curve

The membrane is expanded against the ground and measurements are taken
of the applied pressure and displacement of the membrane. These measure-
ments are shown plotted in Figure 1.9 with the applied pressure on the
vertical axis and the displacement on the horizontal axis. The pressuremeter
test curve can be used to derive the in-situ stress state, deformation and
strength parameters. The interpretation of the test and the parameters
derived from the test (Table 1.4) are dependent on the ground conditions, the
type of instrument, the method of installation, the type of test and the method
of interpretation.
The three groups of pressuremeters produce three distinct types of expan-
sion curves, as shown in Figure 1.9. The typical PBP test curve is S-shaped.
app'
pressure
strain
- strain
Figure 1.9 Typical expansion curves for the three types of pressuremeters: (a) the prebored
pressuremeter; (b) the self-bored pressuremeter; and (c) the pushed-in pressuremeter (full
displacement).
The first part, OA on Figure 1.9a, is the expansion of the membrane within
the mud-filled borehole. The second part, AB, is the deformation of a zone
softened during drilling. The third part of the curve, BC, is a measure of elastic
behaviour. Point C marks the onset of yielding of the ground adjacent to the
membrane.
There are two parts to an SBP expansion curve. Point B (Figure 1.9b), the
point at which the membrane begins to move, is equal to the total horizontal
stress. Point C is the onset of yielding of the ground. There are also two parts
to a P I P expansion curve. Theoretically, during installation an infinite
expansion occurs so that there should be very little increase in pressure
needed to expand the membrane. This is not the case. As the probe is pushed
into the soil the soil is unloaded as it flows past the shoulder of the cone of a
full displacement pressuremeter. Thus point C, Figure 1.9c, represents a yield
point. A P I P that partially displaces the soil gives an expansion curve
between that of a SBP and a full displacement pressuremeter.
1.5 Summary
There is a variety of pressuremeters, each of which is designed for a range of

ground conditions. A form of pressuremeter can be installed in any ground
condition ranging from soft organic clays to hard rocks.
Table 1.4 Parameters obtained from pressuremeter tests
Parameter Clay Sand Gravel Rock
Soft Stiff Loose Dense Weak Strong
PBP SBP PIP PBP SBP PIP PBP SBP PIP PBP SBP PIP PBP SBP PIP PBP SBP PIP PBP SBP PIP
Oh A CE C A CE B C C N N N
Cu BE A BE BE A BE CE B N CE N N
c' BN N N
4' B B CE A CE CE A CE CE N N B N N N
G, A A A A NN B N N N
cur A A A A A A A A A A A A C N N A A N A N N
PI BE A BE BE A BE CE A CE CE A CE CE NN CE B N CE N N
Ch B A A B A A
A, excellent; B, good; C, possible; N, not possible; E, empirical
oh, total horizontal stress; s,, undrained shear strenth;c', cohesion; +', angle of shearing resistance; Gi, initial shear modulus; G,,, secant shear modulus from an
unload/reload cycle; p,, limit pressure; c,, coefficient of consolidation.
18 PRESSUREMETERS IN GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
The parameters obtained from a pressuremeter test are a function of the

probe, the method of installation, the method of testing as well as the chosen
method of analysis and interpretation. Pressuremeter test results have been
used directly in design methods based on pressuremeter tests and have been
used to produce fundamental properties.
It is important to understand the differences in type of pressuremeters, the
site operations and the limitations of the methods of interpretation. This
book covers the equipment, the site operations including test procedures, the
theory of cavity expansion, methods of interpreting tests and the application
of the results in design. Detailed specifications are given in the appendix.
Each instrument will be supplied with an instruction manual that should
describe the probe, control unit and calibrations. However, pressuremeter
testing is often specified by engineers who do not necessarily have access to
the manuals. Further, the exact type of pressuremeter is often not specified.
The purpose of this book is to allow engineers to become familiar with the
types of instrument and the method of operation, thus ensuring that they can
guarantee quality workmanship and the results they require.
References
Contents
Index
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Pressuremeters in Geotechnical Design

2 Pressuremeter probes and testing equipment

3.3.9 System compression

4 Analysis of expanding cavities

5 Factors affecting the interpretation of pressuremeter tests

6 Interpretation of pressuremeter tests

7 Design rules and applications

8 Choice of pressuremeter, specifications and developments

Appendix Specifications and quantities

References and bibliography

Maximum modulus of elasticity from the reloading curve

Total and effective applied pressure at onset of constant volume

Current volume ( = I/o + AI/)

Triaxial shear strain

A ground investigation is undertaken to determine ,vertical and horizontal

fu" yle I 1 non deyuctiveI

Figure 1.1 Types of ln-sltu and laboratory tests

Theoreticallempirical interpretation Empirical interpretation

Stress stress response Design parameters

Figure 1.2 The use of in-siru tests in design.

1.2 Definition of a pressuremeter

Figure 1.3 The definition of a pressuremeter.

the term pressuremeter is more correct since pressuremeter refers to the

1.3 The development of the pressuremeter

The first documented evidence of a pressuremeter is that of Kogler in 1933. In

pressuremeters and their marine applications, and the third conference, in

1.4 The pressuremeter test

1.4.1 The probe

probe lowered into test pocket

probe drilled into test pocket

Figure 1.6 The self-boring pressuremeter.

probe pushed into test pocket

drilling self-boring pressuremeters in difficult conditions. Menard pressure-

Prebored Menard pressure mete^ Apageo (Fr), Bonne Surface volume

Pushed-in Strearprobe Volume

1.4.2 T h e expansion curve

There is a variety of pressuremeters, each of which is designed for a range of

Parameter Clay Sand Gravel Rock

Soft Stiff Loose Dense Weak Strong

The parameters obtained from a pressuremeter test are a function of the

Acevedo, P., Ortgosa, P. and Vera, P. (1986) Chilean

Al-Shaikh-Ali, M.H.H. (1980) Discussion: Design parameters

Ali, F.B.H. (1986) Effects of consolidation and creep on in

Amar, S., Frank, R., Baguelin, F. and Jezequel, J.F.

Amar, S., Baguelin, F., Jezequel, J.F. and Le Mehaute, A.

Amar, S., Clarke, B.G. Gambin, M. and Orr, T.L.L. (1991)

Gallagher, K.A. and St John, H.D. (1980) Field scale model

Holm, G., Bredenberg, H. and Broms, B.B. (1981) Lime

Jamiolkowski, M. and Lancellotta, R. (1977) Remarks on the

Ladanyi, B. (1963b) Expansion of a cavity in a saturated

Morris, D.V. (1983) In situ testing of sensitive soils,

Somerville, S. (1983) Site investigation procedures and

Soulie, M., Ladanyi, B. and Degenne, P. (1986) Expansion

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