Chapter 3

METHODS OF STUDY AND SOURCES

OF DATA

Research Design
Population of the Study
Sampling Design
Methods of Gathering Data
Statistical Treatment
Research Design
The research design is the plan used
by the researcher to study a problem
or issue. It serves as the blueprint for
collecting and analyzing data.
Research Design

There are two basic research designs

based on the way data and information
are collected and analyzed:

1. Qualitative Research
2. Quantitative Research
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Aim : to provide a Aim: to establish
complete and detailed relationships, or to
description of the determine causes and
research topic. It is effects between or
conducted to explain in among variables. In
detail social occurrences. quantitative research, the
Ex. Investigating the questions are how well,
cultural behavior of a how much or how
distinct ethnic group. accurately are the
characteristics or
attributes described for a
given set of data
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Type of Data : Type of Data :
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
generates non generates numerical
numerical data. It data or information
focuses mainly on that can be converted
verbal data rather into numbers.
than measurements.
Qualitative Research
relies mainly on
narrative description.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Presentation of Presentation of
Data: The Data: In a quantitative
presentation of data in research, data are
a qualitative research presented in tables
is in the form of words containing data in the
(from interviews) and form of numbers and
images (videos) or statistics.
objects (such as
artifacts).
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Data Gathering Data Gathering
Instrument: In Instrument :
qualitative research the Quantitative research
researcher serves as the makes use of tools such
primary data gathering as questionnaires,
instrument and collects surveys, and other
data through in-depth equipment to collect
interviews, focus groups, numerical or measurable
documentary analysis, data.
participant observation
and archival research.
Independent and Dependent Variable
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
This is the stimulus This is the response
variable which is variable which is
chosen to determine its observed and
relationship to an measured to determine
observed phenomenon. the effect of the
This may be an independent variable. It
observed event or is the observed event or
factor that is expected factor that is expected
to affect another to be affected by the
variable. independent variable.
Also called Also called the criterion
experimental variable, variable, effect,
cause, treatment. outcome, posttest.
 Example 1. Example 2.

To determine the influence To determine relationship

of educational qualification of pay incentive and the
on performance, a degree of motivation of the
researcher takes a group employees
of executives and observes
their performance.
Pay incentive is the
independent variable while
Educational qualification is degree of motivation is the
the independent variable dependent variable
because it is manipulated
while performance is the
dependent variable.
Qualitative Methods
● Historical Research – examines available data
to study, understand, and interpret past events.
● Ethnography – studies cultural patterns and
perspectives of participants in their natural
settings
● Ethology – compares the origin, characteristics,
and culture of different societies
● Case Study – examines the characteristics of a
particular entity, phenomenon, or person
● Action research – practitioner-based systematic
reflection upon practice aimed at improving
professional practice
 Qualitative Methods
● Historical Research – examines available data
to study, understand, and interpret past events.
● Ethnography – studies cultural patterns and
perspectives of participants in their natural
settings
● Ethology – compares the origin, characteristics,
and culture of different societies
● Case Study – examines the characteristics of a
particular entity, phenomenon, or person
● Action research – practitioner-based systematic
reflection upon practice aimed at improving
professional practice
 Quantitative Methods

● Descriptive Research (Survey

Research)
● Correlational Research
● Causal-Comparative
Research
● Experimental Research
Descriptive Research
● Also called Survey Research
● Collects data in order to answer
questions about the current status of
the subject or topic of the study
● Uses formal instruments to study
preferences, attitudes, practices,
concerns, or interests of a sample of
participants
Correlational Research
● Involves collecting data in order to
determine whether, and to what
degree, a relationship exists between
two or more quantifiable variables
● Typically involves one group and two
(or more) variables
● Involves establishing relationships
Causal-Comparative Research
● Attempts to determine the cause or
reason for existing differences in
groups of individuals
● Typically involves two (or more)
groups and one independent
variable
● Also called ex post facto because
both the effect and the alleged
cause have already occurred and
must be studied in retrospect
● Involves making comparisons.
Experimental Research
● To test hypotheses to establish cause-
and- effect relationships
● The researcher selects participants
and divides them into two or more
groups having similar characteristics
and then applies the treatment to the
groups and measures the effect upon
the groups.
Respondents of the Study
The large group from which individuals
are selected to participate in a study
constitute the population of the study.
WHAT IS A SAMPLE?

• A subset or a fraction of the

population
• Conclusion depends on accuracy of
representation
• Sampling or the process of
selecting the sample is an
important step in the research
process.
Sampling . . .



…the procedure researchers use to select
individuals to participate in a study


. . . is the process of selecting a number

of individuals for a study in such a way
that the individuals represent the larger
group from which they were selected.
The representatives selected for a
study whose characteristics exemplify
the larger group from which they were
selected constitute the sample.
The Purpose of Sampling

● The purpose of sampling is simply to take a

small portion of the population to
represent the whole population. The major
reason why sampling is done is economy.
● A small segment of the population provides
enough evidence about the characteristics
of a population as a whole to draw
conclusive evidences with confidence.
 SAMPLING DESIGNS

1. Probability Sampling . . .
. . . provides equal chances to every single element of
the population to be included in the sampling.
Samples drawn by any of the probability sampling
techniques have statistical properties that allow the
researcher to make inferences about the population,
report confidence intervals and statistical
significance.
Also called random sampling.
2. Non-Probability Sampling . . .
. . . does not use probability in selecting the samples.
The samples are selected on the basis of
convenience. Used for qualitative researches. Also
called non-random sampling.
Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple Random Sampling

2. Stratified Sampling
3. Cluster Sampling
4. Systematic Sampling
Simple Random Sampling

● Each and every member of the population

has an equal and independent chance of being
selected
● The larger the random sample is in size, the
more likely it is to represent the population.
● Any differences that do occur are the result
of chance, rather than bias on the part of
the researcher.
● Table of Random Numbers – an extremely
large list of numbers that has no order or
pattern
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
● Every nth individual in the population
list
● Sampling interval – distance in the list
between each individual selected
◦ Formula: Sampling interval =
Population size ÷ Desired sample size
● Sampling ratio – proportion of selected
sample individuals in the population
◦ Formula: Sampling ratio = Sample
size ÷ Population size
Stratified Sampling

● Subsamples are drawn within different

strata
● Each stratum is more or less equal on
some characteristic
Cluster Sampling
● The purpose of cluster sampling is to
sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample.
● The primary sampling unit is no longer
the individual element in the population
● The primary sampling unit is a larger
cluster of elements located in
proximity to one another
Non-probability Sampling

● Convenience
● Purposive
● Snowball



● Also called haphazard or accidental

sampling
● The sampling procedure of obtaining
the people or units that are most
conveniently available
Purposive Sampling

● purposive sampling - the

process whereby the researcher
selects a sample based on
experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled . . . also
called “judgment” sampling
Snowball Sampling
●A variety of procedures
● Initial
respondents are selected
by probability methods
● Additional
respondents are
obtained from information
provided by the initial respondents
What constitute an adequate or sufficient sample
size?

● Suggested guidelines (Fraenkel &

Wallen, 2007)
◦ For descriptive studies: 100
◦ For correlational studies: 50
◦ For causal-comparative studies: 30
individuals per group
◦ For experimental studies: 15
individuals in each group if very
tightly controlled
● The larger the sample the more
representation is of the population
What is population generalizability?

● The degree to which a sample

represents the population of interest.
● Narrowly defined sample seriously
limits findings
WHAT IS INSTRUMENTATION?

● The whole process of preparing to collect

data
◦ Design of the instrument
◦ Procedures and conditions of how instrument
will be administered
Where will the data be collected? (location)
When will the data be collected? (time)
How often are the data to be collected? (frequency)
Who is to collect the data? (administration)
 Methods of Gathering Data

● The Direct or Interview Method. The direct or interview

method gives the accurate, complete and reliable data.

● The Indirect Method or Questionnaire. The questionnaire

consists of all possible questions that answer the problems
raised in the study. In a questionnaire, the respondents answer
the questions by writing or by marking the answer sheet..
Examples of the supply type items take the form of self-
checklists, scales, inventories, and tests.

● The Registration Method or Documentary Analysis. This

method uses information that is on file like laws, ordinances,
decrees or lists from various offices. Documents such as birth,
death and marriage certificates, memoranda, newsletters,
letters etc. are also important sources of primary data.

● Observation. Participant observation, unobtrusive observation,

etc.


Research Instruments. . .


. . . are the tools researchers use to

collect data for research studies.

● Questionnaire
● Interview guide
● Test
● Scale
VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, AND
OBJECTIVITY?

• Validity
– The instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
– Defensibility of the inferences researchers make from the
data collected through the use of an instrument.
• Reliability
– Gives consistent result.
– Gives researcher’s confidence.
• Objectivity
– Absence of subjective judgements.
– Unfortunately, complete objectivity is probably never
attained.
 Statistical Treatment

▪ All the statistical treatments used in the study

must be so specified in this section of Chapter 3.
▪ It is also necessary for manually computed
statistical treatment to specify the formulae used
for computation.
▪ For data to be computed using computer software,
the coding scheme for the data input is also
included to facilitate easy understanding of text.