Strength of Material

(Module-I)

Atul Mani
Amity University
 By: Atul Mani, Amity University 2

Strength of Material
• Strength of Material is the study of behavior of
structural and machine elements under the action of
external loads, taking into account the internal forces
created and the resulting deformation.
• Analysis is directed towards determining the limiting
loads which the member can stand before failure of
the material or excessive deformation.
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Load
• Any engineering design which is made of a number of
members is in equilibrium under the action of external forces
and the reactions at the points of supports. These external
forces and reactions are called load.
• Since the member is in equilibrium hence the resultant force
on it is zero. But they produce a tendency for the member to
be deformed or torn apart.
• The simplest type of load is a direct pull or push, technically
known as Tension and Compression:
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Stress
• This action of being deformed is resisted by the internal
forces of cohesion between particles of the material itself.
• Across any section such as XX of the member represented in
figure, the total force carried must be equal to the load P. This
is distributed among the internal forces of cohesion, which are
called stress.

• The force of Resistance per unit area offered by a body

against deformation is known as stress. Mathematically,
Stress = Force/Area
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Types of Stress
Normal Stress: When the load is applied
perpendicularly to the area under consideration, the
stress generated is called Normal Stress.

Normal Stress is represented by σ (Greek small letter Sigma).

If the cross-sectional area of load application is A then,
σ = F/A
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Types of Stress
Shear Stress: When the load is applied parallel to
the area under consideration, the stress generated is
called Normal Stress.

Shear Stress is represented by σ (Greek small letter Tau). If

the cross-sectional area of load application is A then,

τ = F/A
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Types of Stress
Bearing Stress: Bearing Stress is a
particular case of compressive
stress often occurring in cases where a
convex surface contacts a concave
surface.
Bearing stress is contact pressure
between separate bodies. It differs from
conventional compressive stress as the
contact surface is not perpendicular to
the line of action of load.
δb=P/Ab
Where: δb = bearing stress

Pb= Axial forces acting

on the fastener or plate

Ab= bearing area

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Types of Stress
Crushing Stress: The localized compressive stress
induced at the area of contact between the two
components, having no relative motion between them, is
called crushing stress.
Examples of components subjected to crushing stress
are rivets, threads of nut and bolts, key and shaft etc.
Crushing Stress = Force / (Projected area of Contact)
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Types of Stress
Hoop Stress or Circumferential Stress: This is the stress
developed in walls of a pressurized cylindrical or spherical
vessels due to the forces generated by the pressure of fluid
inside the vessel. This stress is set up in resisting the
bursting effect of the applied pressure.
There are two type of stresses developed in pressurized
cylinder:
1. Circumferential stress or hoop stress: it is along the
circumference of the cylinder.
2. Longitudinal Stress: Along the axis of cylinder due to
pressure on the both ends.
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Types of Stress
For Cylindrical Vessel:
Hoop Stress σH = (p . r) / t
Where p= pressure inside vessel
r = radius of cylinder
T = thickness of the wall

Longitudinal Stress σL = (p . r) / 2t
For Spherical Vessel
Hoop Stress σH = (p . r) / 2t
Where p= pressure inside vessel
r = radius of cylinder
T = thickness of the wall
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Types of Stress
• Thermal Stress: Ordinary materials expand when heated and contract when cooled,
hence , an increase in temperature produce a positive thermal strain. Thermal strains
usually are reversible in a sense that the member returns to its original shape when
the temperature return to its original value.
when a material is subjected to a change in temp. is a length will change by an amount.
δt = α . L . t
Strain εt = α . t Stress σt = E . α . t
α = coefficient of linear expansion for the material
L = original Length
t = temp. change
• If however, the free expansion of the material is prevented by some external force,
then a stress is set up in the material. They stress is equal in magnitude to that which
would be produced in the bar by initially allowing the bar to its free length and then
applying sufficient force to return the bar to its original length.
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Strain
• If a bar is subjected to a direct load,
and hence a stress the bar will
change in length. If the bar has an
original length L and changes by an
amount δL, the strain produce is
defined as follows:
Strain ε = δL / L
• Strain is thus, a measure of the
deformation of the material and is a
dimensionless quantity i.e. it has no
units. It is simply a ratio of two
quantities with the same unit.
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Shear Strain
• Shear strain resulting from the
application of opposing forces in
a direction parallel to a surface or
to a planar cross section of a
body.
Shear Strain γ = ∆x / h
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Volumetric Strain
• If a compressible body is under
hydrostatic pressure then on
application of pressure its volume
will reduce. If the initial volume
is V and change in volume is ∆V
then:

Volumetric Strain εv = ∆V / V
εv = ε xx + εyy + εzz
Where: εxx = Linear strain in X-direction

εxx = Linear strain in X-direction

εxx = Linear strain in X-direction

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Hook’s Law
The Hook's law, states that within the elastic limits the stress is proportional to
the strain.
Stress α Strain

The constant C is called constant of Elasticity

Depending on the type of stress and strain constant of Elasticity is of 3 types.
E = Young's Modulus of Rigidity = Normal Stress / Longitudinal strain
G = Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity = Shear stress / Shear strain
K = Bulk Modulus of elasticity = Volumetric stress / Volumetric strain
Unit of these constants is N/m2
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Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson's ratio is a measure of
the Poisson effect, the phenomenon in
which a material tends to expand in
directions perpendicular to the direction
of compression and vice versa.
Poisson's ratio, denoted by ν (nu) and
named after the French mathematician
and physicist Siméon Poissis the
negative of the ratio of transverse
strain to axial strain.
ν = - εtrans / ε longitudinal
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Stress-Strain Relation
• If we apply a stress upon a specimen of any material,
there will be some corresponding strain. If we gradually
increase the stress, the corresponding strain will also
increase. By noting the values of stress and strain at each
step and drawing a curve between the stress and strain,
the resulting curve is called stress-strain curve or relation
for that particular material.
• Resulting curve is only for the material of specimen under
experiment. If we change the material then the curve will
be different.
• Now we will see stress-strain curve for some common
type of material.
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Stress-Strain Relation
• Linear elastic material:
A linear elastic material is
one in which the strain is
proportional to stress.

• Rigid Materials:
It is the one which do not
experience any strain
regardless of the applied
stress.
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Stress-Strain Relation
• Perfectly plastic:
A perfectly plastic i.e which
does not offer any resistance to
stress after a certain value.

• Elastic – Plastic material:

The elastic plastic material
exhibits a stress Vs strain
diagram as depicted in the
figure.
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σ-ε Curve for Ductile Matrial

• Nominal stress – Strain OR
Conventional Stress – Strain
diagrams: Stresses are usually
computed on the basis of the
original area of the specimen;
such stresses are often referred
to as conventional or nominal
stresses.
• True stress – Strain
Diagram: Since when a
material is subjected to a uni-
axial load, some contraction or
expansion always takes place.
Thus, dividing the applied
force by the corresponding
actual area of the specimen at
the same instant gives the so
called true stress.
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σ-ε Curve for Ductile Matrial

SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:
• (A) So it is evident form the graph that the strain is proportional to
strain or elongation is proportional to the load giving a straight line
relationship. This law of proportionality is valid up to a point A. or we
can say that point A is some ultimate point when the linear nature of the
graph ceases or there is a deviation from the linear nature. This point is
known as the limit of proportionality or the Proportionality Limit.
• (B) For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be
elastic in the sense that the deformations are completely recovered
when the load is removed. The limiting point B is termed as Elastic
Limit.
• (C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and
strains are not totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent
deformation or permanent set when load is removed. These two points
are termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress at the
yield point is called the Yield Strength.
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σ-ε Curve for Ductile Matrial

SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:
• (E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in
the whole volume of the metal. The maximum load which the
specimen can with stand without failure is called the load at the
Ultimate Strength.
The highest point ‘E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate
strength of a material.
σu = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known
as Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength.
σu is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
bar.
• (F) Beyond point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling
from the maximum until fracture occurs at F.
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σ-ε Curve for Ductile Matrial

• Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the
specimen begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively
small length of bar and the bar is said to form a neck.
This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and
fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F.
• Note: Owing to large reduction in area produced by
the necking process the actual stress at fracture is
often greater than the above value. Since the
designers are interested in maximum loads which
can be carried by the complete cross section, hence
the stress at fracture is hardly of any practical value.
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σ-ε Curve for Brittle Matrial

• Brittle materials, which includes cast iron,
glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact
that rupture occurs without any noticeable
prior change in the rate of
elongation sometimes they fracture before
yielding.
• Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon
fiber do not have a well-defined yield point,
and do not strain-harden. Therefore, the
ultimate strength and breaking strength are the
same. A typical stress–strain curve is shown
in Figure.
• One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is
that the two broken parts can be reassembled
to produce the same shape as the original
component as there will not be a neck
formation like in the case of ductile materials.
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Buckling of Columns
• When a structure is subjected
to compressive axial stress, buckling may occur.
Buckling is characterized by a sudden sideways
deflection of a structural member. This may occur
even though the stresses that develop in the structure
are well below those needed to cause failure of the
material of which the structure is composed.
• As an applied axial load is increased on a member,
such as a column, it will ultimately become large
enough to cause the member to become unstable and
it is said to have buckled.
• Further loading will cause significant and somewhat
unpredictable deformations, possibly leading to
complete loss of the member's load-carrying
capacity.
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Buckling of Columns
• The ratio of the Effective Length of a column to the least radius
of gyration of its cross section is called the slenderness ratio (λ).
λ = L/k
Where L = effective length of Column
k = minimum radius of gyration of cross section area
• This ratio affords a means of classifying columns and their failure
mode. The slenderness ratio is important for design
considerations.
• If λ is greater than a specified value for a particular material, then
the column is called slender column and it fails due to buckling.
Else the failure occurs due to crushing by compression.
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Euler’s Formula
• The theory of the behavior of columns was investigated in 1757 by
mathematician Leonhard Euler. He derived the formula, that gives the
maximum axial load that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without
buckling. An ideal column is one that is perfectly straight, made of a
homogeneous material, and free from initial stress.
• When the applied load reaches the Euler load, sometimes called the
critical load, the column comes to be in a state of unstable equilibrium.
At that load, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the
column to fail by suddenly "jumping" to a new configuration, and the
column is said to have buckled.
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Euler’s Formula
where

F = maximum or critical force (vertical load on column)

E = modulus of elasticity

I = smallest area moment of inertia of the cross section of the column

L = unsupported length of column

K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of
the column, as follows.

For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.

For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.

For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = √2/2 ≈ 0.7071.

For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0

KL is the effective length of the column.

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Euler’s Formula (End Conditions)

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Rankine-Gordon Formula
• Since structural columns are commonly of intermediate length, the
Euler formula has little practical application for ordinary design.
Consequently, a number of empirical column formulae have been
developed that agree with test data, all of which embody the slenderness
ratio. Due to the uncertainty in the behavior of columns, for design,
appropriate safety factors are introduced into these formulae.
• The Rankine Gordon formula (Named for William John Macquorn
Rankine and Perry Hugesworth Gordon (1899 – 1966)) is also based on
experimental results and suggests that a column will buckle at a load
Fmax given by:

where Fe is the Euler maximum load and Fc is the maximum compressive load.
This formula typically produces a conservative estimate of Fmax.
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Deflection and Slop of Beam

• Consider a beam AB which is initially straight and horizontal when
unloaded. If under the action of loads the beam deflect to a position A'B'
under load or infact we say that the axis of the beam bends to a shape
A'B'. It is customary to call A'B' the curved axis of the beam as the
elastic line or deflection curve.
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Deflection and Slop of Beam

• Deflection: It is the vertical shift of a point on the beam between the no-
load condition and loaded beam. Its value is different at different points
on the length of the beam.
• Slope: It is an angular shift at any point of the beam between the no-
load condition and loaded beam. Its value is different at different points
on the length of the beam. It is represented by dy/dx.
• Relation between Slop and Deflection:

Where M = Bending Moment

E = Young’s modulus of Elasticity

I = Moment of Inertia