Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into
water until it becomes heated water or a gas (steam). The steam
or hot water under pressure is then usable for transferring the heat
to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring
heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume
increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an
extremely dangerous item that must be treated with utmost
respect.

Boilers were used in crude fashions for several centuries but

development was slow because construction techniques were
crude and the operation was extremely dangerous. But by the
industrial revolution of the mid 1800’s boilers had become the
main source of energy to power industrial operations and
transportation. The use of water as a heat transfer medium has
many advantages. Water is relatively cheap, it can be easily
controlled, the gas in invisible, odorless, and extremely high purity.

The process of heating a liquid until it reaches it's gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat is
transferred from one body to another by means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat
from a hot body to a cold body through a conveying medium without physical contact, (2)
convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying medium, such as air or water and (3)
conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical contact, molecule to molecule. The heating
surface is any part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion on one side and water
on the other. Any part of the boiler metal that actually contributes to making steam is heating
surface. The amount of heating surface a boiler has is expressed in square feet. The larger the
amount of heating surface a boiler has the more efficient it becomes. The measurement of the
steam produced is generally in pounds of water evaporated to steam per hour.

Gallons of water evaporated x 8.3 pounds/gallon water = Pounds of steam

In firetube boilers the term boiler horsepower is often used. A boiler horsepower is 34.5
pounds of steam. This term was coined by James Watt a Scottish inventor. The measurement
of heat is in British Thermal Units (Btu’s). A Btu is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. When water is at 32 oF it is
assumed that its heat value is zero.
 The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is
called its sensible heat. In the teapot illustration to the left the 70
o
F water contains 38 Btu’s and by adding 142 Btu’s the water is
brought to boiling point.

In the illustration to the left, to

change the liquid (water) to its
gaseous state (steam) an
additional 970 Btu’s would be
required. This quantity of heat
required to change a chemical
from the liquid to the gaseous
Sensible Heat state is called latent heat.

The saturation temperature or boiling point is a function of

pressure and rises when pressure increases. When water
under pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises
above 212 oF. This occurs in the boiler. In the example below
the boiler is operating at a pressure of 100 psig which gives a
steam temperature of 338 oF or 1185 Btu’s.

When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact with

Latent Heat
liquid, its temperature is said to be superheated. The
temperature of superheated steam, expressed as degrees above saturation, is referred to as the
degrees of superheat.

BOILER TYPES:
There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally
they fit into one of two categories: (1) Firetube or as an easy way
to remember "fire in tube" boilers, contain long steel tubes through
which the hot gasses from a furnace pass and around which the
water to be changed to steam circulates, and (2) Watertube or
"water in tube" boilers in which the conditions are reversed with the
water passing through the tubes and the furnace for the hot gasses
is made up of the water tubes. In a firetube boiler the heat (gasses)
from the combustion of the fuel passes through tubes and is
transferred to the water which is in a large cylindrical storage
area. Common types of firetube boilers are scotch marine, firebox, Firetube Scotch Marine
HRT or horizontal return tube. Firetube boilers typically have a Boiler
lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and easier to operate but
they are limited generally to capacities of 50,000pph and pressures of 250 psig. The more
common types of watertube boilers are "D" type, "A" type, "O" type, bent tube, and cast-iron
sectional. All firetube boilers and most watertube boilers are packaged boilers in that they can
be transported by truck, rail or barge. Large watertube boilers used in industries with large
steam demands and in utilities must be completely assembled and constructed in the field and
are called field erected boilers.
 Watertube Boiler D-Type

Watertube Boiler "O Miura Watertube

Watertube Boiler "A Type"
Type" Boiler

Field Erected Boiler With Superheater By B&HES at Thomaston, GA

Vertical tubeless boilers are used for small loads but really do not fit into either category as they
do not have tubes.

Boilers and pressure vessels are built under requirements of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers or ASME referred to as the "ASME Code." High pressure boilers are
fired vessels for an operation greater than 15 psig and 160 oF and are built in accordance with
Section I of the ASME Code with the ASME S stamp. Vessels with design pressures below 15
psig steam and 180 oF hot water are low pressure and are built to Code Section IV. All unfired
vessels are built in accordance with Code Section VIII, Division I and with the ASME U stamp
attached. Repairs to all boilers and pressure vessels are governed by the state boiler
jurisdictions which for the US and Canada have universally adopted the National Board of Boiler
& Pressure Vessel Inspectors (National Board Code) and affixed with the national board R
stamp.

STEAM BOILER SYSTEMS:

The feedwater system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the
demand for steam. Valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system
collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through piping to the
point of use. Throughout the system steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with
steam pressure gauges. The steam and feedwater systems share some components. The fuel
system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The
equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system. All fuels
are combustible and dangerous if necessary safety standards are not followed. Fuels commonly
used are nuclear fusion, electricity, the wastes of certain processes and fossil fuels. The
approximate heat value of certain fossil fuels:

• Natural Gas 1,000 Btu/Cubic foot

• #2 Oil 142,000btu/gallon

• #4 oil 148,000btu/gallon

• #5 oil 149,000btu/gallon

• #6 oil 152,000btu/gallon

• Coal 12,500btu/ton

• Wood (Dry) 8,000btu/ton

• Wood (Wet) 4,000btu/ton

In a fuel oil fired boiler plant, fuel oil leaves the tank through a suction line and duplex strainer
traveling then to the fuel oil pump. The fuel oil is then forced through the pump and then through
the discharge line. From the discharge line some fuel oil is burned and some returned to the
tank through a regulating valve.

In a natural gas fired plant gas is supplied at a set pressure which varies depending on the gas
source. Gas systems are low pressure or high pressure. In a low pressure gas system city gas
pressure is reduced from pounds to inches of pressure by passing through a gas
regulator. Through the regulator gas is drawn into the burner and mixed with air supplied by a
blower. This mixture is directed to the burner where it is ignited with the pilot light. In a high gas
pressure system, gas passes through the regulator and gas is reduced to the proper pressure
for the burner. Some boilers have combination burners which can burn gas or fuel oil or a
combination of both gas and fuel oil.

Coal fired boilers use mechanical feeders or stokers to feed fuel to the burner at a consistent
rate. For example, in a chain grate stoker coal is fed through the hopper and regulated before
passing under the ignition arch. The coal continues on a conveyor which carries the ignited
coal slowly under the heating surface. Ash, slag and unburned parts or clinkers are discharged
at the other side of the conveyor.

The draft system regulates the flow of air to and from the burner. For fuel to burn efficiently the
right amount of oxygen must be provided. Air must also be provided to direct the flow of air
through the furnace to direct the gases of combustion out of the furnace to the breaching. A
forced draft system uses a fan to force (or push) air through the furnace. An induced draft
system uses a fan to draw (or pull) air through the furnace. A combination or balanced draft
system uses forced and induced draft fans. Gases of combustion enter the stack from the
breaching and are released to the atmosphere.

COMBUSTION:
Is the method of combining the fuel and air systems in a source of heat at sufficient temperature
to produce steam. Combustion may be defined as the rapid chemical combination of oxygen
with the combustible elements of a fuel. Only three combustible, chemical elements are of any
significance: carbon, hydrogen and sulfur. The boiler combustion furnace in which the fuel
burns provides a chamber in which the combustion reaction can be isolated and confined so that
it can be controlled. In a scotch marine boiler it is referred to as a Morrison tube or in other
boilers the firebox area. The convection surfaces are the areas to which the heat travels that
is not transferred in the combustion furnace. Here additional heat is removed. The burner is
the principal device for the firing of oil and/or gas. Burners are normally located in the vertical
walls of the furnace. Burners along with the furnaces in which they are installed, are designed to
burn the fuel properly.

STEAM TO WATER CYCLE:

In a steam heating system steam leaves the main steam line and enters the main steam
header. From the main header piping directs the steam to branch lines. Branch lines feed
steam through a riser to the steam heating equipment. At the heating equipment heat is
transferred to the building space. As the steam releases heat to the building space and is cools
it turns back to water or condensate. The condensate is separated from the steam by a steam
trap. The steam trap allows condensate to pass but not the steam. The condensate passes
through the condensate return line and is collected and directed back to the boiler to repeat the
steam to water process.

Referring back to the teapot example, after repeated use it began to acquire a "buildup" of solids
from the water. The same separation of solids in the water occurs in the boiler but since it is
operating continuously and at higher temperatures this "buildup" can occur very rapidly. When
this occurs the heat transfer can not be achieved as readily which requires more fuel to produce
the steam. If continued unchecked damage to the metals in the boiler shell and tubes will result.

Pretreatment equipment such as softeners, de-mineralizes, etc. are used to remove as much of
the dissolved solids as possible before they get to the boiler. To remove the solids that continue
to the boiler chemicals are added to react with the solids creating a sludge. This sludge is then
periodically removed by opening valves from the bottom of the boiler and relieving it to the
drain. This process is called blowdown.

Waterside problems can also shorten boiler life from corrosion brought on by the oxygen content
in the feedwater. Pretreatment for the removal of oxygen is performed in a deaerator but here
again the removal is not complete and chemical additions are made to aid in improving the
oxygen removal process.
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feedwater. The two
sources of feedwater are: (1) Condensate. or condensed steam returned from the processes
and (2) Makeup water (usually city water) which must come from outside the boiler room and
plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies the feedwater can be heated, usually by
economizers.
 Chapter 2

MAKEUP WATER
A. WATER SOFTENERS:
Water as it passes over the ground, through caves and springs picks up some of the elements
from the limestone and other elements of nature which dissolved and remain. These elements
collectively are called hardness. Grandma's tea kettle, used as an example in Chapter One,
always seemed to have a "build up" in the bottom which she removed periodically usually with
vinegar. This "build up" is called hardness. In a heavy use industrial steam boiler the water is
could be completely replaced as often as once each hour. Obviously at higher turnover,
temperatures and pressures than the tea kettle the boiler would quickly have scale from this
hardness that would reduce and ultimately prevent water circulation and heat transfer which will
destroy the boiler. The higher the operating pressure of the boiler the more critical the removal
of foreign items from the feedwater becomes. Large utility boilers operating at 3,000 psig + may
actually use distilled water for ultimate purity.

The purpose of a water softener is primarily for the removal of hardness from the boiler makeup
water. Makeup water is the water supplied from the municipal water system, well water, or
other source for the addition of new water to the boiler system necessary to replace the water
evaporated. Some filtering of the water may occur in the water softener but that is not the
purpose of its design and too much of other pollutants in the water could actually foul the water
softener affecting its operation. Hardness is composed primarily of calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg) but also to lesser amounts sodium (Na), potassium (P), and several other
metals. Hardness is measured in grains with one grain of hardness in the water being 17.1 ppm
of these elements. The purpose of using hardness as the unit of measure is that tests to
measure in parts per million (ppm) are much more difficult and expensive to use. Hardness
varies from area to area. Usually near salt water the hardness is very low as the limestone is
virtually non existent and in mountainous areas where limestone is everywhere hardness is
usually very high.

All softeners soften or remove the hardness from the water. The primary minerals in the water
that make "hard" water are Calcium (Ca++) and Magnesium (Mg++). They form a curd with
soap and scale in piping, water heaters and whatever the hard water contacts. Hardness is
removed from the water by a process known as positive ion exchange. This process could also
be known as "ion substitution", for substitution is what occurs. Sodium (Na+) ions, which are
"soft" are substituted or exchanged for the Calcium and Magnesium as the water passes through
the softener tank.

The softening media is commonly called resin or Zeolite. The proper name for it is polystyrene
resin. The resin has the ability to attract positive charges to itself. The reason it does so is
because in its manufacture it inherits a negative charge. It is a law of nature that opposite
charges attract, i.e., a negative will attract a positive and vice versa. A softener tank contains
hundreds of thousands of Zeolite beads. Each bead is a negative in nature and can be charged
or regenerated with positive ions. In a softener, the Zeolite is charged with positive, "soft" sodium
ions.

As "hard" water passes through the Zeolite, the Calcium and Magnesium ions are strongly
attracted to the beads. As the "hard" ions attach to the Zeolite bead, they displace the "soft"
Sodium ions that are already attached to the bead. In effect, the Sodium is "exchanged" for the
Calcium and Magnesium in the water supply with the Calcium and Magnesium remaining on the
Zeolite beads and the Sodium ions taking their place in the water flowing through the softener
tank. The result of this "exchange" process is soft water flowing out of the tank.

It can now be readily understood that a softener will continue to produce "soft" water only as
long as there are Sodium ions remaining on the Zeolite beads to "exchange" with the Calcium
and Magnesium ions in the "hard" water. When the supply of Sodium ions has been depleted,
the Zeolite beads must be "regenerated" with a new supply of Sodium ions. The regeneration of
the Zeolite beads is accomplished by a three step process.

SOFTENER DESIGN:
Water softeners come as single mineral tank units (simplex), double mineral tank units (duplex)
and multiple mineral tank units. Since regeneration cycles can take approximately one hour
simplex units are used only when this interruption can be tolerated. To avoid interruption duplex
units are used so that the regeneration of one unit can be accomplished while the second unit is
on line. Triplex or other multiplex units usually are the result of need for increased capacity and
units can be added to keep soft water available. The reliability of new electronic
metering/controls for regeneration have allowed users to depend on smaller units with more
frequent regeneration.

Simplex Softener Duplex Softener Triplex Softener

REGENERATION PROCESS
BACKWASH:
The flow of water through the mineral bed is reversed. The mineral bed is loosened and
accumulated sediment is washed to the drain by the upward flow of the water. An automatic
backwash flow controller maintains the proper flow rate to prevent the loss of resin.

BRINE DRAW AND SLOW RINSE:

Ordinary salt has the capability to restore the exchange capacity of the mineral. A given amount
of salt-brine is rinsed slowly through the mineral bed. After the salt-brine is drawn, the unit will
continue to rinse slowly with water to remove all of the salt-brine from the media bed.

FAST RINSE:
A high down flow of water repacks the mineral bed. Any trace of brine not removed in slow rinse
is flushed to the drain.
The unit is then returned to SERVICE the brine maker is refilled with fresh water to form salt
brine for the next regeneration. The total regeneration time is approximately 60-90 minutes.
SOFTENER SIZING FORMULA:
C = M * T * H /R
C = Capacity of softener in cubic feet of resin
M = Makeup water volume per hour in gallons; the volume needed to be softened (8.34 pounds
per gallon)
T = Time in hours desired between regeneration cycles
H = Hardness of water in grains (17.1 ppm per grain hardness)
R = Resin Capacity per cubic foot (this is virtually always 30,000 grains)
 Chapter 3

BOILER FEEDWATER
A. DEAERATION:
All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solution. Certain gases, such as carbon dioxide
and oxygen, greatly increase corrosivity. When heated in boiler systems, Carbon dioxide (CO 2)
and oxygen (O 2) are released as gases and combine with water (H 2O) to form carbonic acid,
(H2CO3).

CO 2 + O2 + H2O > H2CO3

Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases from boiler feedwater is
vital to boiler equipment longevity as well as safety of operation. Carbonic acid corrodes metal
reducing the life of equipment and piping. It also dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the
boiler precipitates and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes. This scale not only contributes to
reducing the life of the equipment but also increases the amount of energy needed to achieve
heat transfer. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5

The term given to the mechanical removal of dissolved gases is deaeration. Mechanical
deaeration for the removal of these dissolved gases is typically utilized prior to the addition of
chemical oxygen scavengers. Mechanical deaeration is based on Charles' and Henry's laws of
physics. Simplified, these laws state that removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be
accomplished by heating the boiler feedwater which reduces the concentration of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surrounding the feedwater.

The easiest way to deaerate is to force steam into the feedwater, this action is called
scrubbing. Scrubbing raises the water temperature causing the release of O 2 and CO2 gases
that are then vented from the system. In boiler systems, steam is used to "scrub" the feedwater
as (1) steam is essentially devoid of O 2 and CO2, (2) steam is readily available and (3) steam
adds the heat required to complete the reaction. For efficient operation, deaerating equipment
must satisfy the following requirements: (1) Heating of the feedwater: The operating
temperature in the unit should be the boiling point of water at the measured pressure. The
pressure/temperature relationship is important since boiling must take place rapidly for quick and
efficient removal of gases. If this temperature and pressure cannot be economically achieved
then it is important to get as close to it as possible. (2) Agitation decreases the time and heat
energy necessary to remove dissolved gases from the water. (3) Maximization of surface area
by finely dispersing the water to expose maximum surface area to the steam. This enables the
water to be heated to saturation temperature quicker and reduces the distance the gases have
to travel to be liberated. (4) The liberated gases must be vented to allow their escape from the
system as they are released.

While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels (.005cc/l or 5
ppb), even trace amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system. Consequently,
good operating practice requires removal of that trace oxygen with a chemical oxygen scavenger
such as sodium sulfite or hydrazine. Free carbon dioxide can be removed by deaeration, but
this process releases only small amounts of combined carbon dioxide. The majority of the
combined carbon dioxide is removed with the steam of the boiler, subsequently dissolving in the
condensate, frequently causing corrosion problems. These problems can be controlled through
the use of volatile neutralizing amines or filming amines.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL DEAERATORS:

1. Tray Type Deaerators are composed of a deaerating section and
a feedwater storage section. Incoming water is sprayed through a
perforated distribution pipe into a steam atmosphere where it is
atomized. There it is heated to within a few degrees of the saturation
temperature of the steam. Most of the non-condensable gases are
released to the steam as the water enters the unit. The water then
cascades through the tray section, breaking into fine droplets, which
immediately contact incoming steam. The steam heats the water to
the saturation temperature of the steam and removes all but a trace
of oxygen. Deaerated water falls to the feedwater storage section
below and is protected from recontamination by a blanket of
steam. As the non-condensable gases are liberated, they as well as
a small amount of steam are vented to atmosphere. It is essential
that sufficient venting is provided at all times or deaeration will be
incomplete.

2. Spray Type Deaerators work on the same general principle as the tray types. The spray-
type deaerators do not use trays for dispersion of the water. In this case, spring loaded nozzles
located in the top of the unit spray water into a steam atmosphere which is heated to within a
few degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. Most of the non-condensable gases are
released to the steam, and the heated water falls to a water seal and drains to the lowest section
of the steam scrubber.

The water is scrubbed by large quantities of steam and heated to the saturation temperature
prevailing at this point. The intimate steam to water contact achieved in the scrubber efficiently
strips the water of dissolved gases. As the steam-water mixture rises in the scrubber, a slight
pressure loss causes the deaerated water temperature to remain a few degrees below the inlet
steam saturation temperature. The deaerated water overflows from the steam scrubber to the
storage section below.

The steam, after flowing through the scrubber, passes up into the spray heater section to heat
the incoming water. Most of the steam condenses in the spray section to become part of the
deaerated water. A small portion of the steam, vented to atmosphere, removes non-
condensable gases from the system.

3. Spray/Tray Type Deaerators are a combination of the above with a steam spray nozzle
sending the water over the trays.

4. Feedwater Tanks are another form of mechanical deaerators

normally found in small firetube and watertube boiler systems due
to cost considerations. These less expensive systems are limited
by design as they are operated at atmospheric pressure with
feedwater temperatures ranging from 180 0F - 2120F; while
deaerators operate under pressure allowing for higher
temperatures and more efficient oxygen removal.
Like deaerators, feedwater tanks operate by forcing steam into the feedwater which scrubs
oxygen and carbon dioxide gases that are then vented to atmosphere.

Steam enters the bottom of the tank agitating the feedwater as it rises to the top of the tank, and
finally is vented along with the liberated gases. The temperature is normally controlled as high
as possible without causing pump problems which occurs when the Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSH) is too low. Steam bubbles form and fill the pump cavity causing vibration, a condition
know as cavitation. This condition may cause serious damage to the feedwater pump and
jeopardize steam production. The most practical potential solution for cavitation is the
installation of a slipstream, which allows a portion of the high pressure feedwater to recirculate to
the suction side of the pump where it lowers the temperature and eliminates the boiling and
cavitation. The slipstream will not always work leaving the choices of increasing the NPSH by
increasing the distance between the tank and the pump, or sizing a new pump properly.
Practically speaking, most feedwater tanks are controlled between 180 0F - 2000F and rely more
on the assistance of a chemical oxygen scavenger for complete oxygen removal. Pressurized
deaerators must have the ASME U stamp attached and be built under the regulations of The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Section VIII, Division I.

B. ECONOMIZER:
An economizer removes additional Btu’s from the stack
gasses by circulating the deaerated boiler feedwater
through a series of bent tubes in the stack. This translates
into a "free" source of energy from the boiler
operation. Finned tube economizers are less costly and
more efficient as the "fins" are a source of heat transfer as
well as the tubes. Economizers in watertube boilers
typically increase the efficiency of the boiler 4-10% which is
usually less than a one year payback. Due to the higher
efficiencies of firetube boilers the payback is usually longer
and therefore economizers are not used as frequently on them. An economizer can also be a
useful means of increasing the steam capacity of a boiler.

The use of high sulfur oils, particularly #6 oil, is very corrosive on the economizer tubes. This
can be improved by increasing the temperature of the feedwater to the economizer and the use
of soot blowers but the life of an economizer in that environment is limited to about 2-3 years. A
bare tube economizer is easier to keep free of the corrosive sulfur but requires more tubes to
achieve the same efficiency as a finned tube economizer. Since the economizer is directly part
of the boiler and has contact from the gases of combustion it must also be built under the
regulations of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Code Section I and have the
ASME S stamp attached.
 Chapter 4

BOILER WATER CHEMISTRY

Producing quality steam on demand is the purpose of operating industrial boiler
systems. Achieving that goal depends on properly managed water treatment to control steam
purity, deposits and corrosion. A boiler is the sump of the boiler system. It ultimately receives
all of the pre-boiler contaminants. Boiler performance, efficiency, and service life are direct
products of selecting and controlling the chemistry used in the boiler.

Boiler Operation Costs

The boiler water must be sufficiently free of deposit forming solids to allow rapid and efficient
heat transfer and it must not be corrosive to the boiler metal. Deposits and corrosion result in
efficiency losses and may cause boiler tube failures and inability to produce steam. The
predominant cost factor for producing steam is fuel costs, as shown below.

DEPOSIT CONTROL:
Deposits in boilers may result from hardness contamination of feedwater, and corrosion products
from the condensate and feedwater system. Hardness contamination of the feedwater may
result from either deficient softener systems or raw water in leakage of the
condensate. Deposits act as insulators and slow heat transfer. The insulating effect of deposits
cause the boiler metal temperature to rise and may lead to tube-failure by overheating. Large
amounts of deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat transfer enough to reduce the
boiler efficiency. The graph demonstrates that different types of deposits will effect boiler
efficiency differently. This is why it is important to have an analysis of deposit characteristics.

When feedwater enters the boiler, the elevated temperatures and pressures cause the
components of water to take on dramatic changes. Most of the components in the feedwater are
soluble; they are dissolved in the water. However, under heat and pressure most of the soluble
components come-out of solution as particulate solids, sometimes in crystallized forms and other
times as amorphous particles. The coming-out of solution is referred to as retrograde
solubility, and means that as temperature increases, ability to stay in solution
decreases. When solubility of a specific component in water is exceeded, scale or deposits
develop.
Internal chemical treatment for deposit control is achieved either by adding a treatment to
prevent the contaminants from depositing or by adding a treatment chemical that will allow for
easy removal by blowdown. Hardness can be kept from depositing in boiler water by treatment
with chelating agents. When phosphate treatment is preferred over chelant treatment, the boiler
water is conditioned to form a fluid sludge which can be removed by bottom
blowdown. Formation of this sludge requires that alkalinity from caustic be present in the boiler
water. If sufficient alkalinity is not maintained in the boiler water, a sticky precipitate will form
and reduce heat transfer.

Even when the precipitates formed in the boiler water are in the form most desired, they are
often difficult to remove completely by blowdown. This is especially true when the precipitates
also contain iron and copper corrosion products from the preboiler system and organic
contaminants from condensate returns. Sludge conditioners enhance the removal of
precipitates from industrial boilers. Sludge conditioners are organic polymers which combine
with the precipitates to permit the particles to be dispersed. This makes removal by blowdown
easier.

CONVENTIONAL PHOSPHATE TREATMENT:

Conventional phosphate control involves maintaining a phosphate residual and a hydroxide
alkalinity residual in the boiler water. Phosphate residuals are typically maintained in the range
of 20-40 ppm PO 4. Hydroxide alkalinity, if controllable without excess blowdown, are maintained
in the range of 300 -500 ppm OH. This treatment provides the ideal conditions for formation of
calcium and magnesium precipitates in the preferred states. It also provides a residual of
alkalinity to neutralize any acid contamination, such as organic acids. It may, however, promote
foaming, especially if organic contaminants enter the boiler.

CHELANT TREATMENT:
A chelant is a compound which is capable of "grabbing onto" calcium, magnesium and
iron. Chelant treatment of boiler water is attractive because the chelates of calcium and
magnesium are soluble.
The undesirable scales of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate are successfully eliminated by
chelant treatment.

While the chelates of the hardness and iron contaminants are soluble, some chemistry
precautions need to be mentioned. Phosphate will compete with the chelant for calcium, and if
present in significant amounts, will result in undesirable calcium-phosphate deposits. Phosphate
can enter the boiler water where city water makeup supplies phosphate. Both hydroxide
alkalinity and silica compete with the chelant for magnesium. Depending on the concentration of
all the boiler water chemistry, magnesium silicate deposits may result.

Chelants should be fed to the feedwater downstream of any copper alloys, after the deaerator
and before the boiler drum. The preferred feed location is down-stream of the boiler feedwater
pump. A stainless steel injection quill is required.

Feed to the deaerator storage is not recommended since copper alloys in the boiler feed pump
may be attacked. Proper feed of chelant will result in a chelant residual in the boiler water. The
photo below shows the preferred feed locations for chelant feed and other requirements for
adequate assurance of chelant control.
 1. Feed chelant products continuously to
boiler feedwater line, preferably after the
economizer.
2. Use a 304 SS injection quill.
3. Use a 316 SS chemical feed line. (If not
possible, ensure that 316 SS is used at
least three feet prior to the injection quill).
4. Feed chelant only downstream from
copper or copper alloys.
5. Feed catalyzed sulfite or a suitable
oxygen scavenger to the storage section
of the deaerating heater.
6. Assure that the feedwater mixes with
boiler water before entering downcomer
Injection Quill tubes.
7. Maintain feedwater pH >8.0

A chelant residual in the boiler water, however, is not in itself proof of adequate feed control. A
chelant residual should be maintained in the feedwater at all times. Chelant treatment is not a
solution for highly variable and excessive concentrations of hardness in the makeup and
condensate returns.
 Chapter 5

CONDENSATE RETURN SYSTEM

When steam has performed its work in manufacturing processes, turbines, building heat, etc. it
transfers heat and reverts back to a liquid phase called steam condensate. However, not all the
energy used in producing steam is lost when condensate is formed. As most condensate return
is still relatively hot (130 OF to 225OF) , it is very valuable as a source of feedwater. There is a
significant fuel savings related to the heat required to raise the temperature of makeup water at
(50OF to 60OF) to equal that of the return condensate, not to mention the additional cost in
pretreating (softening) the makeup, as well as basic water cost itself.

When pure water H 2O is used to produce steam, then its condensate is also pure H 2O however,
as we have learned the water we use to produce steam is not pure containing many dissolved
minerals and gases. The heat and pressure of the boiler break down the alkalinity in the boiler
water to form carbon dioxide gas CO 2. Leaving the boiler with the steam it travels throughout the
plant supply system. When the steam condenses, the carbon dioxide dissolves in it to form
carbonic acid. This reaction is chemically expressed as:
H2O + CO2 = H2CO3

This acid depresses the condensates pH and causes corrosion to take place. This corrosion
appears as grooving or gouging in the bottom of steam headers or condensate return
lines. Most often it weakens pipe walls at threaded joints and the resultant metal loss can lead
to large amounts of copper and/or iron being returned to the boiler to cause troublesome
deposits. Oxygen, as in the boiler system, can cause localized attack in the form of pitting when
present in the condensate system. This type of corrosion can generally cause equipment to fail
more quickly than the generalized corrosion caused by carbonic acid attack due to it
concentrating in a small area. Oxygen can infiltrate the system from open condensate receivers,
poor deaeration or leaky siphons.

There are three main chemical programs to control corrosion in the condensate system, being
neutralizing amines, filming amines and contamination neutralizing and filming amines.

NEUTRALIZING AMINES are high pH materials which neutralize the carbonic acid formed in
condensate systems. By raising and controlling pH level in condensate from 7.5 to 9.0,
neutralizing amines retard acid attack and greatly reduce the amount of corrosion products
entering the boiler.
The three primary neutralizing amines in use today are:
1. Morpholine - a low distribution ratio product.
2. Diethyleminoethanal (DEAE) - a medium distribution ratio product.
3. Cyclohexylamine - a high distribution ratio product.

The distribution ratio is used to predict the amine concentration in the steam and condensate
phases and impacts significantly regarding proper amine selection.

Distribution Ratio = Amine in Steam Phase / Amine in Condensate Phase

Neutralizing amines have low flashpoints and therefore can be fed directly to the feedwater or
boiler water, or they can be fed directly into the steam header. The feed rate is based on the
amount of alkalinity present in the feedwater. Neutralizing amines offer excellent protection
against carbonic acid attack, but little protection against oxygen attack.

FILMING AMINES are various chemicals that lay down a vary thin protective barrier on the
condensate piping protecting it against both oxygen and carbonic acid attack. The protective film
barrier is not unlike the protection afforded an automobile by an application of car wax.

The protective film barrier is continuously being removed (a little at a time), requiring continuous
feeding of the filming amine based on steam flow rather than feedwater alkalinity. Care must be
taken to start this program slowly with an initial feedrate of one fifth that of the final feedrate to
prevent the removal of old corrosion products from the system and their subsequent return to the
boiler. Additionally, the filming amine should be fed using an injection quill to the steam header
to insure proper vaporization and distribution throughout the steam system.

The formation of gunk balls (Gunking) can occur due to overfeed, contaminants in the
condensate or wide pH swings causing deposits to form in low flow areas like steam traps.

COMBINATION NEUTRALIZING AND FILMING AMINES are the combination of neutralizing

and filming amines and are a successful alternative to protect against both carbonic acid attack
and oxygen attack. As its name implies, it combines the elevated pH approach to neutralize
carbonic acid in conjunction with the protective barrier film approach. are the combination of
neutralizing and filming amines and are a successful alternative to protect against both carbonic
acid attack and oxygen attack. As its name implies, it combines the elevated pH approach to
neutralize carbonic acid in conjunction with the protective barrier film approach. The neutralizing
amines, although they will elevate pH, main purpose is to provide better distribution of the filming
amine throughout the condensate system which in turn helps to prevent gunking. As with filming
amines they should be fed directly to the steam header utilizing an injection quill.

SUMMARY. Clearly each program or approach has certain features and benefits as well as
limitations. Each different set of operating conditions will tend to dictate the appropriate
treatment that is required. The expected steam pressure, temperature, system metallurgy and
the plants systems pH level all play an important role in determining the most effective treatment
program. Clearly each program or approach has certain features and benefits as well as
limitations. Each different set of operating conditions will tend to dictate the appropriate
treatment that is required. The expected steam pressure, temperature, system metallurgy and
the plant systems pH level all play an important role in determining the most effective treatment
program.
 Chapter 6

COMBUSTION & CONTROLS

Combustion is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen (O 2) with the combustible elements of
a fuel that results in the release of heat. Air is the source of oxygen for boilers. Fossil fuels such
as natural gas, oil and coal, biomass and electricity are primary types of boiler fuel. The primary
elements in the fuel, significant to combustion, are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and
sulfur (S); these are called hydrocarbons.

10 Air (O2) + 1 Gas = CO 2 + 2H2O + 8N2 + Heat

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is accomplished
by controlling the "three T's" of combustion which are (1) temperature high enough to ignite
and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) turbulence or mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) time
sufficient for complete combustion. Not all of the Btu's in the fuel are converted to heat and
absorbed by the steam generation equipment. Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is burned
and most boiler fuels, allowable with today's air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur. So
the main challenge in combustion efficiency is directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or
incompletely burned gas) which forms CO instead of CO 2.

The burner is the principal device for the firing of the fuel. Burners are normally located in the
vertical walls of the furnace. Burners, along with the furnaces in which they are installed, are
designed to burn the fuel properly by making the proper combination of the "three
T's." Combustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel supply, air supply, ( fuel to air
ratio), and removal of gases of combustion to achieve optimum boiler efficiency. The amount of
fuel supplied to the burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the quantity of steam
required. The combustion controls are also necessary as safety devices insuring the boiler not
only operates but operates safely.

A drop in steam pressure necessitates an increase in the fuel supplied to the

burner. Conversely, an increase in steam pressure necessitates a decrease in the fuel
supplied. Any change in the amount of fuel supplied requires a corresponding change in the air
for combustion supplied to the burner.

To maintain high combustion efficiency, the air to fuel ratio must be balanced from the lowest
firing rate to the highest firing rate. If there is an imbalance in the air to fuel ratio, smoking, flame
failure, wasted fuel and in extreme cases an explosion could result.

Combustion controls also regulate the removal of gases of combustion by maintaining a

consistent furnace pressure throughout different firing rates. By maintaining a consistent firing
rate, combustion controls improve regulation of feedwater and superheat temperature. A
consistent firing rate reduces fluctuation of the boiler water level and increases the life of the
boiler drum and tubes.

The programmer is the mastermind that controls the starting sequence and
firing cycle of a burner. The programmer controls the operation sequence of the
blower, burner motor, ignition system, fuel valve, and all other components of the
ON/OFF control system. The programmer also provides a suitable purge period
before ignition and after burner shutdown when explosive combustibles are
removed. The programmer is designed to deenergize all fuel valves within 4 seconds after loss
of the flame signal. In addition, the programmer automatically restarts a new cycle each time the
pressure control closes or after a power failure, but locks out and must be reset manually after
any flame failure. A burner must always start in low fire and shut down in low fire which prevents
wasting fuel and reduces the possibility of a flareback when excess fuel accumulates in the
furnace.

The pressure control (pictured right) regulates the operating range of the boiler by modulating
the burner on boiler steam pressure demand. The pressure control is
installed using a siphon to protect the bellows
from the high temperature of steam. The
pressure control sends signals to the
modulating motors. Modulating motors
(pictured left) use conventional mechanical
linkage or electric valves to regulate the
primary air, secondary air, and fuel supplied to
the burner. The modulating pressure control
is installed using a siphon to protect the
bellows from the high temperature of steam.

The boiler water level control is a safety feature which

will shut the boiler off if the water level drops to an unacceptable level. Boilers
have two water level controllers as a safety feature in case one fails. The two
level controllers are also set at different levels with the controller at the higher
level sounding an alarm and the controller at the lower level actually shutting
down the boiler. The boiler governing codes require the reset of the boiler to be
done manually by an operator for safety and not automatically. Boiler level
controls may be a float type as pictured at right or a probe type which operates
by testing for conductivity to determine if the water level is adequate.

The Control firing sequence occurs at cold startup or when the steam pressure drops, the
pressure control completes an electric circuit, which starts a timer motor cam turning in the
programmer. The first contact on the timer motor cam closes and starts the burner motor that
rotates the primary air fan. The primary air fan blows air into the furnace to purge any unburned
fuel present in a gaseous condition. This process in called prepurging the furnace. By
prepurging the furnace before pilot ignition, the danger of a furnace explosion is
reduced. Depending upon the size of the furnace the purge cycle takes approximately 30
seconds but may take as long as 60 seconds. The programmer is still operating and when the
second contact closes, the circuit of the ignition transformer is completed. This causes a spark
in front of the gas pilot tube. At the same time, a solenoid valve is opened in the gas pilot line,
allowing gas to flow through the gas pilot tube and be ignited by the spark. The scanner is
located on the front of the boiler and is used to sight the pilot. Sighting the pilot through the
scanner will verify that the pilot is lit. This process is referred to as proving pilot. The next
step is to close the contact which completes the circuit to the main fuel valve, which opens only
after the scanner has proved pilot. With the main fuel valve open the fuel enters the furnace and
is ignited by the pilot. The scanner is then used to prove the main flame. The programmer
continues to operate for a few more seconds, securing circuits to the ignition transformer and the
gas pilot. After the circuits are secured, the programmer stops. The burner is now regulated by
the pressure control and the modulating pressure control. If the scanner senses a flame failure,
the system is purged and secured. The programmer is then manually reset to the start cycle.
 Chapter 6B

MONTHLY BOILER MECHANICAL SAFETY

CHECKS
The monthly safety check on combustion and mechanics is just as important an important a part
of the overall boiler program as the water treatment service. Boiler users have long seen the
value of proper water treatment as vital to the success of an effective boiler maintenance
program. For a long time the mechanical needs of boilers have only been addressed when there
was a problem or when a shutdown occurred.

The seven advantages of this preventative maintenance program: (1) reducing fuel cost by
improving efficiency, (2) omitting the increasing capital costs of major boiler repairs or
replacement, (3) reduced downtime due to unexpected breakdowns, (4) improved safety,
(5) operator training , (6) third party audit, and (7) insurance assurance .

(1) Reducing fuel costs was not important for many years. It was not a significant part of
overall manufacturing, operating costs. However, the Arab oil embargo in the 1970's forever
changed that view. Some industries found that energy was their second highest cost falling
close to their number one cost of labor. At present we have an increase in competition resulting
from the deregulation of natural gas. Businesses are very conscious about energy
efficiency. Energy efficiency is vital in an industry to remain competitive. And the long range
planning of the American industry is to preserve energy supplies for the future.

A boiler with a 20,000PPH load and seven day week operation will use $1,000,000 of natural
gas per year. At today's price of $5.00 per mcf of natural gas fuel savings alone
will pay for the monthly maintenance service. With only a 1% improvement in
efficiency the annual savings add up to $10.000. Several boiler companies are
selling visual inspections as a low cost alternative but visual inspections alone
accomplish little or nothing and have no cost benefit. A combustion analyzer
with stack probe and printout is recommended. To obtain a computer
analysis of your boiler fuel efficiency and operating data contact your
B&HES technical representative.

(2) Capital costs associated with the purchase of new boilers have risen dramatically in the past
decade. But this has been for the good. Safety requirements of CSD1 (Control Safety Device)
and NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency) have now been adopted by virtually all the states
and will contribute greatly to the safety of boilers in the future. Control systems are now more
sophisticated for better load management and DCS (distributive control systems) allow for
connecting to computer controllers. The knowledge of our qualified service technicians today is
much greater than five years ago. Other boiler companies have failed to keep up with the rapid
change in technology. Proper mechanical service will reduce repair and capital costs.

(3) Downtime is one of the most expensive items associated with improper maintenance of
mechanical equipment. Outages can cost from thousands of dollars per hour in a small plant to
hundreds of thousands of dollars in a large plant. Monthly mechanical testing often results in
early detection of improper functioning controls. If possible we replace them at that
time. B&HES service vehicles typically carry over $ 10,000 in inventories. In the least case
replacement can be made at the customer's next scheduled down time. In a typical boiler room
situation, the service program pays for itself when it prevents just one shutdown per year.

(4) Safety The lack of safety can easily become the most expensive cost of the boiler
operation. A rare waterside explosion occurred in Chattanooga several years ago on New Years
night with temperatures at 0 oF. A twenty ton boiler, sheared from all its pipe and connections
was blown over twenty feet into a block wall. Fortunately the boiler room was in a remote
building and unattended at the time. No one was injured. Although it took B&HES less than 24
hours to install a temporary boiler an expensive loss had occurred. The boiler operator had
rewired the auxiliary low water cutoff for automatic reset because the frequent shutdowns had
troubled him. The primary low water cutoff continued to control the water level in the boiler
under normal water level changes. However a slow drain down of the boiler did not allow the
mechanical control to function properly. With monthly safety checks we would have detected the
problem before this disaster happened. This accident was typical. All the boiler explosions we at
B&HES have seen are traced back to boiler operator error.

(5) Training of your boiler operations personnel is another benefit of our monthly mechanical
service. As our technician performs tests and makes adjustments the boiler operator receives
explanations of each step that is being taken. Informal training like this may have prevented the
accident referred to earlier. Certainly all operators are well-intended people and would never
intentionally do anything to jeopardize their companies or themselves.

(6) Third Party Audit of the company's boiler maintenance program is another benefit of the
monthly boiler mechanical/safety check. Would anybody operate a business without an audit of
their accounting records? The boiler room deserves the same care.

(7) Insurance Premium Reduction is yet another benefit from a monthly boiler
mechanical/service contract. Insurance companies realize that in the event of a negligence
claim, documented third party evidence shows that due care has been taken. This evidence can
lead to little or no liability settlements.

It takes about four hours to perform this combustion and safety service. Any less is not enough
to assure proper efficiency and safety in your boiler room.

Job scope for the boiler audit should include the following items:

MONTHLY SERVICE:

1. Test combustion for five points on the base fuel on which the boiler is operating.
Backup fuel may be the base fuel for at least two of the twelve monthly tests. Necessary
adjustments to improve fuel air ratios should be made, with readings to record efficiency and
other data both before and after the adjustments are made.
2. Test flame failure control.
3. Test low water control cutoff and auxiliary using the slow drain method.
4. Test high pressure cutoff to be done by customer's operator.
5. Test gas pressure switches at high pressure cutoff and at low pressure cutoff.
6. Test combustion air proving switch.
7. Test auxiliary contacts on motor starter.
8. Test atomizing medium proving switch.
9. Test high and low fire proving switches.
10. Test high and low oil temperature.
11. Test low oil pressure switch.
12. Remove pilot assembly, clean and adjust.
13. Complete service report with recommendations.

ANNUAL SERVICE:

1. Open and washout boiler water-side.

2. Brush tubes and/or clean fireside surfaces.
3. Replace all gaskets on water-side and fireside.
4. Repack feed water pumps.
5. Clean strainers.
6. Replace gauge glass of DA or makeup tank.
7. Test float switches on make-up tank.
8. Shop rebuilt and testing of safety relief valves.
 Chapter 6C
Solid-State Controls Revolutionize Boiler Maintenance
When the staff of Washington Hospital in Washington, Pennsylvania refer to "life support,"
included along with the respirators and heart monitors is the boiler system. Control of ambient
humidity and temperature are a vital part of a hospital's maintenance system.

Washington Hospital is in the fore front of building system controls. Last year, a single compact
system was installed to integrate the air handling and monitoring, water, fire protection,
electrical, and pneumatic controls. Sophisticated controllers like this one are being seen in a
growing number of installations, and promise to transform the controls industry.

The 1990s have taken the historically stable industry of mechanical switches and gauges into
the age of solid-state. In fact, controls that until only recently were known as the most advanced
technology, are being passed by. For boiler maintenance personnel trained to monitor controls
by noting when circuits make or break and troubleshooting visually, mastering new electronic
systems poses challenges and many opportunities.

Electronic controls offer several distinct advantages over mechanical switches. Foremost is the
safety benefit. Solid-state controls, unlike mechanical controls, cannot be bypassed. If pressure
or other conditions exceed preset ranges, the control system will simply not allow operation.

A second advantage of the new controllers is constant monitoring of boiler conditions through
flame safe guard (FSG) controls, also known as the programmer or primary. FSG controls keep
the building engineer informed as to precisely where the burner is in its cycle. They assist the
operator in preventing problems and troubleshooting those problems that arise, with an
indication of what specific part of the system failed. This is a great improvement over older
systems that indicated only a number, which corresponded to an entire area of the system.

In addition, these systems provide a thorough boiler and burner history through data trending.
This record of such activities as the purge cycle, trial for ignition time, the number of hours in
service, and number of burner cycles, greatly assists in the boiler's long-term maintenance.
Furthermore, such monitoring immediately aids in fuel and energy conservation and efficiency.

Finally, electronic controls allow more features, and increasingly allow integration of all building
maintenance systems. As in the Washington Hospital, a central control system can be relied
upon to monitor numerous maintenance activities, which allows the operator to be more effective
in his or her many responsibilities.

For building maintenance personnel, such systems allow ease of use through touch-screen
control on a personal computer; single-point access to all of the building's controls and monitors;
video tutorials; and optional remote video cameras for monitoring of equipment in distant
locations. Even operators unfamiliar with computers find the newest control systems easy to
use, because "virtual control panels" displayed on the computer screen look and feel like actual
physical control panels.

The transformation in the controls industry began in 1991. A microprocessor-based integrated

control system when used with gas, oil, or combination burners, provided enhanced safety when
compared to mechanical switches and allowed constant monitoring of boiler conditions. It
replaced the following components on a typical steam boiler: the existing programmer, steam
and modulating pressure controls, gas and oil pressure switches, oil temperature switches, and
the standard modulating motor.

Some controls have a communication interface and software, which will allow multiple systems
to communicate with a personal computer. Using real time burner status, the system is able to
send boiler shutdown notification to any desired site through a local personal computer or to one
miles away through a modem. In the event of a shutdown, the system can be programmed to
automatically dial a telephone number and display a message on the receiving personal
computer.

This is an exciting time for those involved in boiler maintenance and control. Today's operators
have the unique opportunity to gain expertise with the new controls as they become more
advanced and complex. At the same time, personnel are capable of more effective boiler
operation with greater efficiency and safety.

Boiler controls technology will not likely come to a halt, either. The more complex, but user-
friendly technology continues to advance at a rapid pace. As future development becomes
available, progress will be seen in the following applications:
Systems Integration As control manufacturers provide devices which have the ability to
communicate, the separate systems will be able to network into one large integral package. This
capability will allow the facility manager to comprehensively monitor and control their facility.
Systems Diagnostics Control capability has assisted the service of burner/boiler controls in
many ways. Current technology will help build future controls and further reduce the complexity
and wasted time associated with an inoperable system. Advancements in controls will allow for
troubleshooting and help correct problems quickly.
Enhanced Safety With current and developing technology controls, additional safety checks can
be added to enhance overall plant and equipment safety.

Even though this advanced boiler/burner control technology provides many operational, safety
and maintenance benefits, it cannot eliminate the human factor. Equipment operators are still
needed in order for these systems to function properly. Furthermore, equipment inspections are
still a vital part of the inspectors' role. Knowledge of this new technology through training is in
order for all maintenance technicians, supervisors and inspectors. The education they receive
will ultimately affect the maintenance of these new controls and the process by which the
controls are tested.
 Chapter 7

BOILER OPERATION
A boiler operates using the feedwater system, the steam system, the fuel system and the draft
system. The feedwater system supplies water to the boiler. The steam system controls and
directs the steam produced in the boiler. The fuel system supplies fuel and controls combustion
to produce heat. The draft system regulates the movement of air for combustion and evacuates
gases of combustion. Water, steam fittings and accessories are required to supply and control
water and steam in the boiler. Boiler fittings or trim are components such as valves directly
attached to the boiler. Accessories are pieces of equipment not necessarily attached to the
boiler, but required for the operation of the boiler.

Safety Valves are the most important fittings on the boiler. They should open to release
pressure when pressure inside the boiler exceeds the maximum allowable working pressure or
MAWP. Safety valves are installed at the highest part of the steam side of the boiler. No other
valve shall be installed between the boiler and the safety valve. Safety valve capacity is
measured in the amount of the steam that can be discharged per hour. The safety valve will
remain open until sufficient steam is released and there is a specific amount of drop in
pressure. This drop in pressure is the blowdown of the safety valve. Safety valve capacity and
blowdown is listed on the data plate on the safety valve. Spring loaded safety valves are the
most common safety valves. A spring exerts pressure on the valve against the valve seat to
keep the valve closed. When pressure inside the boiler exceeds the set popping pressure, the
pressure forces the valve open to release. The ASME Code specifies the design, materials and
construction of safety valves. The number of safety valves required and the frequency and
procedures for testing safety valves is also specified by the ASME Code. Adjustment or repairs
to safety valves must be performed by the manufacturer or an assembler authorized by the
manufacturer.
Water fittings and accessories control the amount, pressure and temperature of water supplied
to and from the boiler. Water in the boiler must be maintained at the normal operating water
level or NOWL. Low water conditions can damage the boiler and could cause a boiler explosion.
High water conditions can cause carryover. Carryover occurs when small water droplets are
carried in steam lines. Carryover can result in water hammer. Water hammer is a banging
condition caused by hydraulic pressure that can damage equipment.

Feedwater Valves control the flow of feedwater from the feedwater pump to the
boiler. Feedwater stop valves are globe valves located on the feedwater line. They isolate the
boiler from feedwater accessories. The feedwater stop valve is positioned closest to the boiler to
stop the flow of water out of the boiler for maintenance, or if the check valve malfunctions. The
feedwater check valve is located next to the feedwater stop valve and prevents feedwater from
flowing from the boiler back to the feedwater pump. The feedwater check valve opens and
closes automatically with a swinging disc. When water is fed to the boiler it opens. If water
flows back from the boiler the valve closes.

Water Column minimizes the water turbulence in the gage glass to provide accurate water level
reading. Water columns are located at the NOWL, with the lowest part of the water column
positioned at least 3" above the heating system. Water columns for high pressure boilers
consist of the main column and three tricocks. High and low water alarms or whistles may be
attached to the top and bottom tricocks.
The Gage Glass is used to visually monitor the water level in the boiler. Isolation valves located
at the top and bottom permit the changing of gage glasses.
A Blowdown Valve at the bottom of the gage glass is used to remove sludge and
sediment. Tubular gage glasses are used for pressure up to 400 psig. All boilers must have two
methods of determining the boiler water level. The gage glass serves as the primary method of
determining boiler water level. If the water cannot be seen in the gage glass, the tricocks are
used as a secondary method of determining boiler water level. The middle tricock is located at
the NOWL. If water comes out of the middle tricock, the gage glass is not functioning
properly. If water comes out of the top tricock, there is a high water condition in the boiler. If
water comes out of the bottom tricock, water may be safely added to the boiler. If steam comes
out of the bottom tricock, water must not be added to the boiler. Secure the fuel
immediately. Adding water could cause a boiler explosion.

Makeup Water replaces boiler water lost from leaks or from the lack of condensate returned in
the boiler. Makeup water is fed manually or automatically. Boilers can have both manual and
automatic systems. If the boiler has both, the manual always bypasses the automatic system.
Boiler operators must know how to supply makeup water quickly to the boiler in the event of a
low water condition. Manual systems feed city water with a hand operated valve. Automatic
systems feed city water with a float control valve mounted slightly below the NOWL. If the float
drops from a low water level, the valve in the city water line is open. As the water level rises, the
float rises to close the valve.

The Low Water Fuel Cut Off shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low water condition in
the boiler. The low water fuel cut off is located 2" to 6" below the NOWL. Low water fuel cut offs
are available with or without an integral water column. Low water fuel cut offs must be tested
monthly or more often depending on plant procedures and requirements. Low water fuel cut offs
operate using an electric probe or a float sensor. The float senses a drop in water
level. Switches in the low water fuel cut off are wired to the burner control to shut off fuel to the
burner when the water level drops in the chamber.

The Feedwater Regulator maintains the NOWL in the boiler by controlling the amount of
condensate return pumped to the boiler from the condensate return tank. The correct water
level is maintained with a feedwater regulator, but boiler water level must still be checked
periodically by the boiler operator.

Feedwater Pumps are used with feedwater regulators to pump feedwater to the
boiler. Pressure must be sufficient to overcome boiler water pressure to maintain the NOWL in
the boiler. For maximum safety, plants having one steam driven feedwater pump must have a
back up feedwater pump driven by electricity. Feedwater pumps may be reciprocating,
centrifugal or turbine. Reciprocating feedwater pumps are steam driven and use a piston to
discharge water to the feedwater line. They are limited in capacity and are used on small
boilers. Centrifugal feedwater pumps are electric motor or steam driven. They are the most
common feedwater pump. Centrifugal force moves water to the outside edge of the rotating
impeller. The casing directs water from the impeller to the discharge piping. Discharge pressure
is dependent on impeller speed. Turbine feedwater pumps are steam driven and operate
similarly to centrifugal feedwater pumps.

Feedwater Heaters heat water before it enters the boiler drum to remove oxygen and other
gases which may cause corrosion. Feedwater heaters are either open or closed. Open
feedwater heaters allow steam and water to mix as they enter an enclosed steel
chamber. They are located above the feedwater pump to produce a positive pressure on the
suction side of the pump. Closed feedwater heaters have a large number of tubes inside an
enclosed steel vessel. Steam and water do not come in contact, but feedwater goes through the
tubes and steam is allowed in the vessel to preheat the feedwater. They are located on the
discharge side of the feedwater pump.

Bottom Blowdown Valves release water from the boiler to reduce water level, remove sludge
and sediment, reduce chemical concentrations or drain the boiler. Two valves are commonly
used, a quick opening and screw valve. During blowdown the quick opening valve is opened
first, the screw valve is opened next and takes the wear and tear from blowdown. Water is
discharged to the blowdown tank. A blowdown tank collects water to protect the sewer from the
hot boiler water. After blowdown, the screw valve is closed first and the quick opening valve is
closed last.

Steam Fittings & Accessories remove air, control steam flow, and maintain the required steam
pressure in the boiler. Steam fittings are also used to direct steam to various locations for
heating and process.

Steam Pressure Gages and vacuum gages monitor pressure inside the boiler. The range of
these gages should be 1-1/2 to 2 times the MAWP of the boiler. For example: on a low pressure
boiler, a maximum steam pressure on the pressure gage reads 30 psig as the MAWP is 15 psig.

Steam Valves commonly used include a gate valve used for the main steam stop valve and the
globe valve. The main steam stop valve cuts the boiler in online allowing steam to flow from the
boiler or takes it off line. This is an outside stem and yoke or OS&Y valve. The position of the
stem indicates whether the valve is open or closed. The valve is opened with the stem out and
closed with the stem in. This provides quick information to the boiler operator.
The globe valve controls the flow of steam passing under the valve seat through the valve. This
change in direction causes a decrease in steam pressure. A globe valve decreases steam flow
and can be used to vary the amount of steam flow. This should never be used as a main steam
stop valve.

Steam Traps remove condensate from steam in lines from the boiler. Steam traps work
automatically and increase boiler plant efficiency. They also prevent water hammer by expelling
air and condensate from the steam lines without loss of steam. Steam traps are located after
the main steam header throughout the system. Steam traps commonly used include the
inverted bucket, the thermostatic and the float thermostatic. In the inverted bucket steam trap
steam enters the bottom flowing into the inverted bucket. The steam holds the bucket up. As
condensate fills the steam trap the bucket loses buoyancy and sinks to open the discharge
valve. The thermostatic steam trap has a bellows filled with a fluid that boils at steam
temperature. As the fluid boils vapors expand the bellows to push the valve closed. When the
temperature drops below steam temperature, the bellows contract to open the valve and
discharge condensate.

A variation of the thermostatic steam trap is the float thermostatic steam trap. A float opens and
closes depending on the amount of condensate in the trap bowl. Condensate is drawn out by
return vacuum.

Steam Strainers remove scale or dirt from the steam and are located in the piping prior to
steam trap inlet. Scale or dirt can clog discharge orifices in the steam trap. Steam strainers
must be cleaned regularly.
SUMMARY

The safety valve is the most important fitting on the boiler. The gage glass is used to visually
monitor the water level in the boiler. Tricocks are used as a secondary device for determining
water level in the boiler. Makeup water replaces water lost from leaks or lack of condensate
return to the boiler. The low water fuel cut off shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low
water condition. Steam pressure gages and vacuum gages are used to indicate the pressure
inside the boiler.
 Chapter 8B
ELECTRONIC VALVE TESTING
The safety relief valve, sometimes referred to as the "silent
sentential," has an extremely important role in the operation of the
boiler or pressure vessel. The perfecting of the safety relief valve
(SRV) made a big difference in bringing the boiler industry from the
"dark ages" of dangerous explosions to a predictably safe operation.
SRV’s are manufactured under the control of American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Approved assemblers and repair
facilities, such as The Valve Shop, are authorized and approved by
the ASME to make adjustments and stamp boiler safety valves with
the "V" symbol and for safety valves on unfired vessels the "UV"
symbol. Repairs of SRV’s are performed by The Valve Shop under the control of the National
Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel Inspections (National Board) and bears the "VR" symbol.

The major short coming of the SRV’s is the lack of an effective method
to determine the valve’s operating status. Increasing the pressure of
the boiler until the valve relieves would be one method but could
possibly lead to over pressuring of the boiler controls or the plant
process equipment. Raising the lifting lever is another method to see if
the valve is relieving properly but that approach does not allow for any
information on the point of relief. Neither of these methods is very
effective because anytime the valve relieves it is very likely that
particles in the steam will collect or the steam will cut the disc or seat
allowing the steam to leak through the valve. The only valid alternative
has been to periodically send the valves to a qualified "VR" valve shop
for rebuilding, testing and resetting the pressure. The results are sure
but the shortcomings are (1) how often is this needed and (2) it is very expensive.

Now there is a new alternative brought about by the use of computers. The automated valve
electronic test unit combines the computer with a hydraulic lifting device. The valve stem will be
lifted by the hydraulic lifting device until the computer with its predetermined data on the valve
will stop the lift just short of the point of blowing and in doing so determine the set pressure of
the valve. The advantages of this approach are enormous. First, the SRV is tested with the
electronic valve tester when at operating pressure which means that the boiler does not have to
be taken off line unless the SRV fails the test. Second, the cost of testing six to eight valves in
the field is about the same as the cost of rebuilding one valve in the shop. Third, since the
electronic valve tester does not lift the valve from its seat reseating problems are not an issue.

The electronic valve tester is amazingly accurate and is now recognized by most insurers as an
acceptable alternative to sending the valve to the "VR" shop for testing. The National Board
recognizes it as part of the quality control manual of the valve repair shop. The customer is
provided with a printout (example) including a graph (example) of each valve tested. This can
provide a valuable record for documentation in the customer boiler quality/safety compliance
program and to establish guidelines for future repair scheduling for the repair of SRV ’s.

"Why don’t all repair shops own this type equipment?" Quite possibly because of the high
purchase cost, which exceeds $50,000, and also it reduces the number of valves available for
repair. But the effectiveness of this service means that the valve repair companies must offer it
and will maintain their repair volume by increasing their customer base.
 Chapter 9B

BOILER STORAGE PROCEDURES

Many facilities have excess boiler capacity in the form of standby units. Choosing the best way
to properly protect the equipment from oxygen pitting and/or general corrosion can be quite a
challenge. The most commonly known and utilized methods are (1) wet storage and (2) dry
storage. There is also a third less known method available (3) hot/wet storage. Before
discussing the different alternatives, the status of the standby equipment must be classified by
the need for future operation:

• Equipment which will not be required to operate at a moments notice. An example of this
may be a facility that has an extra "Standby" unit not required for its operation and a
facility that may be closed and it's boiler(s) idled for an indefinite period of time.
• Equipment that may be needed at a moments notice. For instance, the operating unit has
a flame failure and after several unsuccessful attempts to restart the boiler it becomes
clear you have a major problem. As the system steam pressure continues to drop the
need for "Emergency Standby" occurs.

Now that we have classified the equipment it is time to discuss the different options available:

• DRY STORAGE: This method is preferred whenever a boiler is in standby allowing time
to prepare the unit for operation. Be sure the unit is completely drained and dry. If
possible, heaters should be used to maintain the temperature of all surfaces above the
dew point. Then a desiccant should be applied to either watertight wood or corrosion
resistant trays as follows:

1. Quick Lime-at six pounds per 100 cubic ft. volume OR

2. Silica Gel–at eight pounds per 100 cubic feet of volume

With another boiler operating in the boiler room, to assure low humidity in the air, the trays
should be placed in each drum of a watertube boiler or on the top tubes of a firetube boiler. The
feedwater inlet and steam outlet should be checked to ensure no dampness occurs in the boiler
from these points. All manhole and hand-hole covers should remain opened to allow dry air to
enter the unit. Be sure to inspect the boiler internals every month to ensure against any
moisture. When the desiccant becomes hard due to absorbing moisture, be sure to promptly
replace it.

• WET STORAGE: This method is most commonly used whenever a boiler is in " Standby",
allowing time to prepare the unit for operation. The boiler should be filled to its normal
level using deaerated feedwater whenever possible. Add three pounds of caustic soda
and one and one half pounds of sodium sulfite per 1000 gallons of water capacity. Then
open boiler vents, apply heat for one to two hours, and allow the unit to cool for an hour
after firing. Then completely fill the unit with deaerated feedwater. All boiler vents and
drains should now be closed and the drain between the non-return and the main steam
stop valve should be left fully opened. The boiler water should be tested periodically and
additional chemical added as needed to maintain sulfite at a minimum of 100 ppm and p-
alkalinity at a minimum of 400 ppm.
• HOT WET STORAGE: This method uses hot treated blowdown from an operating boiler
to keep an "Emergency Standby" unit protected and ready to operate at a moments
notice. It is accomplished by connecting the continuous blowdown line from the operating
unit to a bottom blowdown location of the standby unit. With all vents closed on the
standby unit and the continuous blowdown line opened, the hot treated water from the
operating boiler continuous blowdown will pass into the bottom of the standby unit and out
the continuous blowdown line to the blowdown flash tank.